UNIT IV

OD INTERVENTIONS

OD interventions are the building blocks which are the planned activities designed to
improve the organisation’s functioning through the participation of the organisational
members.OD interventions include team development, laboratory training, managerial grid
training, brainstorming and intergroup team building. The intervention should take place at
all three levels, namely, individual, group and organisation.

“OD intervention refers to the range of planned, programmatic activities client and consultant
participate in during the course of OD program.” -French & Bell

“OD intervention is a sequence of activities actions and events intended to help an

organisation improve its performance and effectiveness.” -Rober Zawacki

Types of OD Interventions

We can classify the OD interventions into three categories:

1.Behavioural Techniques: These techniques are designed to affect the behaviour of

individuals and the group. These include:

• Sensitivity Training
• Role Playing
• Management by Objectives
• Grid Organisation Development

2. Non-Behavioural Techniques: These techniques are much more structured than

behavioural techniques. These include:

• Organizational Redesign
• Work design
• Job enrichment

3. Miscellaneous Techniques: In addition to the above techniques, there are certain other
techniques which are used in organisation development, such as:

• Survey feedback
• Process consultation
• Team building
Types of OD Interventions

Some of these intervention techniques are discussed briefly:

Behavioural Techniques

Sensitivity Training

The purpose of sensitivity training sessions or T-groups (T for training) is to change the
behaviour of people through unstructured group interaction. Members (ten to fifteen
individuals) are brought together in a free and open environment, away from work places, in
which participants discuss themselves freely, aided by a facilitator. No formal agenda is
provided.

The objectives of the T-groups are

• To provide the participants with increased awareness of their own behaviour

• How others perceive the, greater sensitivity to the behaviour of others
• Increased understanding of group processes.

Procedure of Sensitivity Training

Sensitivity Training Program requires three steps:

1. Unfreezing the old values -

It requires that the trainees become aware of the inadequacy of the old values. This can be
done when the trainee faces dilemma in which his old values is not able to provide proper
guidance. The first step consists of a small procedure:

• An unstructured group of 10-15 people is formed.

• Unstructured group without any objective looks to the trainer for its guidance
• But the trainer refuses to provide guidance and assume leadership
• Soon, the trainees are motivated to resolve the uncertainty
• Then, they try to form some hierarchy. Some try assume leadership role which may
not be liked by other trainees
• Then, they started realizing that what they desire to do and realize the alternative
ways of dealing with the situation

2. Development of new values -

With the trainer's support, trainees begin to examine their interpersonal behavior and giving
each other feedback. The reasoning of the feedbacks are discussed which motivates trainees
to experiment with range of new behaviors and values. This process constitutes the second
step in the change process of the development of these values.
3. Refreezing the new ones -

This step depends upon how much opportunity the trainees get to practice their new
behaviours and values at their work place.

In one way Sensitivity training is the process of developing emotional intelligence, which
means "the mental ability an individual possesses enabling him or her to be sensitive and
understanding to the emotions of others as well as being able to manage their own emotions
and impulses". [Emotional intelligence, according to Merriam Webster, "describes the ability,
capacity, skill or, in the case of the trait, to identify, assess, and manage the emotions of one's
self, of others, and of groups."] Emotional intelligence enable employees to act according to
the situation in the organization faced by him. It develops the ability to understand others
feeling and their mental status and interact accordingly. Conflicts and misunderstandings are
mostly raised because of lack of emotional intelligence possessed by the person which leads
to breakup in perception and relationship they main since long time in organization and
effects the productivity of the organization.

Emotional intelligence became a popular study in 1995 when Daniel Goleman published his
book, Emotional Intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ.

• Emotional Intelligence is the ability to recognize and use one's own emotions as well
as the emotions of others to help determine what to do (or not to do). The
competencies include... Emotional Self-Awareness (knowing what you are feeling),
• Emotional Self-Management (choosing your emotions - transforming negative
emotions into positive emotions),
• Emotional Self-Motivation (using positive emotions to persist under pressure),
• Empathy (awareness of other's feelings and using that awareness for successful
solutions), and
• Nurture Relationships (creating a cooperative and collaborative climate)

The ability to stop and transform negative feelings in any given moment helps us to stop
much of the stress that we might have otherwise experienced.

Outcomes of sensitivity training

The outcomes they depict (self, role, and organization) are only possibilities, and cannot be
guaranteed for everyone attending a sensitivity training program. This is because some
participants do not learn or learn very little from a T group experience, others learn some
things, and others learn a considerable amount and variety of things and because programs
vary so much in terms of their nature and goals. Possible outcomes are as follows:
 • Self
1. Increased awareness of own feelings and reactions, and own impact on others.
2. Increased awareness of feelings and reactions of others, and their impact on self.
3. Increased awareness of dynamics of group action.
4. Changed attitudes toward self, others, and groups; i.e., more respect for, tolerance for,
and faith in self, others, and groups.
5. Increased interpersonal competence; i.e., skill in handling interpersonal and group
relationships toward more productive and satisfying relationships.
• Role
1. Increased awareness of own organizational role, organizational dynamics, dynamics
of larger social systems, and dynamics of the change process in self, small groups,
and organizations.
2. Changed attitudes toward own role, role of others, and organizational relationships,
i,e., more respect for and willingness to deal with others with whom one is
interdependent, greater willingness to achieve collaborative relationships with others
based on mutual trust.
3. Increased interpersonal competence in handling organizational role relationships with
superiors, peers, and subordinates.
• Organization
1. Increased awareness of, changed attitudes toward, and increased interpersonal
competence about organizational problems of interdependent groups or units.
2. Organizational improvement through the training of relationships or groups rather
than isolated individuals.

