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농업생명과학연구 55(1) pp.1-10 https://doi.org/10.14397/jals.2020.55.1.00
Journal of Agriculture & Life Science 55(1) pp.1-10

Traditional Plant-based Meat Alternatives, Current,

and Future Perspective: a Review
Allah Bakhsh1·Se-Jin Lee1·Eun-Yeong Lee1·Young-Hwa Hwang2 and Seon-Tea Joo1,2,3*
1
Division of Applied Life Science (BK21), Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Korea
2
Institute of Agriculture & Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Korea
3
Department of Animal Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52852, Korea

Received: SEP. 14. 2020, Revised: JAN. 7. 2021, Accepted: JAN. 20. 2021

Abstract
It is well known that the world population is increasing at an incredible pace; subsequently, worldwide food production without
compromising the ecosystem is an enormous challenge for the global community. From the beginning of human civilization, meat plays
a vital role in acquiring proteins and other nutrients. Despite the indispensable part of the meat in the human diet, it is also considered
a critical factor in environmental alterations, greenhouse gas emissions, animal welfare, and land water usage. The excessive use of natural
resources and extensive animal production causes greenhouse gas emissions, which triggered reduced meat consumption and the need
for more novel meat alternatives. To overcome the extraordinary demand for red meat, the phenomena of meat alternatives or meat substitutes
evolved. Subsequently, meat analogs express a higher trend with low cost, safe consumption, and meaty structure and texture. Meat substitutes
are predominantly vegetable centered food products that comprise proteins from pulses, cereal, microorganisms, and other fillers and
flavorings mediators. Moreover, Meat products with texturized vegetable protein, mushroom, wheat gluten, pulses are considered an excellent
source of as a substitute for animal protein. Additionally, mycoprotein had an impressive profile, including higher protein, low fat,
health-promoting agents, with good taste and texture. However, there remains a gap in research articles focusing on the regular consumption
of meat substitutes. In the current review, an attempt has been made to summarize various types of meat substitutes, different protein
sources, production preparation methods, nutritional, functional properties, including current and future perspectives of meat alternatives.

Key words – Cereal protein, Legume protein, Meat analog, Soy protein, Textured vegetable protein

Introduction (Grigg, 1995). Moreover, globally experts claim that food se-
curity is a critical issue with severe consequences in the future,
The term “meat analog” denotes food products that are not and therefore hassle significance of conversion is needed to
made from red meat exclusively; meat analogs are also referred sustain meat consumption (Boland et al., 2013). Meat production
to as meat substitutes, fake meat, faux meat, or synthetic meat will be unsustainable by 2050 at current and projected con-
(Ismail et al., 2020). It has been established previously that sumption rates. Meat substitutes open a large market for nutritious
food choice is strongly linked with human health and our environ- protein alternatives that can provide similar taste, texture, and
ment's health, with excessive meat consumption often viewed nutrition density (Joshi et al., 2016). Likewise, the high demand
as detrimental for both factors (Tilman and Clark, 2014). For for red meat production and consumption has a potential threat
instance, various protein types, e.g., soy protein, wheat gluten, to the environment, land water, pollution, greenhouse gas emis-
and bean flour, nuts, are considered excellent sources of a meat sion, and endangering biodiversity (Machovina et al., 2015).
alternative, producing similar taste and texture as meat. Similarly, Globally, there is an insufficient supply of protein from natural
decades before, livestock was considered a principal protein resources. To tackle the shortage of animal protein, meat analogs
source before the nutritional changeover in the 20th century are considered to be an alternative source. Therefore, plants,
insects, and microalgae are considered as a probable novel source.
The fundamental role of producing different types of meat analogs
* Corresponding author: Seon-Tea Joo
Tel: +82-55-772-1943 has to diminish livestock's environmental effect.
Fax: +82-55-772-1949
E-mail: [email protected]
2 … Journal of Agriculture & Life Science 55(1)

