C hapter 3

Energy Production

The reason that we eat, besides the fact that food can be so delicious, is
for energy and building blocks. Although energy cannot be created or
destroyed, its form can change. During metabolism, our bodies break down
fuel molecules and trap the energy released within the molecule adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). In this chapter, we examine the energy transformations
that occur during metabolism.

ATP, the Cell’s Energy Currency

During exercise, muscles are constantly contracting to power motion, a
process that requires energy. The brain is also using energy to maintain ion
gradients essential for nerve activity. The source of the chemical energy for
these and other life processes is the molecule ATP. ATP contains potential
energy that is released during its hydrolysis, or reaction with water. In this
reaction, the bond linking the terminal phosphate group (shown below in red)
is broken, ATP is converted to ADP (adenosine diphosphate), and 7.3 Cal
(kcal) of energy is released. This energy can be used to power the cell’s
activities, like muscle contraction.
NH
NH2 NH
2 NH2 2
N N
N N N N
H2O
N N
O O O N N N
N O O N
O O O N O O N N O
-
O P O P O P O
7.3 kcal
-
O O P O P O
-
O P- O P- O P- O O OO +
H OH
-
O P O P O + -
P OH
O O O O -
O - H O H
+
O- O- O- H H
OH H
HH
O -
O - HH H H + -
O P O-
OH + H + 7.3 kcal
ATP
OH H
H
OH H
H
ADP H H Inorganic
O phosphate -

ATP
OH H
ADP Inorganic phosphate
The energy requirements of an individual vary widely with the activity
being performed (Table 1). During periods of heavy exertion, energy
demands increase dramatically, particularly by muscles. However, the
 Exercise Physiology
J. T. Millard

muscle’s supply of ATP is sufficient to power vigorous activity for only a

second or two.

When the muscle’s supply of ATP is exhausted, it can be resynthesized

from ADP in three ways:
1. via phosphorylation by phosphocreatine
2. via anaerobic metabolism
3. via aerobic metabolism

Phosphocreatine
Phosphocreatine is a secondary reserve of energy that can quickly
generate more ATP from ADP as follows:
NH2 NH2

N N
N HN PO3- N NH2
+
N
C NH2 C NH2+
O O N O O O N N
+ N CH3 + N CH3
- -
O P O P O O P O P O P O
O O
CH2 CH2
O -
O - H H O -
O -
O - H H
H H COO- H H COO-
OH H OH H
ADP Phosphocreatine ATP Creatine

In this reaction, a phosphate group (in red) is transferred from

phosphocreatine to ADP to form ATP very rapidly, allowing muscle
contraction to continue for about 10 seconds. When phosphocreatine is
depleted, the muscles must turn to metabolism of fuel molecules to produce
more ATP to power physical activity.

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Aerobic versus Anaerobic Activity

Exercise can take many forms, from yard work to a leisurely afternoon
walk to a punishing regime in the weight room. At the molecular level, we can
divide all exercise into two general categories: aerobic and anaerobic
exercise. Aerobic activity, which involves sustained effort such as distance
running and walking, occurs when the body has sufficient oxygen available to
oxidize fuel molecules for energy. Anaerobic activity, which involves quick
bursts of effort like weightlifting and sprinting, occurs in the absence of
sufficient oxygen for the aerobic pathway. The types of fuels that can be
used differ, depending on the type of exercise that we’re doing.

Fuels that Power Exercise

In addition to the fuels that we consume in the form of food on a regular
basis, our bodies also have reserves of energy that are called upon during
exercise. Recall that chemical energy is stored primarily as lipids, commonly
called fats, and carbohydrates. We also eat proteins, although we do not
have expendable protein stores in our body. Let’s briefly review the major
classes of food molecules (Figure 1).

Carbohydrates
Animals store carbohydrates as glycogen, a polysaccharide consisting of
thousands of glucose units covalently linked together. Glycogen reserves,
which represent the body’s “quick” form of energy, are found in the muscles
and the liver. They are first broken down to glucose before undergoing
further metabolism. Glucose can then be further processed to release
energy under both anaerobic and aerobic conditions.