Role Playing

Role playing may be described as a technique of creating a life situation, usually one
involving conflict between people, and then having persons in group play the parts or roles of
specific personalities. In industry, it is used primarily as a technique of or modifying attitudes
and interpersonal skills.

For instance, two trainees may play the roles of a superior and a subordinate to discuss the
latter’s grievances.

The purpose of role playing is to aid trainees to understand certain business problems and to
enable observers to evaluate reactions to them. Role-playing is generally used for human
relations and sales training. This technique makes trainees self-conscious and imaginative and
analytical of their own behaviour.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

Managing by objectives is a dynamic system which integrated the company’s need to achieve
its goals for profit and growth with the manager’s need to contribute and develop himself.
Management by objectives (MBO) is a technique designed to

• increase the precision of the planing process at the organisational level.

• reduce the gap between employee and organisational goals.

MBO encourages performance appraisal through a process of shared goal setting and
evaluation.

Grid development

Grid organisational development is based on Blake and Moution’s model of leadership called
the managerial Grid. Their model depicts two prevailing concerns found in all organisations-
concern for productivity and concern for people.

Some managers are high in concern for productivity but low in concern for people; others are
high in concern for people but low in concern for productivity.

Besides helping managers evaluate their concern for proper and productivity, the Managerial
Grid stresses the importance of developing a team-management leadership style.

In grid OD, change agents use a questionnaire to determine the existing styles of managers,
help them to re-examine their own styles and work towards maximum effectiveness.

Non-Behavioural Techniques

Organizational Redesign

The organisation’s structure may be changed to make it more efficient by redefining the flow
of authority. There are call also be changes in functional responsibility, such as a move from
product to matrix organisational structure.

Organisational structure often reflects the personal desires, needs, and values of the chief
executive. Changing structure, therefore, may create resistance and concern because people
are worried about their power or status, or how the change will affect their work groups.

Job Enrichment

Job enrichment implies increasing the cents of a job or the deliberate upgrading of the
responsibility, scope and challenge in work.

Job enrichment is a motivational technique which emphasises the need for challenging and
interesting work. It suggests that jobs be redesigned, so that intrinsic satisfaction is derived
from doing the job.
In its best application, it leads to a vertically enhanced job by adding functions from other
organisational levels, making it contain more variety and challenge and offer autonomy and
pride to employee.

The job holder is given a measure of discretion in making operational decisions concerning
his job. In this sense, he gains a feeling of higher status influence and power.

Work Design

Work design is a broad term meaning the process of defining tasks and jobs to achieve both
organisational and employee goals, it must, therefore, take into account the nature of the
business (organisational interest), the organisational structure, the information flow and
decision process, the differences among employees, and the reward system.

Within the board scope of work, design is the design of individual jobs, that is, job design.

Job analysis is the process of obtaining information about jobs.

Job redesign makes use of job analysis to redefine a job in terms of tasks, behaviours,
education, skills, relationships, and responsibilities required.

Miscellaneous Techniques

Survey Feedback

Survey feedback is one of the most popular and widely used intervention techniques, in the
field of OD.

It involves two basic activities:

• collecting data about the organisation through the use of surveys of questionnaires,
and
• conducting feedback meetings and workshops in which the data are presented to
organisational members.

Survey feedback is useful in as much as it helps bring about changes in attitudes and
perceptions of participants. Used along with team building the impact of the survey feedback
is much more positive.

Process Consultation
Process consultation includes “a set of activities on the part of a consultant which help the
client to perceive, understand, and act upon process events which occur in the client’s
environment”.

Process consultation assumes that an organisation’s effectiveness depends on how well its
people relate to one another. An organisation’s problems, therefore, often can be traced to the
breakdown of critical human processes at key places.

Consultation concentrates on certain specific areas as communication, functional roles of

members, group problem-solving and decision-making; group norms and growth, leadership
and authority, and intergroup cooperation and competition.

Team Building

Team building is a process of diagnosing and improving the effectiveness of a work group
with particular attention to work procedures and inter-personal relationship smith in it,
especially the role of the leader in relation to other group members.

Both the group’s task procedures and its human interactions are the subjects of study in team
building.

The basic assumption of team building is that increasing the effectiveness of teams will
improve the organization’s overall effectiveness.

OD Interventions Examples

• Microsoft relied on OD interventions aimed at behavioural changes and operational

changes.
• Cisco initiated change through substantial structural interventions, statistical
evaluation interventions and process interventions. It also focuses on CSR initiatives.
• Dell focused on six sigma as an OD intervention for zero defects.
• Hyundai and Toyota focus on cultural interventions and quality management systems.
• Wipro adopted for internal organizational restructuring to meet customer specific
needs.
• ONGC relies on succession planning, employee participation, training, organizational
remodeling and climate surveys as OD interventions.
• Infosys has a broad base of OD interventions like Leadership development
programme, personal development initiatives, cross functional assignments, 360-
degree feedback , psychometric testing (MBTI) for individual personality assessment.

