UNIT - II APPLIED PHYSICS

FIBER OPTICS

Introduction to Optical Fibers-Total Internal Reflection- Construction of optical fibers -Acceptance angle-Numerical Aperture-

Classification of fibers based on Refractive index profile, modes - Propagation of electromagnetic wave through optical fiber -Block

Diagram of Fiber optic Communication - Applications of optical fibers.

1. What is an Optical fiber?

Optical fiber is a thin long cylindrical tube made up of glass or plastic in which the light is propagated on the
principle of total internal reflection without much loss of energy.

2. What is the Principle of optical fiber?

The principle used in optical fibers is total internal reflection.

When light enters one end of a fiber, it undergoes repeated total internal reflections from side walls and travels
down the length of the fiber along a zigzag path as shown in above Fig.

Conditions for total internal reflection:

i) The light should passes from denser medium(n1) to rarer medium (n2).
ii) The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle (i > Ф).

3. Describe the Structure or construction of optical fiber.

An optical fiber has in general three coaxial regions, namely

(i) Core, (ii) Cladding, and (iii) Jacket or Sheath.

Core:
 The inner most cylindrical region is called the core which
is the light guiding region.
 The refractive index of the core is more than the refractive
index of cladding.
 Generally, the diameter of the core is 5-50 µm.

Cladding:
 The core is surrounded by a middle region known as the cladding.
 The refractive index of the cladding is always less than the refractive index of the core
 The diameter of the cladding is 125-250 µm.

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 UNIT - II APPLIED PHYSICS

Sheath:
 The outermost region is the sheath.
 The sheath is an outer layer to protect the cladding and the core from breakage, contamination and the
harmful influence of moisture.
 It also increases the mechanical strength of the fiber.

4. Define Acceptance angle and acceptance cone and derive an expression for Numerical aperture of an
optical fiber

Consider an optical fiber into which light is launched. Let the refractive index of the core be n1 and the
refractive index of the cladding be n2. In an optical fiber, n2 is less than n1. Let n0 be the refractive index of the
medium (usually air) from which light is launched into the fiber. Let a light ray enter the fiber at an angle ‘i’ to
the axis of the fiber. The ray refracts at an angle ‘r’ and strikes the core-cladding interface at an angle . If  is
greater than critical angle c, the ray undergoes total internal reflection at the interface, since n1  n2. As
long as the angle  is greater than c, the light will propagate within the fiber.

Let us compute the incident angle ‘i’ for which   c such that the light rebound within the fiber.

Applying Snell’s law at A, we get sin i  n1

sin r n0

sin i  n1 sin r
n0

If ‘i’ is increased beyond a limit,  will drop below the critical value c and the ray instead of suffering total
reflection escapes from the side walls of the fiber. The largest value of ‘i’= a occurs when  = c

sin  a  n1 sin r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)

n0

From  ABC, it is seen that , r + c + 90o = 180o : r = 90o - c

sin r = sin (90 c) = cos c ------------------------------------------------- (2)

Using (2) in (1), we get

n1
sin a = cos c.
n0

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UNIT - II APPLIED PHYSICS

n1
sin a (max) = cos c -----------------------------------(3)
n0

sin c n 2
Applying Snell’s law at the core –cladding interface, we get 
sin R n1

sin c  n 2 ( When   c then R  90o )

n1

2 2
n1 - n2
 cos c = ---------------------------------(4)
n1

Substituting (4) into (3), one gets

2 2
n1 - n2
sin a(max) =
n0

Quite often the incident ray is launched from air medium, for which n0 = 1.

NA = sin a = 2 2
n1 - n2 or θ a  sin 1 n 12  n 22 .

The angle a is called the acceptance angle of the fiber.

Fibre axis
Acceptance angle may be defined as the maximum incidence
angle made by the light ray with the axis of the fiber so that
it propagates in the core only by total internal reflection. Acceptance
cone
Acceptance cone: The cone obtained by rotating the acceptance 0(max)
angle about the fiber axis with a full angle 2a in which the light
rays are accepted and transmitted along the fiber is called the
acceptance cone.