Several types of meat substitutes are available in the market, 2. Early 20th period
known as a meat alternative or meat analogs. However, the
market stakes of current meat analogs are minor; it is projected In the early twentieth century, nut and cereal-based products
to be 1-2% compared to the red meat industry. Plant-based meat emerged, such as Nuttose and Protose, created by pioneers like
substitutes that mimic the taste, texture, and appearance of ani- John Harvey Kellogg, to promote good health (Shurtleff &
mal-based products have surpassed 44,00 products worldwide. Aoyagi, 2014). Moreover, besides traditional Asian products,
The United Arab Emirates and China are considered the fastest the concept of dry texturized vegetable protein was also evolved,
emergent vegan market worldwide, followed by Australia. which was obtained from the extruded defatted soy meal, soy
Numerous efforts have been made to produce the best meat protein concentrates, or wheat gluten (King & Lawrence, 2019).
alternative to satisfy consumers' demand and reduce the limi-
tations of meat analogs' production and preparation. Still, technol- 3. Mid to late 20th period
ogy has several hindrances to create meat alternatives with
Following the 2nd world war, tangible signs of progress were
meat-like taste, texture, and nourishment (Elzerman, 2006).
made in the production and packaging industry, which added
In the current review, we attempt to discuss the impacts
significant developments in plant protein concentrates, isolates,
of red meat production and population demands to estimate
and textured proteins. These developments supported the for-
the inflection point by which meat-rich diets become
mation of soy-based meat alternatives throughout the time when
unsustainable. We also evaluate the total available market for
meat consumption was surging in several industrialized nations
meat alternatives, health safety, animal welfare, barriers to entry,
through agricultural expansions and strengthened animal
and future innovation opportunities.
farming. Targeted at a niche vegetarian demographic, products
such as Tofurky emerged in the US in 1980 (Pullen, 2018).
Consumption history of plant-based meat alternatives
4. Early 21st period
1. Ancient times
Burger King is the first American meat alternative that entered
The concept of an alternative to meat as a protein source existed
the food chain in 2002 as a traditional plant-based burger. In the
from ancient times, consisting of traditional products, i.e., tempeh,
new millennium, consciousness about the well-being and sustain-
tofu, and Seitan. Tofu, a standard meat analog, was developed
ability indications of users’ diets sustained to increase together with
in China by the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD). The tofu was
the rising demand for alternatives to conventional meat (Green,
extensively consumed throughout the Tang dynasty (618–907) and
2019). The new era of products such as Impossible Burger and
probably spread to Japan during the later Tang or early Song
Byeon Burger has created a new generation of analogs, which causes
dynasty (Shurtleff & Aoyagi, 2013). The brief history of meat
the plant-based meat industry to be doubled. Supported by modern
analog during a different era of modification is shown (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. History of meat analogs. Source (Ism ail et al., 2020).

 Traditional Plant-based Meat Alternatives, Current, and Future Perspective: a Review … 3

developments in food science and manufacturing, plant-based meat the Major non-meat protein sources suitable for meat analogs
targets to mimic the taste, texture, appearance, and functionality, are shown in (Table 2).
of conventional sausages, burgers, and fillets. Furthermore, meat
alternatives, made from combinations of plant proteins, fats, gums, 1. Soy Protein
spices, and extruders or unique processing technologies, have ach-
ieved robust consumer acceptability globally (Court E, 2018). Soy is well recognized to have tremendous nutritional and
functional assistance. It is considered a replacement for red
meat due to its proportional nutrients content and is extensively
Ingredients of meat analogs used for individuals with cardiovascular diseases (Kumar et
al., 2017). On the Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid
The major constituents used to establish meat alternatives
Score scale, soy protein was designated identical to animal pro-
are soy proteins, myco proteins, cereal protein, vegetables, and
tein with a score of 1.0, the maximum possible score (Hoffman
pulses. A fermentation process is followed for soy, and other
& Falvo, 2004). Soy proteins support diminished blood choles-
oilseed extracts proteins, various substrates, and microorganisms
terol and lower coronary heart disease (Golbitz & Jordan, 2006).
are used to produce meat analogs (Kumar et al., 2017). Brief
Soy protein is used in products like meat-free sausages, chick-
descriptions of typical meat analogs ingredients and their func-
en-style breasts, chicken-style nuggets, and products similar
tion are presented in (Table 1). Plant proteins are a vital part
to sliced cooked meats.
of meat substitutes, but shortly bacteria and mushrooms would
Consequently, textured vegetable protein is obtained from
be probable novel supplements because they multiply rapidly
defatted soy flour, from which soluble carbohydrate has been
and are valued among consumers (Hegenbart, 2002). Similarly,
detached, and the filtrate is textured by spinning or by extrusion.
Table 2. Major non-meat protein sources suitable for meat analog
It is considered to mimic meat muscle, thus providing a different
eating texture to other soy layouts because it allows for chewiness
Type of protein Source Reference and fibrous characteristics (Sadler, 2004). The textured vegetable
β-conglycinin Soybean (Sun et al., 2008) protein has also been used in various types of meat-free con-
Legumes venience products such as bean burgers and patties to reduce
Glycinin, Vicilin (Kang et al., 2007)
the cost without lowering nutritional value (Penfield &
Legumin, Albumins, Campbell, 1990).
Oilseeds (Marcone, 1999)
Globulins Glutelins
Gluten Gliadins Wheat, rye,
(Green and Cellier, 2007) 2. Legume protein
Glutenins and barley
Fusarium venenatum
Mycoprotein (Denny et al., 2008) The legume family of plants accounts for 27% of primary
(Filamentous fungus)