Purpose & Importance of OD Interventions

• Boosts the quality of employee outcome

• Perpetually improving organization
• Enhanced quality of products/services
 • Enhanced Competitive Edge
• Increased profit

Process of OD Intervention Techniques

OD intervention techniques is designed only after scientific research and diagnosis of a

problem. This action research helps to understand the current system of an organization.

• Diagnosis
• Designing an OD intervention strategy
• Development of OD intervention strategy
• Implementation of OD intervention strategy
• Evaluation

Process of OD Intervention(in details)

Diagnosis

The search for performance gaps is called as diagnosis. These gaps help to know where the
client’s performance is less than desired. For an accurate diagnosis of the current scenario,
there should be a trustworthy relationship between the consultant and client^^This
relationship helps in collaboration to find out the real need of the change.

Designing an OD intervention strategy

Diagnosis leads to designing an OD intervention strategy that is problem based. Objectives of

OD intervention strategy are developed to have a direct link with business goals. Designing
an OD intervention strategy represents the best solution, outlines specific outcomes, and role
of each component in the entire process. Designing also gives specific points to keep watch
on for evaluation of the process.

Development of OD intervention strategy

Design is a blueprint of developing an OD strategy. The OD intervention strategy is designed

and developed with the evaluation objectives. The development of OD intervention strategy
is a crucial step as it is directly related to desired outcomes.

Implementation of OD intervention strategy

The action takes place and progress is evaluated, organizational members can be engaged at
this stage. The deployment needs a high level of energy and creativity of participants.
Participants need to have a clear picture of change and their role at each step. Accountability
with meaningful feedback is reinforced for the process to be effective. Evaluation can be
conducted by constructing pilot studies and data collection.

Evaluation
It can be studied by understanding the impact after implementing OD strategy. It can be done
be checking immediate feedback or learning gained through the process, or by evaluating
performance. This is a continuous process.

ROLE ANALYSIS

Role analysis is the process of defining a role in the context of its work system, interims of
expectation of important persons, detailing specific tasks under each function, and
elaborating the process, standards and critical attributes namely knowledge, attitude, skill,
habits (KASH) required for effective role.

Role is a position or an office a person occupies as defined by expectations from significant

persons in the organisation, including the person himself. Position is the collection of tasks
and responsibilities performed by one person.

Role analysis is a newer concept of defining what is required from an individual in an

organisation in achieving the objectives. The focus is on establishing role of an individual in
the organization. Since role is a set of expectations, it implies that one role cannot be defined
by without referring to another. Thus, role analysis has to be undertaken as a process
consisting of different steps as focal person’s perception of his role.

Figure 1.3: Process of Role Analysis:

Thus, the process of role analysis involves the following steps:

1. Focal Person’s Perception of his Role:

As the name itself suggests that the perception developed by a person when work or role is
allotted to him is focal person’s perception of his role. This may be true or otherwise. It has
been observed at times that this perception may not be the same as others want. The major
reason for the same may be individual differences.
2. Role Sent and Received:

A role sender sends role to focal person according to his perception. In an organizational
setting, there may be more than one role sender. Therefore in role analysis, role is analyzed
by four member group consisting of the focal person, his supervisor, subordinate and peer.

3. Focal Person’s Perception of his Role as Perceived by Role Sender:

Here the focal person tries to establish his role in the light of the expectations from the role
sender. The focal person may change his role perception in the light of role sent.

4. Actual Role Perception:

This is a condition when focal person as well as the role sender match. In a complex role
actual role perception is established by lot of discussion.

In general, uses and applications of role analysis are as follows:

1. Accurate job related behaviour.

2. Specifying HRM practices.

ROLE NEGOTIATION TECHNIQUE

Role Negotiation Technique Role negotiation technique is a team building technique

involving negotiations between participants. When the causes of team ineffectiveness are
based on people’s behaviour of unwillingness to change because it would mean a loss of
power or influence, role negotiation could help to a great deal. Role negotiation technique
directly intervenes in the relationships of power, authority and influence within the group.
The change effort is directed at the work relationships among members.

The steps in Role Negotiation Technique are: Contract Setting, Issue Diagnosis and Influence
Trade.

• Contract Setting: Contract Setting The focus is on work behaviours, not feelings
about people. There needs to be specificity in stating what is needed in terms of: •
what work behaviour needs to be started • what work behaviour needs to be stopped
& • what work behaviour needs to be continued The session will consist of
individuals negotiating with each other to arrive at a written contract of what
behaviours each will change.
• Issue Diagnosis: Issue Diagnosis Individuals think about how their own effectiveness
can be improved, if others change their work behaviours. Then, each person fills out
an issue diagnosis form for every other person in the group. On this form, the
individual states what he or she would like the other to do more, less or unchanged.
• Influence Trade: Influence Trade Two individuals discuss the most important
behaviour changes they want from the other and the changes they are willing to make
 themselves. The negotiation ends when all parties are satisfied that they will receive a
reasonable return for whatever they are willing to forego, agreed through a contract. It
is best to have a follow-up meeting to determine whether the contracts have been
honoured and to assess the effects of the contracts in terms of their effectiveness.