Light incident at an angle beyond a refracts through the cladding and escapes. It is obvious that, larger the
diameter of the core, larger is the acceptance angle.

5. Give the relation between Fractional refractive index change and Numerical Aperture of an
optical fiber:

The fractional refractive index change:

It is the ratio of difference in the refractive indices of the core and the cladding to the refractive index of the
core.
n n
It is expressed as Δ  1 2 .
n1
This parameter is always positive because n1 is always greater than n2 for the total internal reflection condition.
In order to guide light rays effectively through a fibre,  1.

The numerical aperture (NA) is defined as the sine of the acceptance angle. Thus,

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 UNIT - II APPLIED PHYSICS

NA = sin a or NA = n 12  n 22 .

 n  n2   n1  n 2  n1  n 2
n12  n 22   n1  n 2  n1  n 2    1  2n1  2n1  (approximating  n1 )
2
 
 2   n1  2

 NA  n 2
1 
 n 22  2n12  or NA  n1 2Δ

 Numerical aperture determines the light gathering ability of the fiber. It is a measure of the amount
of light that can be accepted by a fiber.
 NA depends on the refractive indices of the core and cladding materials.

6. What are the different Types of Optical fibers?

Optical fibers are classified based on

a) the number of modes they support b) the refractive index profile of core of the optical fiber.

Depending upon the refractive index of the core, the OF are classified into two types
a) Step index optical fibers (SIF) b) Graded index optical fibers (GIF)

Step index optical fibers (SIF)

The refractive index profile of an S.I fiber is shown in Fig.

 In SI fiber, the refractive index of the core is uniform and abruptly changes at the core and cladding interface.
 Since the change in the index profile is in the form of a step, these fibers are called step index fibers.
 The light rays propagating through them are in the form of meridional rays or multiple reflections.
 The path of the light rays in this fibers is zig-zag fashion.
 The signal transmission in step index fibre is shown in Fig.

 Depending upon the modes, There are classified in to two types :

i). Single mode Step index fiber
ii) Multimode Step index fiber.

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UNIT - II APPLIED PHYSICS

 Attenuation is more for multimode fibers and less for single mode fibers
 The numerical aperture is more for multimode fibers and less for single mode fibers
 Single distortion is more for multimode fibers and less for single mode fibers.
 Multimode fibers are used for short distance communication while single mode fibers are used for long
distances.
 Multimode fibers have less band width and single mode fibers have very large band width.
 Multimode fibers are cheap while single mode fibers are costly, because the fabrication methods are very
difficult.
V 2 2 2 a 2 ( NA) 2
 The number of modes in step index fiber is N SI  
2 2
Where λ is the wavelength of the propagating light, a is the radius of the core and NA is the numerical aperture of
the fiber.

Graded index optical fibers (GIF)

 The refractive index profile of a multimode graded index fibre is shown in Fig.

 In the graded index fiber, the refractive index of the core is vary in a parabolic manner such that the refractive
index of the core is maximum at the centre and decreases gradually towards the outer edge.
 Since the refractive index of the core is continuously changes, it is called graded index optical fibers.
 The light rays propagating through it are in the form of skew rays or helical rays.
 The signal transmission in graded index fiber is shown in Fig

 These are only Multimode optical fibers.

 Attenuation is less for graded index fibers
 The numerical aperture is less for graded index fibers
 Signal distortion is very low
 These are used for short distances.
 Multimode GI fibers have less band width
 These are costly
 The number of modes in graded index fiber is

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UNIT - II APPLIED PHYSICS

7. Differences between step index and graded index optical fibers

Step index optical fiber Graded index optical fiber

1.The refractive index of the core is uniform and 1.The refractive index is maximum at the axis of the
abruptly decreases at the core-cladding interface optical fiber and decreases in parabolic manner on
either side of the axis

2.The diameter of the core lies between 10-200 micro 2. The diameter if the core is about 50micro meters
meters
3.The light propagates in the form of multiple internal 3.The light is continuously refracted in a curved path
reflections along the core in an optical fiber along the optical fiber

4.The light propagation is in zigzag fashion 4.The light propagation is a continuous curves

5.These are reflective type optical fibers 5.These are refractive type optical fibers

6.Depending upon the modes, There are classified in to 6.Depending upon the modes, These are available in
two types : multi mode only
i) Single mode Step index fibers i) Multimode graded index fibers.
ii) Multimode Step index fibers.