Table 1. Typical meat analog ingredients and their purpose (Egbert and Borders, 2006; Malav et al., 2015)

Ingredient Purpose Usage level (%)

Ingredient distribution,
Water 50 to 80
Emulsification, juiciness, cost
Textured vegetable proteins: textured soy flour, textured soy Water binding, texture, and mouthfeel,
concentrate, textured wheat gluten, textured protein Appearance, protein fortification/nutrition 10 to 25
combinations such as soy and wheat Source of insoluble fiber

Non-textured proteins: isolated soy proteins, functional soy Water binding, emulsification Texture/mouthfeel
4 to 20
concentrate, wheat gluten, egg whites, whey proteins Protein fortification/nutrition

Flavor, savory, meaty, roasted, fatty,

Flavors/spices serumy Flavor enhancement (for example, salt) 3 to 10
Mask cereal notes

Texture/mouthfeel, Succulence,
Fat/oil Flavor l0 to 15
Maillard reaction/browning
Binding agents: wheat gluten, egg whites, Texture/“bite,” water binding, may contribute to fiber content,
1-5
gums and hydrocolloids, enzymes, starches can determine production processing conditions
Coloring agents: caramel colors,
Appearance/eye appeal, Natural or artificial 0 to 0.5
malt extracts, beet powder, FD&C colors
4 … Journal of Agriculture & Life Science 55(1)