MYERS–BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR(MBTI)

The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator is a set of psychometric questionnaire designed to weigh
psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions. The Myers
Briggs model of personality developed by Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers, is
established on four preferences namely −

• Types of social interaction

• Preference for gathering data
• Preference for decision making
• Style of decision making
With respect to the prescribed Myers Briggs type of indicator, preferences include eight
leadership styles −

• E or I (Extraversion or Introversion)
• S or N (Sensing or iNtuition)
• T or F (Thinking or Feeling)
• J or P (Judgment or Perception)
The Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator is a self-report inventory designed to identify a
person's personality type, strengths, and preferences. The questionnaire was developed by
Isabel Myers and her mother Katherine Briggs based on their work with Carl Jung's theory of
personality types. Today, the MBTI inventory is one of the most widely used psychological
instruments in the world.

The Development of the Myers-Briggs Test

Both Myers and Briggs were fascinated by Jung's theory of psychological types and
recognized that the theory could have real-world applications. During World War II, they
began researching and developing an indicator that could be utilized to help understand
individual differences.

By helping people understand themselves, Myers and Briggs believed that they could help
people select occupations that were best suited to their personality types and lead healthier,
happier lives.
Myers created the first pen-and-pencil version of the inventory during the 1940s, and the two
women began testing the assessment on friends and family. They continued to fully develop
the instrument over the next two decades.

An Overview of the Test

Based on the answers to the questions on the inventory, people are identified as having one of
16 personality types. The goal of the MBTI is to allow respondents to further explore and
understand their own personalities including their likes, dislikes, strengths, weaknesses,
possible career preferences, and compatibility with other people.

No one personality type is "best" or "better" than another. It isn't a tool designed to look for
dysfunction or abnormality. Instead, its goal is simply to help you learn more about yourself.
The questionnaire itself is made up of four different scales.

• Extraversion (E) – Introversion (I)

The extraversion-introversion dichotomy was first explored by Jung in his theory of

personality types as a way to describe how people respond and interact with the world around
them. While these terms are familiar to most people, the way in which they are used in the
MBTI differs somewhat from their popular usage.

Extraverts (also often spelled extroverts) are "outward-turning" and tend to be action-
oriented, enjoy more frequent social interaction, and feel energized after spending time with
other people. Introverts are "inward-turning" and tend to be thought-oriented, enjoy deep and
meaningful social interactions, and feel recharged after spending time alone.

We all exhibit extraversion and introversion to some degree, but most of us tend to have an
overall preference for one or the other.

• Sensing (S) – Intuition (N)

This scale involves looking at how people gather information from the world around them.
Just like with extraversion and introversion, all people spend some time sensing and intuiting
depending on the situation. According to the MBTI, people tend to be dominant in one area
or the other.

People who prefer sensing tend to pay a great deal of attention to reality, particularly to what
they can learn from their own senses. They tend to focus on facts and details and enjoy
getting hands-on experience. Those who prefer intuition pay more attention to things like
patterns and impressions. They enjoy thinking about possibilities, imagining the future, and
abstract theories.

• Thinking (T) – Feeling (F)

This scale focuses on how people make decisions based on the information that they gathered
from their sensing or intuition functions. People who prefer thinking place a greater emphasis
on facts and objective data.
They tend to be consistent, logical, and impersonal when weighing a decision. Those who
prefer feeling are more likely to consider people and emotions when arriving at a conclusion.

• Judging (J) – Perceiving (P)

The final scale involves how people tend to deal with the outside world. Those who lean
toward judging prefer structure and firm decisions. People who lean toward perceiving are
more open, flexible, and adaptable. These two tendencies interact with the other scales.

Remember, all people at least spend some time engaged in extraverted activities. The
judging-perceiving scale helps describe whether you behave like an extravert when you are
taking in new information (sensing and intuiting) or when you are making decisions (thinking
and feeling).

The MBTI Types

Each type is then listed by its four-letter code:

• ISTJ - The Inspector

• ISTP - The Crafter
• ISFJ - The Protector
• ISFP - The Artist
• INFJ - The Advocate
• INFP - The Mediator
• INTJ - The Architect
• INTP - The Thinker
• ESTP - The Persuader
• ESTJ - The Director
• ESFP - The Performer
• ESFJ - The Caregiver
• ENFP - The Champion
• ENFJ - The Giver
• ENTP - The Debater
• ENTJ - The Commander
ISTJ (Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are quiet, serious, earn success by honesty and are
dependable. They are logical, matter-of-fact, realistic, and responsible. They decide
practically what should be done and work towards it steadily, regardless of distractions. They
like to keep everything synchronized and organized - their work, their home, their life. They
prioritize traditions and loyalty.

ISFJ (Introversion-Sensing-Feeling-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are quiet, friendly, responsible, and careful. They are
committed and steady in meeting their demands. Thorough, painstaking, precise and accurate.
They are loyal, considerate, notice and remember specifics about other individuals who are
important to them, and are concerned with how others feel. They strive to create an orderly
and harmonious surrounding at work and at home.

INFJ (Introversion-iNtuition-Feeling-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality always explore meaning and connection in ideas,
relationships, and material possessions. They want to understand what encourages people and
are insightful about others. Being careful in nature, they are committed to their firm values.
They have a clear vision about how best to work for the common good. These type of
individuals are organized and decisive in executing their vision.