7.Attenuation is more for multimode fibers and less for 7.Attenuation is less for graded index fibers
single mode fibers
8.The numerical aperture is more for multimode fibers 8.The numerical aperture is less for graded index fibers
and less for single mode fibers
9.Single distortion is more for multimode fibers and 9. Signal distortion is very low
less for single mode fibers

10.The number of modes in step index fiber is 10. The number of modes in graded index fiber is
2
V V2
NSI  N=
2 4

8.Expain the Optical fibers in communication system.

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 UNIT - II APPLIED PHYSICS

Main four sections of Optical fiber communication system is

1. Transmitter
2. Optical fiber
3. Coupler/Repeater
4. Receiver

Encoder: The encoder is an electronic system that converts the information such as audio, vedio signal into
electrical pulses.

Transmitter: The transmitter section consists of two parts.

 One is the drive circuit or modulator, receives the electrical pulses from the encoder and converted into
the corresponding electrical signals, supplies, these signals to the light source.
 The other is a light source receives the electrical signals from the drive circuit, coverts into the optical
signals. For this purpose the light source used is either light emitting diode or a semiconductor laser.

These optical signals are injected into the optical fiber by using suitable connectors or optical splicer

Optical fiber: The optical fiber carries the optical signals along its length and these signals reach the other end of
the fiber.

Repeater: For long distance communication, numbers of repeaters are used in between transmitter and receiver.
The repeater receives the optical signals from the optical fiber and amplifies them and fed to the optical fiber.

Receiver:

The receiver section consists of detector, amplifier and signal restorer.

 The detector receives the optical signals from the optical fiber and converted in to the corresponding
electrical signals. For this purpose the detector is used is either avalanche photo diode or positive intrinsic
negative diode.
 Amplifier receives the electrical signals from photo diode, amplifies them and gives to signal restorer
 The signal restorer keeps all the electrical signals in sequential form and supplies to decoder.

Decoder: The decoder converts these electrical signals into the original information.

9. What are the Applications of optical fibers?

1. Optical fibers in medicine

One of the most important applications of optical fibres is in the field of medicine.
 Fibrescopes are employed widely in endoscopy.
 In opthalmology, a laser beam guided by the fibre is used to reattach detached retinas and to correct
defects in vision. Argon ion laser is used for this purpose.
 In cardiaology, laser angioplasty is likely to replace the balloon angioplasty and bypass surgery.

2. Optical fibres in defence

 An aircraft , a ship or a tank needs tons of copper wire for wiring the communication equipment, control
mechanisms etc. Use of fibres in place of copper wires reduces much weight and also maintains true
communication silence to the enemy.
 Fibre-guided missiles are now used in warfare.

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UNIT - II APPLIED PHYSICS

3. Fibre optic sensors

 A smoke detector and pollution detector can be built using optical fibres.
 The property of induced birefringence (double refraction) in optical fibres is exploited to fabricate
pressure sensors, voltage sensors, current sensors and magnetic filed sensors.
 A coherent optical fibre is used to enlarge the image displayed on a TV screen

4. Optical fibres in communication

 Optical fibres are greatly utilized for communication. Fibre optic cables have the potential to transmit
simultaneously a relatively large number of telephone conversations in the form of light pulses than the
metallic cables.
 Through one pair of copper wires, only 48 independent speech signals can be sent simultaneously. But in
optical fibres, transmission of 15000 or more simultaneous telephone calls is possible utilizing light as
the carrier.
 The bandwidth that can be achieved with optical fibres is enormous.
 The higher the bandwidth of a channel, the more information can be communicated using that
cahnnel.
 Fibre optics communication is like cable television rather than free space radio or television.

5. Fiber optic sensors

Optical fibers are very useful as sensors. Fiber optic sensors represent a technology which can be used to a
variety of sensing applications. Sensors are devices used to measure/ monitor quantities such as pressure,
temperature, displacement, flow rate, chemical composition etc. The measurement techniques developed
using optical fibers are more sensitive and reliable.