Fats
Fats are stored as triglycerides, molecules that contain a single glycerol
unit linked to three fatty acid units. Most of our fat stores are found in
adipose tissue, but other organs, including muscles, also have small reserves
to fuel their ongoing needs. Triglycerides, which account for about 84% of
the total energy stores in the average individual, are degraded to fatty acids
(and glycerol) before being further metabolized. Fatty acids can undergo
only aerobic metabolism.

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Proteins
While dietary protein
can also be degraded for
energy, we have very little
expendable protein
reserves. In dire
circumstances, such as a
precipitous drop in blood Further
sugar levels, skeletal metabolism

muscle will actually be Figure 1. The three classes of fuel molecules and
broken down despite how they are broken down during metabolism.

potentially disastrous
consequences. This occurs primarily to fuel the brain, which needs a constant
source of energy in the form of glucose. Animals lack a metabolic pathway
that can make glucose from fats, but most amino acids can undergo
conversion to glucose. Thus, skeletal muscle may be sacrificed when glycogen
stores are depleted.

Energy Content
Glucose and triglycerides are normally broken down to release energy
through oxidation to carbon dioxide, with oxygen undergoing reduction to
water in the process. Recall that redox reactions involve the transfer of
electrons from one substance to another. In reactions involving electron
transfer there cannot be an oxidation without a reduction.
During aerobic metabolism, animals obtain energy for essential life
processes through the oxidation of carbon-containing nutrients such as
glucose (C6H12O6):

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 à 6 CO2 + 6 H2 O

This reaction illustrates that there are several ways to think about redox
reactions. We can think about oxidation as loss of electrons, as gain of
oxygen (hence the name), or as loss of hydrogen. Reduction is just the
opposite: gain of electrons, loss of oxygen, or gain of hydrogen. C6H12O6
(glucose) is oxidized in the last reaction because carbon gains bonds to
oxygen and loses bonds to hydrogen in its conversion to CO2. If glucose is
oxidized, then O2 (oxygen) must be reduced as it is the only other reactant,
and oxidation is always paired with reduction. Indeed, oxygen gains hydrogen

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atoms during the conversion to H2O, meeting the third criterion for
reduction.
If we examine the structure of a representative carbohydrate, like
glucose, in comparison to a representative fat, like lauric acid (C12H24O2), we
can account for the different energy contents of these fuels. Many of the
carbon atoms in glucose are bonded to oxygen, meaning that they are initially
more oxidized than the carbons in fat (Figure 2). Therefore, only 4 kcal of
energy per gram are released upon oxidizing carbohydrates versus 9 kcal per
gram for fats. That is, fats represent a more efficient means of storing
energy because they are more highly reduced, thereby releasing more
energy upon oxidation.

Figure 2. Energy is released through oxidation of fuels during aerobic

metabolism. Carbohydrates start out with the carbons already partially
oxidized, so they release less energy during metabolism than fats.

Mobilization of Fuels
When muscles exhaust their stores of readily available ATP and
phosphocreatine, the next fuel of choice is glucose, either from blood sugar
or the muscle’s own glycogen. Glucose is quickly mobilized to produce ATP to
power the muscles and allow activity to continue. The ultimate product of

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glucose degradation and the amount of energy captured as ATP depends on

the type of exercise underway, aerobic or anaerobic activity.

First Stage of Glucose Metabolism: Glycolysis

The first stage in the breakdown of glucose to produce ATP is glycolysis
(from the Greek words glykys, meaning “sweet“ and lysis meaning “splitting”).
In this metabolic pathway, the six-carbon glucose molecule undergoes a
series of transformations, each catalyzed by a different enzyme. Along the
way, glucose is cleaved into two pieces that each end up as the three-carbon
molecule pyruvate (Figure 3). The energy from hydrolysis of two molecules
of ATP is needed to drive this pathway, but four molecules of ATP are
eventually formed, for a net gain of 2 ATP.

Figure 3. During glycolysis, glucose ends up as two molecules of

pyruvate. Partial oxidation of glucose produces energy in the
form of ATP (a net gain of 2 ATP) and two molecules of NADH, a
cellular coenzyme used during metabolism.

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Figure 4. The molecule

NAD+ can accept two
electrons (and a
hydrogen ion) to
become NADH. NADH
is one of the most
important electron
carriers in metabolism.