INTJ (Introversion-iNtuition-Thinking-Judging)
Individuals with this type of personality have a unique mindset and great drive for executing
their ideas and achieving their goals. They quickly see patterns in external events and develop
long-range elaborative perspectives. Being committed, they start something to do and carry it
through. Doubtful and independent, they have high standards of competence and performance
- for themselves and others.

ISTP (Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are tolerant and flexible, quiet observers until a
problem arises, then act quickly to find workable solutions. The examine what makes things
work and readily get through large amounts of data to isolate the core of practical issues.
They are interested in cause and effect, organize facts using practical principles, and value
efficiency.

ISFP (Introversion-Sensing-Feeling-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are quiet, friendly, adaptable, sensitive, and kind.
They enjoy the present moment, and are not bothered with what is going on around them.
They like to have their own space and to work within their chosen time frame. They are loyal
and committed to their principles and to people who are important to them. These individuals
dislike disagreements and disputes, and also do not force their opinions or values on others.

INFP (Introversion-iNtuition-Feeling-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are idealistic, loyal, honest to their values and to
people who are important to them. They want an external life that is compatible with their
values. Anxious, quick to see possibilities, they can be catalysts for implementing ideas. They
understand people and help them fulfill their potential. These individuals are adaptable,
flexible, and accepting in nature until a value is threatened.

INTP (Introversion-iNtuition-Thinking-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality develop logical explanations for everything that
interests them. They are theoretical and abstract in nature, interested more in ideas than in
social communication. They are silent, contained, flexible, and adaptable. These individuals
have unusual ability to focus in depth to solve issues in their area of interest. They are
skeptical, sometimes can be critical, and are always analytical.

ESTP (Extroversion-Sensing-Thinking-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are flexible and tolerant; they take a pragmatic
approach determined on getting immediate results. Theories and conceptual elaborations bore
them - they want to act energetically to solve the problem. They focus on the here-and-now,
are active, spontaneous, and enjoy each moment. These type of individuals enjoy
materialistic comfort and style. They learn only through doing.
ESFP (Extroversion-Sensing-Feeling-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are outgoing, friendly, free and accepting in nature.
Enthusiastic lovers of life, people, and material comforts. They love working with others to
make things happen. Bring shared sense and a realistic approach to their work, and make
work fun. They are flexible and spontaneous, adapt readily to new people and surroundings.
They learn best by trying new skills with other people.

ENFP (Extroversion-iNtuition-Feeling-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are warmly active and imaginative. They perceive
life as full of happenings. Make links between events and information very quickly, and
confidently proceed based on the patterns they see. They want a lot of confirmation from
others, and readily give appreciation and support. These individuals are spontaneous and
flexible, often depend on their ability to improvise and their verbal fluency.

ENTP (Extroversion-iNtuition-Thinking-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are quick, smart, ingenious, stimulating, alert, and
outspoken. Resourceful in solving new and challenging issues. They are adept at generating
conceptual possibilities and then testing them strategically. They are also good at reading
people. Bored by daily routine, these individuals will seldom do the same thing the same
way, and apt to turn to one new interest after another.

ESTJ (Extroversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are practical, realistic, logical, and matter-of-fact.
They are decisive in nature and quickly move to execute decisions. They organize projects
and people to get things done, target on getting results in the most efficient way possible.
They like to maintain routine details, have a clear set of logical standards, systematically
follow them and expect others to do so too. They are forceful in executing their plans.

ESFJ (Extroversion-Sensing-Feeling-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are warmhearted, careful, and cooperative. They
want harmony in their surrounding and work with determination to establish it. They like to
work with others to complete work accurately and on time. They are loyal and tend to follow
thoroughly even in small matters. They want to be appreciated for who they are and for their
contribution.

ENFJ (Extroversion-iNtuition-Feeling-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are warm, empathetic, responsive, active and
responsible. They are highly sensitive to the emotions, needs, and motivations of others. They
find potential in everyone and want to help others act according to their potential. Often these
type of individuals act as catalysts for a person’s or group’s growth. They are loyal, active to
praise and criticism. They are sociable and provide inspiring leadership.
ENTJ (Extroversion-iNtuition-Thinking-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are frank, decisive, smart, and assume leadership
readily. They quickly see illogical and inefficient steps and policies, and efficiently develop
and implement comprehensive systems to solve organizational problems. They enjoy long-
term planning, are usually well informed, updated, well read, enjoy expanding their
knowledge and passing it on to others. They are forceful in presenting their ideas and views.

Taking the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator can provide a lot of insight into your personality,
which is probably why the instrument has become so enormously popular. Even without
taking the formal questionnaire, you can probably immediately recognize some of these
tendencies in yourself.

When working in group situations in school or at work, for example, recognizing your own
strengths and understanding the strengths of others can be very helpful. When you are
working toward completing a project with other members of a group, you might realize that
certain members of the group are skilled and talented at performing particular actions. By
recognizing these differences, the group can better assign tasks and work together on
achieving their goals.

How MBTI Differs From Other Instruments

First, the MBTI is not really a "test." There are no right or wrong answers and one type is not
better than any other type. The purpose of the indicator is not to evaluate mental health or
offer any type of diagnosis.

Also, unlike many other types of psychological evaluations, your results are not compared
against any norms. Instead of looking at your score in comparison to the results of other
people, the goal of the instrument is to simply offer further information about your own
unique personality.