A fiber optic sensing system is particularly useful in some environments where there is a danger of
high electric voltages. Most of the fiber optic sensing applications are based on the phenomenon of
interference.

Fiber optic sensors can be divided into two main groups: active and passive sensors.

In passive sensors, the quantity to be measured/ monitored acts directly on the transducing material which
modifies the light. The modified light is collected through another fiber to reach the detector to sense the
change as shown in Fig.

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 UNIT - II APPLIED PHYSICS

In active sensors, the quantity to be measured/monitored acts directly on the fiber itself. Here fiber material
itself acts as transducer and modifies the light passing through it.

The modification that occurs in the fiber may be the intensity of light or its phase. Accordingly, we have
intensity modulated sensors and phase modulated sensors.

In intensity modulated sensors, the perturbation induces a change in the received light intensity, which is a
function of the parameter being measured.

In phase modulated fibers, light passes through two fibers: one reference fiber and the second a sensing
fiber. The perturbation acting on the sensing fiber changes the phase of the light passing through it. Such a phase
change can be measured with extreme accuracy using interferometric techniques.

SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. A glass clad fiber is made with core glass of refractive index 1.5 and the cladding is doped to give a
fractional index difference of 0.0005. Find (a) the cladding index (b) the critical internal reflection angle (c)
the external critical acceptance angle, and (d) the numerical aperture.
Given n1 = 1.5 and Δ = 0.0005.
Solution:
(a) Let n2 be the refractive index of cladding.
n1  n 2 1.5  n 2
  0.0005 
n1 1.5
 n 2  1.49925
(b) Let  c be the critical internal reflection angle.
n2 n  1.4925
or c  Sin1 2   Sin1    Sin 0.9995  88.2
1
Sinc  0
n1  1
n  1.5 
(c) Let  0 be the critical external acceptance angle.
n 12  n 22
Sin θ 0  , where n 0  1
n0
2.25  2.24775 2
1
 θ 0  Sin 1 n 12  n 22  Sin 1
 2.72 0

(d) Numerical Aperture, NA = n 1 2  1.5 2  0.0005  0.0474.

2. An optical fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.20 and a cladding refractive index of 1.59. Determine the
refractive index of the core material and the acceptance angle of the fiber in water which has a refractive
index of 1.33.
Given: Numerical aperture, NA = 0.20
Cladding refractive index, n2 = 1.59
Refractive index of water = 1.33
Solution: If light is launched from air, then

NA  n12  n 22
0.20 = n12  n 22 or 0.04 = n12  n 22
n12  0.04  n 22  0.04  1.592  2.568

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UNIT - II APPLIED PHYSICS

 n1  2.568  1.6025
If light is launched from water into the fiber, then
n12  n 22 1.60252  1.592
NA    0.15
n0 1.33
 sin θ 0  NA  0.15 or θ 0  sin -1 (0.15)  8.630

3. Calculate numerical aperture of an optical fiber in air, if the refractive indices of the core and cladding
are 2.5 and 2.495

Given: Numerical aperture, NA = ?

Cladding refractive index, n2 = 2.495
Refractive index of core n1 = 2.5

NA  n12  n 22

Subjective Questions

1. What are optical fibers? Explain how glass fibre guides light from one end to the other.
2. Short note on principle and structure of optical fiber.
3. Explain acceptance angle of an optical fibre. Show that how it is related to numerical aperture.
4. Explain how optical fibres are classified. Discuss their characteristics features.
5. What are the advantages of an optical fibre communication system over the conventional one.
6. Describe briefly the light wave communication system with a block diagram, explaining the
function of each block.
7. Differentiate step-index and graded-index fibres.
8. Explain with diagrams signal transmission in step-index and graded-index fibres.
9. What is the V-number of an optical fibre? What are modes of propagation in optical fibres
10. Discuss briefly fibre optic sensors, explaining the physical principles involved.
11. Discuss the important applications of optical fibres in different fields.
12. Describe with neat diagrams the refractive index profiles of different types of optical fibres along with light
ray propagation paths.
13. What are step index single mode fibres? Discuss their importance in fibre optic communication system.

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