Language reference Unit 1 1.1 Questions (1): Asking for further information One use of questions isto get further information after talk or lecture. tis important that the questions are accurate and concise. Common and useful questions include: Is/ Are there... Is there internet access in all rooms? How / Where do | can. How do we log on to ATHENS? How can we get an extension on our assignments? Where do you geta form M1 from? Can you / we. Can you re-submit assignments? Can we miss lectures? Doyou/ we have to... Do you have to sign up for evening lectures in advance? What happens if... What happens if you miss an exam, say, because you care il? Note that in these questions, you and we refer to people in general 1.2 Factual information: Present and past simple and progressive ‘The present simple is used to express: * facts and situations which are generally true Each year over a thousand people apply for just 50 places on the course. ‘he study shows that survival rates are 50% better than fen years ago, + regularly repeated events, such as habits and routines Lectures start at 9 olock. The last one is usually at five ‘The comet passes the earth every 76 years ‘The present progressive is used to express; + something in progress now We're studying cytogenetics this term. ‘The study is investigating sleep patterns, + achanging situation University entrance requirements are getting stricter, ‘The global population is increasing by about 1.2% er year. ‘The past simple is used to talk about completed events or situations in the past. Initially, the wniversity taught only a few different subjects. Lapplied to three different universities, ‘The siudy was very detailed, ‘he past progressive is used to talk about something in progress and not yet completed at a time in the past. Iwas teaching at Winchester University in 2012, Around this time, animals were starting to colonize the land. 350 LANGUAGE REFERENCE “The progressive aspect can also be used to emphasize process or activity, rather than stating something as a ‘simple fact. Compare the following pairs of sentences: Website spelling mistakes are costing companies millions of pounds each year. Website spelling mistakes cast companies millions of pounds each year. ‘The study was looking into ageing in primates, ‘The study looked into ageing in primates, 1.3 Sentences (1) ple sentences can be: * subject + verb Stuclent numbers are increasing. ‘he lecture has started. + subject + verb + object ‘Most universities have @ rested Campus, I studied economics, + subject + verb + complement The department is very big, ‘The problem seems quite serious. Professor Jones isin charge, A complement is aword or phrase that gives more information about the subject of the sentence. The subject and the complement refer to the same thing. complement can be: + an adjective or adjective phrase The university is very modern. + anoun or noun phrase The event was a great success. + aprepositional phrase The economy seemed in good shape. ‘Verbs which are commonly followed by a complement clude appear, be, hecome, fee, seem. 1.4 Sentences (2) Simple sentences often have one or more GAVEEBTER. Adverbials are used with or without an object or university i 2008. The university rejets over 20000 student applications ‘The department is POSSIDI) one of the best HAMBWHA. An adverbial typically gives information about: + when (eg. in 2008, before he became a lawyer) + where (¢g to university at Harvard, in Saud Arabia) + how (eg slowly, regularly, soon after) + why (eg. to develop his skills) 1.5 Sentences (3) and (4) A compound sentence consists of two simple sentences, clauses which are joined together with a coordinator ‘The most common coordinators are: + and for addition | studied biology for my first degree and Thave a Master's degree in Education,+ but for contrast ‘the study produced some interesting results, but the findings have not been replicated. |< orforalternatives In the UK, all 16-year-olds continue their education. in the sixth form or they do some kind of vocational training, ‘The two clauses in a compound sentence are usually closely related simple sentences that can stand alone. Course applications are inereasing year on year. The number of available places is not increasing at the same vate However, joining two ideas together in compound sentences shows that the ideas are closely related and ‘can make writing seem more fluent. Course applications are increasing year on year, but the number of avatlable places is not increasing atthe same rate. ‘Note that bu is often preceded by a comma (,). And and lr are generally not preceded by a comma in compound sentences ifthe subject does not change. Unit 2 2.1 Definitions and explanations in both speaking and writing itis often necessary to {define or explain what an item, idea, or concept is. There _sre a number of typical words and phrases for giving /Gefinitions. An antonym is a word with the opposite meaning to another word. Photolysis is when a plant absorbs light energy. Binary means composed of two parts. Obesity is / can be defined as a BMI above the 95th percentile. sa... ofcan be used with a number of words (eg. ‘ranch, species, sub-division, component). Amoxteilin isa type of penicillin. Topology isa branch of mathematics. A.comma isa species of buterfy ‘To ask fora definition or explanation, we can use: What isan angiosperm? What does ‘mitosis’ mean? Can you define /explain what random sampling ist fis sometimes necessary to explain an item, idea, or concept rather than to define it. Typical phrases for doing so include: Some cell membranes are selectively permeable. This ‘means that they allow only certain substances to pass through. ‘he plants became chlorotic. In other words, they ‘weren't producing enough chlorophyll. 