EVALUTION OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE PROGRAMMES

An organizational evaluation includes the activities to improve an organization, usually by

comparing the quality of its operations to some standard of high performance (this is an
organizational assessment) and then recommending what changes should be made in order to
bring that quality up to that standard (this expands the assessment into an organizational
evaluation).

Leaders and managers are often doing some forms of organizational evaluations. Perhaps
they are doing them implicitly and in a manner that unfolds as they go along. In that situation,
they might not view their activities as doing an "organizational evaluation" at all.

Or, they might be following a carefully designed evaluation plan that specifies desired results
to be achieved by a certain time, a standard of quality in achieving the results, methods of
measuring progress toward the results, and guidelines for rewarding the achievement of the
results -- or helping those who somehow are behind.

The latter approach is very similar to a research project because it includes clarifying a
research question to be answered, for example, "How can we improve our organization?" or
"What is the real cause of our ongoing problems with cash flow?" Then it includes planning
what data to collect and how to analyze it in order to come to careful conclusions and
recommendations.

Evaluation is an important tool for improving management. Through organizational

assessment - commonly known as evaluation - the effectiveness of an organization is
measured in terms of its functioning, problems and achievements from both the behaviourial
and social system points of view (Lawler, Nadler and Cammann, 1980). Organizational
assessment thus involves "measurement of variables related to patterns of organizational
behaviour and effectiveness" (Nadler, Mackman and Lawdler, 1979). It can play an important
role in helping managers improve the efficiency and effectiveness of their operations and can
be an instrument for creating public support for the research programmes and outreach
activities.

Depending upon when evaluation is conducted, it may be ex ante, current or ex post. Ex ante
evaluation is conducted prior to implementation. It involves analysis of internal and external
consistency of plans, programmes and projects before their implementation. Current or
progress evaluation is conducted during implementation. It measures the extent of use of
resources and materials, the execution of activities and the partial results reached in relation
to the set plans. It is also known as monitoring or concurrent evaluation, since it takes place
at many points during implementation. Ex post evaluation is conducted after implementation.
It involves evaluation of the results and impact in relation to the set objectives.

Why organizations need evaluation

Organizational evaluation "measures, compares and analyses the coherence between results
and specific objectives and between specific objectives and general objectives of institutional
projects, programmes or plans" (Hernan, 1987). It can be helpful in identifying:

· whether or not the objectives and goals originally established are being achieved, as well as
their expected effects and impact;

· whether the organization is adapting to new environments, changing technology and

changes in other external variables so as to efficiently utilize the available resources;

· areas which need to be improved, modified or strengthened; and

· different modes to better fulfil the needs of the clients of the institute.

In addition, organizational assessment:

· generates evaluation information, which then becomes a valuable experience-based input in

future planning, establishing of priorities and resource allocation;

· furnishes financial data to justify the need for additional resources; and

· helps keep the key activities on the right track and offers information that allows the setting
of minimum standards to promote compliance with the organizational research process
objectives.

Benefits of Organizational Evaluation and Diagnosiss

Sometimes people have a negative reaction to the term “evaluation.” That is an unfortunate
reaction because there are many benefits from evaluation. Actually, the process of evaluation
is similar to the process of how adults learn, so there can be tremendous learning generated
during evaluations. It might be useful for you to reference the following benefits when
explaining how evaluation is important. Benefits of an evaluation include that it:

• Mobilizes employees for organizational change as they feel their opinions are being
heard and respected.
• Facilitates meaningful communication among participants – perhaps the most
important benefit from the evaluation process.
• Cultivates realistic expectations for change as participants continually think about the
organization's situation and what can realistically be done about it.
• Enhances learning for participants as they continue to collect and reflect on feedback
about the organization's performance and their role in it.
• Improves performance as participants continue to make adjustments to what they are
doing based on the results of their learning.
• Improves the organization's credibility among its stakeholders at a time when
organizations are always competing for a positive image.

Types of evaluation

Evaluation falls into one of two broad categories: formative and summative. Formative
evaluations are conducted during program development and implementation and are useful if
you want direction on how to best achieve your goals or improve your program. Summative
evaluations should be completed once your programs are well established and will tell you to
what extent the program is achieving its goals.

Formative

Needs Assessment

Determines who needs the communication program/intervention, how great the

need is, and what can be done to best meet the need. Involves audience
research and informs audience segmentation and marketing mix (4 P’s)
strategies.
Process Evaluation

Measures effort and the direct outputs of programs/interventions – what and

how much was accomplished (i.e., exposure, reach, knowledge, attitudes, etc.).
Examines the process of implementing the communication
program/intervention and determines whether it is operating as planned. It can
be done continuously or as a one-time assessment. Results are used to
improve the program/intervention.

Summative

Outcome Evaluation

Measures effect and changes that result from the campaign. Investigates to
what extent the communication program/intervention is achieving its outcomes
in the target populations. These outcomes are the short-term and medium-term
changes in program participants that result directly from the program such as
new knowledge and awareness, attitude change, beliefs, social norms, and
behavior change, etc. Also measures policy changes.