crop production worldwide and is second in importance only components depending upon the final product (Denny et al.,
to cereal grasses (Riascos et al. 2010). Protein is the main compo- 2008). The heating process causes protein binders to form the
nent of a legumes-based diet. In many more species, seed protein gel, which sticks together with the hyphae. The product obtained
content varies from 20% to 30% of total dry weight (Riascos had similar textural characteristics resembles meat products
et al. 2010). It has been established that legumes from numerous (Rodger, 2001).
sources like chickpea, lentil, lupine, and other types of the bean
are examined on characteristics such as gel formation emulsifica- 5. Coloring agents
tion and foam stabilization, among them the most favorable
for meat analog was pea protein (Osen et al., 2014). Previously The quality of meat alternatives depends significantly on
researchers have effectively formulated meat analogs from pea color and variations of color. Thus, coloring agents are consid-
protein isolates (90% protein) in combination with gluten (80% ered an essential entity in meat additives (Kyriakopoulou et
protein) and starch at high moisture, which has a fibrous texture al., 2019). Cumin, carotene, and turmin pigments are considered
which was similar to chicken and fish meat (Elaine, 2009). heat-stable coloring agents and preferred among consumers
Legumes grain plays an essential role in human nutrition. In (Vrljic et al., 2018). Heat-labile colorants and reducing sugars
several regions of the world, the legume protein is considered are used in various combinations based on color preparation,
poor man meat, particularly in the developing world (Riascos which resembles the final product (Rolan et al., 2008). Besides,
et al., 2010). There is a tremendous increase in legumes-based lowering sugar content can be added as a browning mediator;
meat, especially in quality, texture, and other functional proper- subsequently, they can counter the amine protein groups in
ties; the main reason could be economic values (Malav et al., a Maillard-type reaction, which shows similarity with meat's
2015). browning (Kyriakopoulou et al., 2019).
Predominantly in plant-based meat, coloring agents are ap-
plied as coloring solutions before the extrusion process. The
3. Cereal protein
other way of mixing colorants with proteins consisting of materi-
Cereals hold an essential spot in food crops, and the products al entered the extruder or injected into the extruder barrel (Orcutt
obtained from grain are of substantial importance in the food et al., 2008). Regardless accessibility of coloring agents in meat
processing industry. Cereal protein is used as seed, flour, or analogs, the color of meat analogs is not standard quality; the
flakes (Malav et al., 2015). Wheat protein is fundamentally way to solve this problem is to insert acidulants such as citric
prepared from gluten that has been treated and extruded to acid, lactic acid, or acetic or their combinations (Orcutt et al.,
look like the texture of meat (Asgar et al., 2010). Food products 2008). However, a particular solution has a limitation as an
comprising wheat gluten delivers textured vegetable protein in- alteration in pH leads to deterioration of protein and variation
gredients that can be applied as meat extenders and meat analog in taste of the ultimate final product. Furthermore, along with
products. In-ground meat patties gluten can be used as an ex- the coloring agents, color retention aids such as maltodextrin
tender and bind chunks for trimmings to generate rearranged and hydrated alginate are used to inhibit or control the color
items. Gluten that has been hydrated could be extruded and migration from the dyed structured meat analog (Orcutt et al.,
texturized and convert into fibers to produce numerous kinds 2008).
of meat substitutes (Malav et al., 2015).
6. Flavors and other ingredients
4. Mycoprotein
Good flavor and taste are significant criteria for an average
The first product of mycoprotein to be marketed was begun consumer to accept a meat analog (Kyriakopoulou et al., 2019).
long before 1985. Mycoproteins are free of cholesterol, little Along with iron complexes savory spicing, meat, and savory
saturated fats with a good fatty acid profile, and fiber content aroma, their precursors are currently used as flavoring agents
equivalent to other vegetarian protein sources. Mycoprotein in meat analogs (Fraser et al., 2017). Amino acid-containing
can considerably reduce blood cholesterol levels because of sugar and sulfur play an essential part in expanding meat flavor
its fibrous nature (Denny et al., 2008). The mycelia of fila- (Hsieh et al., 1980). Moreover, the mushroom concentrate can
mentous fungus are highly preferred for a meat substitute since also be used as a flavor formulate and flavor enhancer in place
mycelia's fibrous arrangement resembles the final product. For of monosodium glutamate or hydrolyzed vegetable protein.
the preparation of products that resemble mycoprotein, the bind- Sodium, calcium, potassium, and magnesium improved the meat
ing agent obtained from egg albumin is mixed with fungal analogs' functional potentials when applied in combination with
biomass and added with flavoring agents and the rest of the plant proteins (Singh et al., 1997).
 Traditional Plant-based Meat Alternatives, Current, and Future Perspective: a Review … 5