During glycolysis, electrons produced during the oxidation of glucose end

up captured in two molecules of NADH, which is made from Vitamin B3
(niacin). NADH is one of two primary electron carriers in metabolism (Figure
4), and it exists as an oxidized form (NAD+) and a reduced form (NADH).
This molecule is like a taxi for electrons, picking them up from glucose and
dropping them off to other pathways of metabolism.
The two molecules of pyruvate produced during glycolysis still contain a
great deal of the original chemical energy of glucose. Pyruvate can therefore
undergo further degradation to produce more ATP. Its fate in the muscle
during exercise, however, depends on the availability of oxygen.

Aerobic Metabolism: Cellular Respiration

If the muscles contain plenty of available oxygen, pyruvate can undergo
complete oxidation to carbon dioxide and water during cellular respiration
(Figure 5). Respiration, which consists of three phases, occurs in the
mitochondria, the cell’s “powerhouses.” This metabolic pathway traps the
maximum amount of stored chemical energy within a molecule of glucose,
generating a total of 30 molecules of ATP in conjunction with glycolysis.
We’ve already discussed Stage 1 of respiration, glycolysis. Let’s take a look
at Stages 2 and 3.

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Figure 5. Cellular respiration consists of three metabolic phases: glycolysis, the

Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol, but
the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain occur inside the mitochondria. Electron
carriers such as NADH produced during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle pass their
electrons to the electron transport chain, which results in synthesis of a lot of ATP.

The Krebs Cycle

The Krebs cycle (aka “the citric
acid cycle”; Figure 6) occurs inside
the mitochondria and generates a
pool of chemical energy (ATP,
NADH, and FADH2, another
electron carrier) from the oxidation
of pyruvate, the end product of Krebs
glycolysis. Pyruvate is transported
Cycle
into the mitochondria and loses
carbon dioxide to form acetyl-CoA,
a 2-carbon molecule attached to a
carrier (coenzyme A). When acetyl-
CoA is oxidized to carbon dioxide in Figure 6. Pyruvate from glycolysis loses CO2
the Krebs cycle, chemical energy is to become a two-carbon fragment, acetate,
released and captured in the form before entering Stage 2 of respiration.
of 3 molecules of NADH, 1 molecule Acetate is linked to coenzyme A to become
of FADH2, and 1 molecule of ATP. acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle.
The Krebs cycle begins and ends with the
The cycle starts and ends with
same four-carbon molecule, oxaloacetate.
oxaloacetate.
Acetate is completely oxidized to CO2 along
the way.
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Figure 7. Electrons
from NADH and
FADH2 enter the
ETC at complex I
and II, respectively.
Electrons take the
path indicated by the
orange arrows,
causing pumping of
+
H where shown,
making the inside of
the mitochondria
less acidic. The
resulting gradient
can be used to make
+
ATP when H comes
back inside through
the ATP synthase.

The Electron Transport Chain

The NADH and FADH2 produced during the Krebs cycle pass their
electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC), the final stage of
respiration (Figure 7). The electron transport chain consists of various
proteins embedded in the mitochondrial membrane (complexes I –IV), as well
as some mobile electron carriers (ubiquinone and cytochrome c). Electrons
are passed through the carriers, eventually ending up reducing O2 to form
water. The energy released as the electrons flow through the chain is used
to transport H+ (hydrogen ions [aka protons]) out of the mitochondria. The
end result is that it is more acidic outside the mitochondria, with a higher
concentration of H+. As the hydrogen ions flow back inside the mitochondria
through another membrane protein, the ATP synthase, energy is released
that is used to make ATP.
Notice that the electron transport chain is the part of aerobic
metabolism that requires oxygen. Neither the Krebs cycle nor glycolysis use
oxygen directly, but if NADH cannot be reoxidized to NAD+ by the ETC,
then the feeder pathways cannot continue. Another significant fact about
the ETC is that the ATP synthase is the largest producer of ATP in the cell,
with 2.5 ATPs made from each NADH and 1.5 ATP from each FADH2 sent
from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. Adding the number of ATP molecules
produced from glycolysis (2) and the number produced in the citric acid

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cycle (1) with the number produced in the ETC (27) yields a grand total of 30
molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose.