Impact Evaluation

Measures community-level change or longer-term results (i.e., changes in

disease risk status, morbidity, and mortality) that have occurred as a result of
the communication program/intervention. These impacts are the net effects,
typically on the entire school, community, organization, society, or environment.
Guidelines for Successful Evaluation

• Ensure the evaluation design matches the nature and needs of your organization.
One of the best ways to ensure a close match is to involve members of the
organization as much as possible in the design and implementation of the evaluation
plan. That highly collaborative and participatory approach can ensure their strong
buy-in and participation in the evaluation. They typically would not be involved in
collecting data later on during the evaluation because that could inhibit other members
from sharing honest opinions.
• Discuss evaluation with members in the early phases of the evaluation. The best
forms of evaluation include the commitment and participation of members of the
organization. Therefore, it is best if you involve them as soon as possible in the design
and implementation of evaluation plans. Also, the sooner that you discuss evaluation,
the sooner that you can begin collecting useful information for the evaluation. In the
early discussions, mention the benefits of evaluation.
• Focus on relevance, utility and practicality as much as on “scientific” priorities.
Scientific priorities are in regard to accuracy, validity and reliability. However, far too
many highly “scientific” evaluation reports sit collecting dust on shelves because the
reports have little utility and practicality and, thus, little relevance to the readers of the
reports. Therefore, it is far better to err on the side of less scientific value and more on
usefulness of the report by focusing on relevance, utility and practicality.
• Integrate organizational evaluation with other ongoing evaluations in the
organization. Many organizations conduct various forms of evaluation as part of their
ongoing management activities, for example, as part of ongoing employee
performance management, program evaluations and strategic planning. Integrating
your organizational evaluation with these other activities in the organization helps
members to leverage their evaluation activities and, thus, save time and energy.
• Include a mix of methods to collect information. For example, review relevant
documentation such as strategic plans, policies, procedures and reports. Then
administer practical questionnaires to quickly collect information anonymously if
appropriate. Follow up your questionnaires with various interviews. Interviews might
be closed (by asking specific questions that evoke specific answers) or open-ended
(asking general questions that can evoke a wide range of responses) and with
individuals or groups.
• Place high priority on capturing learning during evaluations. Learning involves
gaining new knowledge, skills or perspectives – learning is not merely finding new
things to do. The best forms of learning from evaluations are those that are focused on
solving the problems or achieving the goals that are the primary focus of your
organizational evaluation.
• Share learning from evaluations as soon as you have them. There is a tendency to
put off acting on the results or conclusions from evaluations until the evaluation has
been finished. That approach treats the evaluation like a “black box” that should not
be tampered with until it is over. That approach also minimizes the tremendous value
that evaluations have for making continuous improvement. By promptly sharing
 results, you can make ongoing adjustments to the evaluation to ensure that is remains
high quality. You also help to ensure strong buy in among members.

Design Your Organizational Evaluation and Diagnosis Plan

• Who are the primary audiences? For example, is the information for Board members,
management, employees, investors or customers? Each of these audiences might have
very different interests in the evaluation and its results. Also, each might require that
the evaluation results be organized and presented in a certain manner to be most
useful to them.
• What are the primary purposes of the organizational evaluation? For example, the
purpose of the evaluation might be to answer certain management questions, such as:
How do we find the cause of our recurring cash problems? Or, what strengths and
weaknesses do we have to include in the SWOT information during our strategic
planning?
• What types of information are needed? For example, if you want to find the causes of
the cash problems, then you might need to get information especially about
organizational sustainability, for example, revenue, expenses, quality of products and
services, how well the marketing is being done, and how realistic the vision and goals
are for the organization. The information you collect could be suggested by an
organizational diagnostic model. See Free Online Organizational Assessment Tools
for Businesses and Free Online Assessment Tools for Nonprofits for collecting
information. You will need a diagnostic model to analyze the information. See Some
Types of Organizational Diagnostic Models.
• From what sources should the information be collected? For example, should it be
collected from individual employees, individual customers, groups of customers,
groups of employees or also from program documentation? Attempt to get
information from people in the focus of your evaluation, but also those who are most
affected by that area. See Research Planning and Data Collection.
• What are the best methods to collect the information? Can you get the information
from reviewing documentation, using questionnaires, conducting interviews? Are
there assessment instruments that you can use? Should you use an instrument that has
already been developed or should you develop your own? Is it best to use a mix of
these methods? See Selecting Which Business Research Methods to Use and How to
Select from Among Public Data Collection Tools.
• What context-sensitive considerations must be made? Each organization has unique
features, such as its culture, nature of leadership, rate of change in its environment,
nature of programs and services, and size. How do these features influence how you
will gather your information? See What Makes Each Organization Unique?
• What is the best timing for getting the information? Do you need to provide a report
by a certain date? Are there problems that need to be addressed right away? How
often can you get access to the sources of the information that you need? How long
will it take to collect information?
 • Who should collect the information? Ideally, someone from outside the organization
does the information collection, analysis and reporting. That approach helps to ensure
that the evaluation is carried out in a highly objective and low-bias manner. However,
it is often unrealistic for small- to medium-sized organizations to afford an outside
evaluator. Consequently, it is important to select personnel who can conduct the
evaluation in a manner as objectively as possible. Equally as important is to ensure
that the evaluation is designed to collect the most important information as quickly as
possible. See How to Successfully Hire and Work With an Excellent Consultant.
• How will you analyze the information? Analysis usually includes comparing the
results of the assessment to the standard suggested by the diagnostic model. See
Analyzing, Interpreting and Reporting Basic Research Results .
• How will you make interpretations and generate recommendations? Your
recommendations will likely be about the kinds of activities (suggested by the
diagnostic model) that the organization needs to do to achieve the standard (suggested
by the diagnostic model). See Traits of Useful Recommendations and Generating
Recommendations Based on Results of Discovery used by consultants. You also
might recommend which strategies they need to evolve to the next stage of
organizational development. See Basic Overview of Life Cycles in Organizations.
• How will you report the information? How the evaluation results are reported depends
on the nature of the audience and the decisions that must be made about the
evaluation. For example, you might provide an extensive written report or a
presentation to a group of people. See Contents of a Research Report -- An Example
and Sharing Findings and Recommendations With Clients and
• Should you test the design of the evaluation before you use it with many people?
Depending on the complexity of your plans, you might benefit from field-testing them
by using data-collection tools with a certain group of people to discern if the tools are
understandable to them.
• What ethical considerations must be made? For example, do you want to report any
information unique to any of the participants? If so, then you should get their
expressed and written consent.