Preparation and processing of meat analog The fiber spinning method is not commonly used to produce
meat analogs due to its complexity, and it also negates one
Meat analog products are currently manufactured by two of the critical advantages of meat analogs. This production
fundamental processes, through either thermoplastic extrusion method increases production cost, eliminating the advantage
or fiber spinning. Thermoplastic extrusion involves adapting of creating an inexpensive meat/protein substitute. The fiber
production processes that are more commonly associated with spinning techniques were adopted from the spun fiber method
the making of ready-to-eat cereal products. Extruders are simple to create synthetic fibers in the textile industry. In general,
and are considered to be a cost-effective method of accom- fibers are made by creating filaments out of the protein used
modating large-scale productions. It also provides the con- as the starting material. The process begins through the dis-
ditions that are crucial to the formation of the desirable fibers. persion of proteins into a dispersing medium such as an alkaline
The wet mix is mixed in a heated vessel at a temperature aqueous solution. This dispersion is then fed through a spinner-
lower than the proteins' coagulation temperature. The high tem- et, a device used to extrude a polymer solution to form fibers,
perature helps lower the dough's viscosity and allows for a and deposited into an acidic salt solution with a pH range
more homogenized mixing process. Special caution must be of 5.6 to 6.4 enhanced coagulation. After exiting the spinneret's
taken not to overmix the dough as it has been known to sub- small die, the filaments would have a diameter of around 0.003
stantially decrease the number of fibers formed (Boyer, 1954). inches. These filaments are then stretched and elongated until
Extruders should be set to the temperature in which the protein the average thickness is about 20 microns (Boyer, 1954). The
used will start to solidify for max efficiency. Gluten and soy excess salt solution is then removed from the fibers through
proteins coagulate at 75 °C and 68 °C, respectively. Since squeezing or centrifuging before further processing. After the
the extruder also cooks the product, the extruder's inner walls' drying process, edible binders such as proteins, starches, ce-
temperature should be within the range of 77 °C to 149 °C. reals, dextrins, carboxymethylcellulose, or a combination of
Turbulent conditions caused by aggressive mixing and agitation them, are added to keep the fibers physically tied together
should be avoided during processing as it contributes to the through functioning as an adhesive or serving as a matrix
undesirable formation of randomly oriented, non-meat like in which the fibers embedded. The fibers are then passed
fibers. Unidirectional and parallel fibers can only be formed through a bath of melted fat and pressed together to form
through extruding and stretching under none turbulent or lami- the final product. The meat analog is then cut into a suitable
nar conditions. Laminar flow condition occurs under low veloc- length for either packaging and distribution or further process-
ities where the fluid in question flows smoothly with over- ing (Boyer, 1954).
lapping layers, and it is typically characterized by having a
Reynolds number below 2000. However, this depends on the
system and can vary significantly in complex fluids (Choueiri
et al., 2018). Stretching of the meat analog would take place
Common meat substitutes
simultaneously during the extrusion. Ideally, the amount of
Several types of meat substitutes are available globally with
linear expansion of the protein dough should be around 50%
different tastes, flavors, and textures. Table 3 is a list of various
in either direction (Boyer, 1954).
types of meat substitutes with a brand name in various countries.

Table 3. Commercially available meat analogs in market and their brand names