Anaerobic Metabolism: Fermentation

In the absence of oxygen, which is necessary to accept electrons from
the ETC, NADH builds up in the cell. Unless it can be oxidized, pathways of
metabolism that require removal of electrons (i.e., virtually all pathways that
degrade fuel molecules) must stop. However, most cells can continue
glycolysis, at least for a short time, because they have the ability to oxidize
NADH through an alternative pathway that does not require oxygen:
fermentation.
Fermentation complements glycolysis and makes it possible for the
production of ATP to occur in the absence of oxygen. By oxidizing the NADH
produced in glycolysis, fermentation regenerates NAD+, which can take part
in glycolysis once again to produce more ATP. The muscle regenerates NAD+
from NADH, an oxidation reaction, by reduction of pyruvate. The
fermentation pathway produces the NAD+ necessary to accept electrons
from glucose, allowing glycolysis to continue (Figure 8). The product of
pyruvate reduction varies with organism. In yeast, pyruvate undergoes
conversion to ethanol, a reaction used by winemakers for thousands of years.
In humans, the product is the bane of many athletes, lactic acid.
The production of lactic acid during exercise is perceived as pain and
muscle fatigue by
the athlete. Lactic
acid limits the
duration of
anaerobic activity
because the
resulting drop in pH
inhibits one of the
key enzymes in
glycolysis.
Therefore,
anaerobic
Figure 8. Glycolysis cannot continue without NAD+. If the
metabolism cannot ETC chain isn’t running because there is insufficient O2,
be sustained for fermentation provides an alternate way to oxidize NADH
more than a minute back to NAD+.
or two before

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glycolysis shuts down.

Lactic acid produced in the muscle generally travels in the bloodstream to
the liver, where it is converted back to glucose during the recovery period
after exercise. This
energy-requiring
recycling process is
called the Cori cycle
after its discoverers
Carl and Gerty Cori
(Figure 9). The oxygen
required for aerobic
metabolism to produce
the ATP necessary to
power the Cori cycle is
called “the oxygen
debt”, which
corresponds to the
Figure 9. During anaerobic metabolism, lactic acid
period of heavy
(aka lactate) is produced from glucose. Lactate is
breathing following a
sent through the bloodstream to the liver, which
burst of anaerobic recycles it back to glucose in an energy-requiring
activity. pathway called gluconeogenesis.
An alternative fate
of lactic acid is oxidation back to pyruvate, which can then be completely
oxidized during cellular respiration if sufficient oxygen is available. This is
the chemical rationale behind the traditional “cool down” period after a
heavy workout. A slow jog can burn up the lactic acid, clearing it from the
muscles to prevent soreness after a strenuous workout. The heart is
particularly good at using lactic acid, helping to clear it from the
bloodstream and muscles.

Fat Metabolism
The average individual has enough stored fat to last for about two months
without eating. Recall that fats are stored primarily in fat cells (adipocytes).
These cells send out fatty acids when they receive a hormonal signal that
either the body’s blood sugar has dropped (the hormone glucagon) or that
the body needs energy for fight or flight (the hormone adrenaline).
During exercise, it takes about 20 minutes for fats to be sent out from
adipocytes and reach the skeletal muscle and heart. Once the fatty acids

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reach their target cells, they must enter

the mitochondria to be broken down for
energy. A specific transport system,
called the carnitine shuttle, carries fatty
acids into the mitochondria, where they
broken up into two-carbon fragments and
attached to coenzyme A to form acetyl-
CoA (Figure 10). Acetyl-CoA can then
enter the Krebs cycle and undergo
complete oxidation. Because the Krebs
cycle is dependent on the ETC to oxidize
NADH and FADH2, fats cannot be
metabolized for energy unless the ETC is
operating. In other words, there must be
sufficient oxygen for fats to be used as
fuels; they cannot be metabolized
anaerobically.
Figure 10. Inside the mitochondria,
fats are broken down into acetyl-
Protein Metabolism CoA, trapping electrons in NADH
Although we do not have stores of and FADH2. Acetyl-CoA then
proteins, proteins are present in many enters the citric acid cycle,
food sources. After they are broken down producing even more NADH and
to their constituent amino acids, our FADH2. During electron transfer,
muscles and liver can use them as fuels large amounts of ATP are made.