2.2 Definitions using relative clauses and prepositional phrases We can define an item, idea, or concept by giving a {general word (e.g, a symbol, a device, an instrument, a system, a process, a person) for the term we are defining, and then adding specific defining detail using aelative clause or a propositional phrase, Note that for countable nouns, we use the indefinite article a /an before the item we are defining, Relative clauses For things and ideas, use the relative pronouns which or that. ‘A hashtag is @ symibiol which is placed in front ofa key topic within a tweet. A barometer is a device which mieasidres air pressure. ‘An isoneph is @ line on.a map that joins places with the same cloud density. For people, use who or that. A polyglot is someone who speaks several langilages: For places, use the relative adverb where. Tundra is « habitat where tee growih is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons, For times, use the relative adverb when. Note that we often do not include a general word when defining a time ‘The summer solstice is whe the sin is directly above the Tropie of Cancer. Prepositional phrases A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition. ‘Taxonomy isa system of easing ling things. An acid is a substance with a pH of less than 7. ‘A spectrometer isan instrument for measuring wavelengths oflight Definitions using prepositional phrases and relative clauses Definitions can include more than one relative clause (RC) or prepositional phrase (PP) ora combination of the two. ‘A smartphone is @ mobile phone that is able to perform ‘many ofthe functions of a computer and which ean run general-purpose applications. (RC +RC) Communism isa sysiem of social organization with Property ownership shared by the community. (PP +PP) ‘The nervous system is a network of nerve cells and fibres which transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body, (PP +RC) Unit 3 3.1 Using adjectives and nouns to modify nouns You can add description or detail toa noun (called the hhead noun) by combining itwith other words to make ‘noun phrase, One common way of doing this isto pre-modify the noun using + adjective + noun ‘There are several important considerations. twas a serious problem. Itis international law. Itwas a fascinating study. Study the following examples. ‘They worked in converted sheds. LANGUAGE REFERENCE 452 7‘Note that participles used in this way are sometimes, considered as adjectives. + noun + noun tis company policy. ‘There was no business plan. He had been a science teacher. ‘The law does not allow cigarette advertising. Note that nouns used in this way are sometimes known as defining nouns. Ahead noun can have a combination of adjectives, participles, and/or defining nouns, When there are two ‘or more pre-modifiers, the order is generally evaluation / opinion + description + classification / more frequent developed -» more developed complicated > more complicated ‘The comparative of two-syllable adjectives ending In-y, -erand -Le are generally formed by adding -er. However, they can also be formed with more. sunny sunnier / more sunny clever + cleverer / more clever simple > simpler / more simple We can use less to express a smaller amount or degree of something, ‘srequent + less frequent developed + less developed Note the irregular compar good better bad worse far farther ructures We use than to make a direct comparison with something else. Canada is bigger than the USA. Football is more popular than rughy in most countries. Sales were slower than predicted. Immigration was more widespread than in the past. We use not as... as with similar meaning to less. ‘he USA is notas big as Canada. The process was not as complex as expected. We use quantifiers such as a litle, slightly, much, significantly, three times, 20%, 3° to express degree of difference. Canada is slightly bigger than the USA. Itis a much simpler process. ‘Unemployment was 58% higher than the previous year. forms: .2 Comparison and contrast (2): Using different ord classes smilarities and differences can be expressed using sumber of forms, Forms used in academic contexts clude: /untike Chinese, like many Asian languages, isa tonal language. In individual sports, unlike in team sports, success or Jailure is solely down to the individual. imilar to / different from Influenza is similar to the common cold, but ts symptoms are more severe. GNP (Gross National Produc) i different from GDP (Gross Domestic Product). Ive can use quantifiers such as very and quieto express degree of difference. “Laser light is wry different from normal ight. Portuguese is quite similar to Spanish in a number ofways (not) the same / different Cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower are the same species. GNP (Gross National Product) and GDP (Gross Domestic Product) ave not the same / different. Weuse (not) the sameas and different from wo make a direct comparison with something else. GNP (Gross National Product) snot the same as / different from GDP (Gross Domestic Produc differ ‘Altitudes fo competition differ around the world. Human and cow's milk differ in composition. ‘We use differ(s) from to make a direct comparison with something else. Cablvage, broccoli, and cauliflower differ from each other because they are cultivars. We can use quantifiers such as slightly, greatly, considerably, and significantly to express degree of difference. ‘Most identical twins differ slightly in appearance. Saturn's moons differ considerably from the moons of Jupiter. 