Company Product Country

Quorn Foods Low-fat Chicken UK
Melissa Foods Soy Taco Canada
Marlow Foods Quorn UK
Turtle Island Foods Tofurky USA
Sogolwek Quinoa Based Meat Patties Israel
Veggie Patch Meatless Meat Balls USA
Mute Soybadi India
Sol cuisine Meatless Burgers Canada
Gardein Crispy Chicken UK
Sources (Bryan, 2012)
6 … Journal of Agriculture & Life Science 55(1)

1. Soy meat/ Texture vegetable protein replacements made from soy protein (Fig. 2B). In meat alter-
natives, soybeans are considered widely recognized; they pro-
Soy meat or texture vegetable protein is produced from duce an outstanding protein, calcium, and iron source. Tofu
soybeans primarily in Asian countries (Fig. 2A). The pro- is a plant-based meat alternative and is also well known among
duction method is somewhat laborious, however the end prod- consumers as bean curd, with tremendous nutritional and health
uct has a fibrous consistency, which is very similar to meat. benefits. Tofu is popular plant-based food in various countries,
With different seasonings, a great variety of flavors can be including Korea, India, America, Australia, Cambodia, China,
achieved. Soy meat is extremely rich in protein with over Europe, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, New Zealand,
50 percent protein contents, but the protein content drops when Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam (Pal et al., 2019).
texture vegetable protein is rehydrated (Riaz, 2005). The texture It is typically manageable in the slab, and it is highly penetrable
vegetable protein has been developed in the USA and in- and freely takes tastes of steeps, pulps, and extra dressing (Malav
troduced to the European market in the late 1960s, with modest et al., 2015). Due to the absence of cholesterol and dietary
success. The quality of texture vegetable protein has been fibers and low energy values, tofu has unique nutritional value
improved for the last 40 years. The textured vegetable protein (Stanojević et al., 2010). Tofu has specific nutritional standards
is produced using hot extrusion of defatted soy proteins, result- due to dietetic fibers, cholesterol, and low energy value. The
ing in expanded high protein chunks, nuggets, strips, grains, physiological values of tofu are incredible due to the high content
and other shapes. The denatured proteins give textured vegeta- of minerals and vitamins (Wang and Murphy,1994). Tofu is
ble protein textures similar to meat. The fibrous, insoluble, a good source of protein, vitamins (A, C, D, E, K, and the
porous textured vegetable protein can soak up water or other B vitamins, such as riboflavin, thiamine, niacin, pantothenic
liquids a multiple of its weight. The texture vegetable protein acid, biotin, vitamin B-6, vitamin B-12, and folate), and minerals
can be consumed directly or added as a meat extender in (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, iron, zinc, man-
meat analog. The dissimilarity between meat extenders and ganese, selenium, and copper). Besides, tofu is also a rich source
meat analogs is the reliance on raw materials for texturization of omega-3 fatty acids that are needed for good health. Tofu
by extruders (Riaz, 2004). If cooked alone, meat extenders also provides the required amino acids, which are crucial to
are not analogous to meat in appearance, texture, or mouthfeel. healthy and balanced diets. It is mentioned that one block of
These types of textured products are mixed with meat for hard tofu, weighing 122 grams (g), contains 177 calories, 5.36
further processing to improve overall functional properties. g of carbohydrate, 12.19 g of fat, 15.57 g of protein, 421 mg
On the other hand, meat analogs are considerably similar to of calcium, 282 mg of phosphorus, 178 mg of potassium, 65
meat in appearance, color, flavor, and texture when hydrated mg of magnesium, 3.35 mg of iron, 2 mg of zinc, and 27
and cooked (Riaz, 2004). micrograms of folate (Pal et al., 2019).