under some circumstances. Amino

acids are broken down either into
intermediates of the Krebs cycle or
into acetyl-CoA, which then enters
the Krebs cycle (Figure 11). Like
fats, amino acids depend on the
citric acid cycle to be oxidized
completely, so they can only be
metabolized under aerobic
conditions.
Before any amino acid can enter
the citric acid cycle to be used a
fuel, the amino group (-NH3) must Figure 11. All amino acids are metabolized to
be removed. This happens in the products that eventually enter the citric acid
cycle.
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liver, which converts the NH3 to the molecule urea (CH4N2O) for excretion
because ammonia itself is toxic.
Interestingly, the liver lacks the appropriate enzyme to break down one
family of amino acids, the branched-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine,
and valine). On the other hand, not only can muscles use these amino acids
for energy, but there is also some evidence that suggests that the
branched-chain amino acids, particularly leucine, reduce muscle breakdown
during exercise.

Summary of Energy Sources

To recap, ATP and phosphocreatine are the first energy sources to fuel
the muscles during physical activity but are depleted very rapidly (Figure
12). Glucose then follows, degraded by glycolysis and then either
fermentation (anaerobic metabolism) or the Krebs cycle/ETC (aerobic
metabolism). Finally, under conditions of sustained aerobic activity, the
abundant fats are mobilized. Amino acids from proteins are also metabolized
aerobically but make only a modest contribution to the energy demands of
exercise.

Figure 12. Muscles have small amounts of ATP that are used up in a couple of seconds.
Phosphocreatine (PC) rapidly forms more ATP but is used up in about 10 seconds.
Anaerobic metabolism of glucose (the lactic acid system) operates quickly but is shut
down in a minute or two because of acidification of the muscle. Aerobic metabolism of
glucose, fats, and amino acids is slower but can be sustained for hours.

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Relative Advantages of Anaerobic versus Aerobic Metabolism

Anaerobic metabolism of a molecule of glucose produces significantly less
ATP (2 molecules) than aerobic metabolism (30 molecules total). While
anaerobic metabolism may seem to be an inefficient pathway in terms of
energy production, each pathway has its own merits.

• Anaerobic metabolism has the distinct

advantage of proceeding very quickly in the
absence of oxygen. For sprinters, throwers,
and other power athletes, this is the pathway
that provides the energy needed to power
their muscles. During such short bursts of
intense muscle activity, oxygen cannot be
carried fast enough to the tissues to oxidize
all of the pyruvate produced and regenerate
the NAD+ necessary for glycolysis to
continue. When NAD+ is depleted,
fermentation switches on, converting NADH
to NAD+ and pyruvate to lactic acid. However, because lactic acid
inhibits glycolysis, anaerobic activity cannot be sustained for very
long. Within a minute or two, the muscle is unable to produce any more
ATP, reaching a state of fatigue.

• Aerobic metabolism oxidizes glucose

completely to obtain the maximum amount
of energy possible. For endurance athletes,
this is the pathway that provides the
necessary ATP until fat mobilization begins
to supplement energy production. Thus,
aerobic metabolism is highly efficient and
can run on both glucose and fats. However,
sufficient oxygen must be delivered to the
muscles for them to perform aerobic
metabolism.

Athletes in different events rely on the different energy-producing

pathways to a varying degree (Table 1). Sports involving very quick bursts of
activity rely on the phosphocreatine and anaerobic energy systems, while

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those involving more sustained activity have an increasing reliance on aerobic

pathways.

Table 1.

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Maximum Oxygen Uptake

An important factor in
dictating the rate at which
aerobic metabolism can proceed
is the VO2 max, or the maximum
rate of oxygen uptake by the
muscles. Individuals with a
greater ability to use oxygen to
oxidize fuels such as glucose to
carbon dioxide can sustain a
higher level of effort without
relying on the less efficient
anaerobic pathway. Oxygen
uptake is one of the physiological Figure 13. Nordic skiing legend Bjorn Daehlie
of Norway, winner of 12 medals in the Olympic
limits to performance that games (8 gold and 4 silver) and 9 world
improves with training. championships, has the highest VO2 max
VO2 max, measured in value ever recorded (96 mL/min/kg). Values
for VO2 max typically range from 20 to 85
milliliters of oxygen per minute mL/min/kg. Elite marathoner Joan Benoit
per kilogram of body mass, is an Samuelson has one of the highest recorded
VO2 max values for a woman (78.6
important indicator of the ability mL/min/kg).
for sustained exercise (Figure
13). For events that are performed under aerobic conditions, the rate at
which oxygen can be provided to the muscles for metabolism is a key factor
limiting the pace. Because oxygen is carried to the tissues by the protein
hemoglobin within red blood cells, determinants of VO2 max include the
hematocrit (the percentage of red cells in a volume of blood), the number of
capillaries surrounding the muscle cells, and the volume of blood pumped by
the heart. Additionally, the number of mitochondria, where cellular
respiration occurs, also dictates how efficiently a muscle uses oxygen to
burn fuels. Generally, an increase in overall cardiovascular fitness through
regular training leads to an increase in an individual’s VO2 max.