Implement Your Organizational Evaluation and Diagnosis Plan

• Announce the Evaluation to Members of the Organization

To increase the number of respondents in your data collection, it is critical that it maintains
their strong and ongoing buy-in. Probably the most critical point in which to start cultivating
that is when first announcing the evaluation to others in the organization. The announcement
must be done carefully to help employees quickly understand and appreciate the need for the
evaluation – so that they do not react to it as just another fad or “silver bullet” intended to
save the day. Here are some suggestions to consider.
1. The Chief Executive Office and a Board member should announce the evaluation to the
employees (in the case of a small to medium-sized corporation). They should mention:

• Its purpose and benefits

• How the employees are expected to participate in it
• When they will get the results of it
• How they can share their ongoing feedback about how its recommendations will be
implemented
• The members of the Project Team, especially the members from the organization
• A primary contact person, if they have any further questions
• Special care should be given to ensure sufficient time for reactions, questions and
suggestions.

2. Accompany the announcement with an official memo. The memo should soon follow the
announcement and be signed by upper management. It should reiterate the information shared
during the announcement.

• Prepare Participants Before Data Collection

Carefully prepare those who will be providing responses to the evaluation -- you should not
start simply by asking them for input. Consider the following guidelines.

1. Management should introduce the evaluator(s) to the organization. One of the most
powerful ways to do this introduction is in a group, for example, in an employee meeting.
The introduction should include the evaluator's description of how information will be
collected, along with any terms of confidentiality. Include time for their questions and
suggestions.

2. Tell participants what is expected of them during the evaluation. Explain how information
will be collected, and when and how they can participate. Mention any pre-work that would
be useful for them to undertake, and any topics or activities that they should think about
before participating in the evaluation.

3. Contact each participant before conducting any interviews. Interviews can be a rather
personal way to get useful information. It helps a great deal if the evaluator calls each
participant before the actual interview in order to introduce themselves, verify the timing of
the upcoming interview and understand if the participant has any questions.

4. Review useful organizational documentation before contacting anyone. The review of

documentation is a major form of data collection. The evaluator can learn a great deal about
the organization from the documents. That understanding is an advantage because
participants soon realize that the evaluator already knows a great deal about the organization.
Issues in planning and conducting evaluation

Challenge 1: Poor Planning

Failing to plan for just about anything usually results in poor outcomes, and the same is true
when you’re conducting an evaluation. Poor planning can lead to not having the right amount
of time needed to conduct your evaluation, a lack of direction in what outcomes you’re
hoping to achieve and poor planning can lead to not having enough resources (i.e. funding,
personnel, space, etc.) for your evaluation. Poor planning can also result in implementation
fidelity issues (i.e. how well a program or intervention is being adhered to) which negatively
impacts the integrity of the evaluation and leads to unintended consequences.

Challenge 2: Lack of Readiness

If an evaluation isn’t seen as a priority there can be a lack of buy-in from staff and
stakeholders in the evaluation process, which can result in limited resources, uncooperative
staff, and an absence of understanding of why the evaluation is even needed or valuable.

Challenge 3: Ineffective Approaches

If you don’t use the right data collection methods, you don’t understand how to properly and
correctly identify data, you don’t have a thorough understanding of outputs and outcomes
and/or you don’t choose the right evaluator for your project, then guess what? You won’t
have an effective or positive evaluation experience.

Challenge 4: Bad Questions

Deciding on the right questions to ask to get you the results you’re looking for is a key
element of the evaluation process. Asking the wrong questions can derail a project. So, just
what are ‘bad’ questions? Questions that are unclear, that use too much jargon, that don’t take
into account the audience, that are biased in any way, and that don’t have a clear and
understandable method for participants to respond are all problems that will upend the
evaluation process.

Challenge 5: Bad Data

If you ask bad questions, you’ll get bad responses – it’s as simple as that. In addition, if you
don’t properly and cleanly input the data you do get, if there is missing, messy or
unorganized data, then the results will also be messy and unorganized and, ultimately, not
useful.

Challenge 6: Too Much Data

When it comes to collecting data, quality beats quantity in most instances. More data does not
necessarily equate with better data. In fact, the opposite is often true. If you have mountains
of data, then you have mountains of data to manage and process, and that takes time and
resources that many programs just don’t have. Additionally, if you collect a surplus of data it
can lead to less consistent information and less certainty and support for the goal of the
evaluation, which may just defeat the whole purpose.