2. Tofu 3. Tempeh
Tofu is a traditional Asian foodstuff and a basis for meat Tempeh is an Indonesian-based meat alternative manufac-
tured from fermented soybean cake and cooked soybeans, e.g.,
rice and millet, shared with the Rhizopus oligoporus culture
(Fig. 2C). Tempeh is available commercially in different forms
like strip, cake, and cookery context; it is considered tofu because
it comprises entire soybeans it has a thicker, “meatier”
consistency. Fermented soybean cake, or ‘tempeh,’ is an out-
standing low-cost source of protein, having on an average of
19.5% protein, which matches favorably with chicken (21%),
beef (20%), eggs (13%), and milk (3%). Moreover, with the
enzymatic protease process, mold is produced during the fermen-
tation, the soluble protein content in tempeh rises abruptly,
making it extra consumable than unfermented soybeans (Astuti
et al., 2000). Tempeh has the essential properties of nutritional
benefits, including high protein, fiber, and extra nutrients. It
also benefits from covering Vitamin B12, a by-product of the
Fig. 2. Traditional plant-based meat analog. fermentation process (Liem et al., 1977).
 Traditional Plant-based Meat Alternatives, Current, and Future Perspective: a Review … 7

4. Wheat gluten / Seitan 7. Rice-based products

Seitan is another kind of vegetarian meat analog known as Risofu is rice-based burgers and sausages produced by a
wheat meat or wheat gluten (Fig. 2D). Seitan is achieved through U.S. company named Bahama Rice Burger (Fig. 2G). Risofu
the continuous washing process of wheat flour dough until the is derived from the Italian word riso, which means rice and
chewy mass, or proteinaceous gluten is produced. Seitan is tofu, meaning rice tofu. The company developed the product
chewy and flavorful meat alternative with an excellent option with inspiration from the Shan region of Thailand, where
for a population with no sensitivity toward gluten, although rice-based tofu is made. Risofu mixes white, brown, and wild
individuals showing sensitivities toward gluten avoided the prod- rice to obtain as many nutrients as possible (Schmidinger, 2012).
uct (Schepker, 2012). Seitan-based meat substitutes like vegeta-
rian burgers, sausages, and nuggets are considered cheapest, 8. Algae
and the main reason is it produced from simple raw material.
Seitan products are easy to handle, and it could be seasoned Algae could also be a potential precursor of vegetarian meat
and prepared in multiple ways. Furthermore, around the world, alternatives, together with cereals, rice, edible oils, and thicken-
the wheat crop is intuitive to most countries. Hence, the potential ing agents. Algae is another promising and novel source of
production of Seitan is possible worldwide. Seitan consistency protein consisting of seaweed and microalgae (Fig. 2H). Seaweed
is exceptionally similar to the chewy fibers that establish meat's is a multicellular organism and complex. Meanwhile, microalgae
uniformity (Schmidinger, 2012). are grouped as a single-celled organism (Chlorella and the dia-
tom) and multicellular forms (kelp) (McKellar et al., 2019).
Microalgae-based meat analogs are grown in many environments
5. Fibers from lupines
and less impact on the environment than beef, pork, and chicken
For vegetarian meat production, sweet lupines are used in (Smetana and Heinz, 2019).
many ways. Previously a Dutch company, Meatless B.V., suc-
cessfully prepared 100% vegetable fibers from lupine or wheat. 9. Animal welfare
Several types of fibers are produced with different shapes, colors,
and flavors. Meatless fibers replace a large portion of meat; Annually more than 56 billion farmed animals are slaughtered,
the primary purpose is to developed hybrid products and meat countless of which go through enormous discomfort in the proc-
alternatives (Schmidinger, 2012). Recently there are other lu- ess (Joshi et al., 2016). Consumers, particularly from developed
pines-based meat alternatives, but these products still have not countries, are concerned about the treatment of livestock. Some
made access to the relevant market until now (Fig. 2E). are questioning animals' treatment and the ethical justification
for using animals in human food production (Croney et al.,
2012). To improve animal welfare, plant-based meat alternatives
6. Sufu
and Vitro meat can both widely reduce the number of animals
Sufu is a fermented soybean curd and a vastly flavored, farmed to minimize the burden on animal protein requirements
lenient creamy cheese-type product that can be used in the globally (Croney et al., 2012).
same way as cheese. There are several native processors of In a broader agricultural system, traditional meat production,
sufu in China, with mold-fermented sufu being the most popular primarily obtained from ruminants, is considered a vital agricul-
product (Han et al., 2001). Traditionally, in the western world, tural system (Hou et al., 2008). Moreover, currently, the pro-
sufu has been known as Chinese or bean cake or fermented duction of cultured meat techniques researchers cannot elimi-
tofu. By action of mold, sufu is a combined product of soybean nate animal products' usage (Post, 2012). Excluding livestock
and curd. The primary consumption comes from the Chinese. from food production is not the only way to address animal
Three major steps are involved in the manufacturing of sufu well-being complications. Other options involve redesigning
preparation, molding, and brining. After overnight washing and husbandry systems and employing conventional breeding
soaking soybeans and then grounded with water to dry bean technologies. Cloning is another technology that is used to
ratio 10:1 is typically used. The groundmass is boiled for about increase the genetic improvement of agricultural animal species.
2 min, and the hot mass is strained through a cloth bag. However, this particular technique may have some negative
Magnesium and calcium salts have been used for the curdling impacts on animal welfare. While keeping animal welfare in
process (Han et al., 2001). To subtract the curdling whey, the mind previously, a trial has been carried out in cattle with
curd is turned into a wooden tray lined with cloth and hard-press- a total of 2,170 implanted embryos; only 106 live offspring
ed (Elzerman 2006). Typical sufu is shown in (Fig. 2F). were born. At the same time, 24 of them died soon after birth.
8 … Journal of Agriculture & Life Science 55(1)