Lactate Threshold
Lactic acid is produced by working muscles and released into the
bloodstream for transport to the liver. As exercise intensity increases,
there is usually little increase in the lactic acid concentration of blood
initially because other tissues can burn it for energy, like the heart, or
reprocess it, like the liver. Once the intensity reaches a certain level,

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however, the amount

of lactic acid in the
blood increases
dramatically. The
point of sudden
increase is called
the Lactate
Threshold, also
known as the
Anaerobic Threshold
(Figure 14), and Figure 14. At relatively low intensities of exercise, lactate is
represents the point effectively cleared from the blood so its concentration remains
at which exercising low. However, at about 80% of VO2max, lactate is produced too
muscles are fast, so its concentration increases, resulting in fatigue.
releasing lactic acid
more rapidly than
other tissues can clear it. Typically, this occurs at an intensity corresponding
to about 80% of VO2max. The significance of the lactate threshold is that it
correlates to the exercise intensity that can be sustained for long periods.
Going any harder than this results in rapid fatigue because of acidification
of the muscles, leading to the shutdown of glycolysis and the lack of energy
production.

Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism

The liver plays an essential role in
metabolism, especially for athletes. Two of
the many functions of the liver are the
synthesis of essential molecules used
elsewhere to support homeostasis (the
process by which the body maintains a
state of balance) and the processing of
waste products. Damage to the liver,
which can be caused by injury, chemicals
such as alcohol and drugs, or disease, can
be catastrophic. Let’s highlight some of
the major functions of the body’s unsung
hero.

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Maintaining Blood Sugar

It is critical for all animals to maintain concentrations of glucose in blood
within a narrow, normal range (about 4 to 5 millimolar, or 80 to 110 mg/dL, in
humans). Maintenance of normal blood sugar levels over both short (hours)
and long (days to weeks) periods of time is a major function of the liver.
Excess glucose entering the blood after a meal is rapidly taken up by the
liver and sequestered as the polymer glycogen. Later, when blood sugar
begins to decline, the liver breaks down glycogen and sends glucose back into
the blood for transport to all other tissues. When liver glycogen reserves
become exhausted, after several hours of fasting or a couple hours of
exercise, the liver makes glucose out of amino acids in a process called
gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis also contributes to the clearance of lactic
acid through the Cori Cycle mentioned earlier in this chapter. Thus, despite
the starve-feed cycle, the liver is normally able to buffer blood sugar within
a fairly narrow range by absorbing glucose after feeding and sending glucose
back into the bloodstream during fasting.

Fat Metabolism
Many aspects of lipid metabolism are also carried out in the liver. The
liver actively oxidizes triglycerides to meet its own energy demands. In fact,
the liver breaks down many more fats than it needs, producing and exporting
water-soluble derivatives of fats called ketone bodies that can be used by
other tissues for energy. The liver is also the major site for converting
excess carbohydrates and proteins into triglycerides, which are then
exported and stored in adipose tissue.

Protein Metabolism
Several critical aspects of protein metabolism also occur in the liver,
including processing of most ingested amino acids, followed by conversion of
the non-nitrogenous part of those molecules to glucose or lipids. The liver
also processes nitrogenous waste from proteins, helping to remove ammonia
from the body through the synthesis of urea. Ammonia is very toxic and can
affect the brain with a range of symptoms from mild confusion to possible
brain damage, coma, and death. The liver also makes many proteins found in
the bloodstream, including albumin, which escorts fats from adipose tissue
to muscle cells during exercise.

With all the beneficial chemistry that the liver is performing, it’s no
wonder that many athletes choose to go dry during their seasons. Your liver
is busy enough without making it metabolize a bunch of alcohol!

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