On closer look, 11 of these 24 offspring had severe physiological on soy and grain's total production, approximately 40% of the
abnormalities, including digestive abnormalities, skeletal prob- entire grain and 75% of whole soy are being utilized for animal
lems, deformities in the urinary tract, and respiratory failure feeding. Land as the whole of the planet, 30% is dedicated
(Cibelli et al., 2002). to animal production, which is considered 70% of total arable
land (Kumar et al., 2017). Furthermore, extensive livestock pro-
11. Nutritional and health aspects duction and expansion had a tremendous effect on limited natural
resources, and it is considered a key factor in the deforestation
The Health benefits and nutritional value of certain foods of forests and greenery (Pimentel & Pimentel, 2003). Thus,
are well recognized based on their composition. The fundamental meat analogs are considered the best alternatives to overcome
dietary drive of meat in the diet is providing protein of out- the overproduction of livestock and produce environ-
standing quality. In case the meat is entirely exchanged for ment-friendly meat products that could reduce the burden on
meat-analog product, the particular product should provide a our planet's natural resources.
similar nutritional value. It has been established that a meat Food marketing will be very complicated; a flow toward
analog with a protein content of up to 30% with a low fat/lipid more sophisticated meat alternatives is booming up. Food manu-
level can be an excellent alternative to meat from a nutritional facturers face a significant challenge to provide nutritious, eco-
perspective. Concerning public health benefits, meat substitutes nomical, and healthy foods to ensure that food products have
had a wide range of potential as a functional food (Sadler, tempting taste and texture. Genetic engineering silencing can
2004). The meat proteins have great biological value with a increase the quality of plant-based food products (Asgar et al.,
reasonable volume of vitamins and minerals, which improve 2010). Meat production by conventional methods reaches its
the nutritional value of meat products. However, meat cannot edges, additional increases in production will require innovative
be recommended due to its high-fat content. The meat also technologies and techniques. In the current meat industry, only
includes cholesterol and a greater quantity of saturated fatty traditional meat and limited types of meat alternatives are present
acids. Atherosclerosis or clogging of the arteries leads to a in the market place. The red meat industry's future perspective
heart attack caused by saturated fat in meat, whereas in through artificial meat and technologies will keep the meat
plant-based meat, a considerable amount of linolenic acid is industry's current pace to cope with increased consumer demand
present (Key et al., 1999). To provide a high quality of protein with time. As the demand for meat surges, the resources available
in the diet is the primary purpose of meat in the diet. From shrink, and the monitoring environment convert, more intricate
a nutritional perspective, it has been suggested that meat sub- conventional meat production will probably suffer high costs,
stitutes consisting of 30% protein with a lower quantity of fat making meat more expensive.
can be an excellent replacer to meat (Kyriakopoulou et al., Similarly, when the price of conventional meat increases,
2019). Previously it has been reported that plant-based meat the demand for more inexpensive meat substitutes will surges.
has various health assistances, e.g., reducing obesity-induced The principal foodstuffs which are likely to produce strong
metabolic dysfunction (Wanezaki et al., 2015), cardiovascular opposition for traditional meat are meat substitutes manufactured
disease (Craig, 2010), cancer (Goldberg, 2003), retaining anti- from plant or insect proteins. These products are the most striking
cancer, anti-inflammation activity, and immune activity (Nakata to manufactures and have the lowermost obstacles to
et al., 2017). Consequently, improving clinical indices in Type commercialization. This may create momentum for meat, partic-
2 diabetes (Clifton, 2011) improves weight loss and weight ularly red meat, into the most incredible end of the market.
maintenance (Kristensen et al., 2016). Previously research and development have reported that
meat-like structure can be achieved using plant-based in-
Environmental aspects of meat analogs gredients, such as soy and legumes, and with a combination
of different technologies like extrusion and shearing process.
Greenhouse gas is an environmental calamity, and food activ- Although due to the oxidation process, off-flavor complaints
ity is considered responsible for 30% of greenhouse gas emis- have been reported alongside these ingredients can produce
sions (Smetana et al., 2015). Consumer awareness has been highly nutritional products (Rackis et al., 1979). Covering these
amplified at increasing food demand (Steinfeld et al., 2006). odors is a choice, but imitating the particular meat taste is
Moreover, ecological and socio-economic activities, such as relatively tricky (Claeys et al., 2004). Consequently, new com-
food safety, deforestation, and pollution, are of greater pounds had been explored, which could change the color and
significance. Grossly livestock contributes a significant portion aroma, which can mimic the properties' appearances and taste
of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide 9%, methane of meat products. The mouth feeling of meat analog is a vital
39%, and nitrous oxide 65% (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Based parameter; new methods are being incorporated to assimilate
 Traditional Plant-based Meat Alternatives, Current, and Future Perspective: a Review … 9

water, fat, and flavoring constituents to improve sensorial prop- totic limit of polymer drag reduction. Phys. Rev. Lett.
erties (Kyriakopoulou et al., 2019). Besides the sensory feature, 120: 124-501.
consumer behavior can be affected by price, nutritional proper- Cibelli JB, Campbell, KH, Seidel GE, West MD and Lanza
ties, food labels, country origin, and health claims (Gadema RP. 2002. The health profile of cloned animals. Nat.
& Oglethorpe, 2011). Previous reports have confirmed that’s Biotechnol. 20: 13-14.
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fulfills the numerous aspects of a particular meat analog. The 2004. Quantification of fresh meat peptides by sds-page
meat analogs can be adjusted by formula and by collecting in relation to ageing time and taste intensity. Meat Sci.
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by merging deferent sources, the health benefits can be manifold of different protein sources. Curr. Atheroscler. 13:
(Kyriakopoulou et al., 2019). 493-498.
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