4.3 Comparison and contrast (3): Showing similarities and differences Similarities and differences can be expressed using a range of linking adverbials. Some of the most common in academie contexts include: ‘To express similarities: + Also most commonly goes before the main verb or after be, Aristarchus also proposed that the Earth moved around the sun, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian are the most spoken neo-Latin languages. Romanian is also a rneo-Latin language. Similarly generally goes at the beginning ofa second. sentence or clause. ‘The blue whale was hunted almost to extinction. Similarly, the humpback whale population has fallen 10 1% of its pre-commercial whaling population. Ifyou understand Russian, you can partly understand Ukrainian and, similarly, the other way around. To express differences: ‘+ By/In comparison and by /in contrast generally go at the beginning ofa second sentence or clause. Gricket soon became India’s national sport. In contrast, {foothall in India remained a minority sport. ‘Chinese has almost 1,700 different sounds. By comparison, English has nearer 1,000. You can sometimes put by /in comparison and by / in contrast other positions in the second sentence or clause. Its quite common to putitafter the subject. Chinese has almost 1,700 different sounds. English, by comparison, has nearer 1,000. LANGUAGE REFERENCE 153 «=+ However generally goes at the beginning of a second sentence, butit can also go in the middle or at the end. Sydney is the biggest city in Australia, However, it isn't the capital, Sydney isthe biggest city in Australia, t isn't the capital, however. Sydney is the biggest city in Australia, It isnt, however, the capital. 4.4 Approximation Itis often appropriate or necessary to approximate ‘quantitative information or data, Common words and phrases for approximation in academic contexts include: around approximately in the region of almost justunder just over ‘The global population in 1900 was around wo billion. ‘By 2000, it had risen to just over six billion. Anewborn human has in the region of.atrillion cells. ‘Mandarin speakers account for almost 15% of the world’s population. Unit 5 5.1 Stance (1): Referring to someone else's views eis often necessary to report the stance, viewpoint, or position of other people, Common ways of doing this include: + using adverbial phrases In Harrison's (2008) view, desertification will continue in the area for some time. In the opinion of Richards (2012), the find is not of ‘major significance. According to several studies, smoking in some social sectors is in decline + using verbs such as note / comment | observe / report (+ that) + subject clause Smith (2012) notes that the species is declining in some A numberof studies have reported that health awareness is increasing James (2014) commented thatthe study sample size ‘was insufficient + to show stance from a particular perspective, we can use a / the... view is / was that. + subject clause: A minority view was that the UN should not have become involved. ‘The anthropological view is that religion developed from animalism, 5.2 Stance (2): Giving an opinion, agreeing, and disagreeing ‘+ In some academic contexts, for example in seminars and tutorials, you may be required to express your personal stance, viewpoint, o position. Expressions for doing this include: think / believe / would argue / would say + that + subject clause: think / believe that there will be further instability in the region. 154 LANGUAGE REFERENCE would argue /say that unemployment inthe area will decline To express our stance les strongly, we can also use Itscems (to me) that + subject clause. Itseems to me that further research is needed. It seems that habitat destruction isthe prime cause of species extinction. + Inmore formal academic writing, there isa tendency to avoid using the subject pronoun ’ when expressing stance. Adverbials such as clearly, no doubt, and without doubt can be used to show that your stance is being expressei Attempts to regenerate the area have clearly been ineffective, ‘there is no doubt that a preliminary study would have highlighted the problems. + When you express your personal stance, viewpoint, or position itis often important t provide supporting information or evidence. Expressions for invoducing supporting evidence include: An example of thisis shale gas. For example, the rural population in some regions is actually increasing, Take the Olympics for example instance, which can ‘generate billions of dollars. 5.3 Hedging (1) and (2) Itis often necessary to use hedging language to avoid expressing stance and degree of certainty too strongly. is especially important when making claims rather than stating proven facts. In both spoken and written academic contexts, there are a number of ways of doing this. These include: + Itis probable / possible | likely / unlikely (that) + subject clause Itis possible that the area was once inhabited. Mis unlikely that disease was the cause of the decline in population. + Verbs such as think, believe, indicate, suggest, point to are used in a number of patterns: ~ is/are thought to ‘The ruins are thought to be of a 12th-century fortress. « Itis thought / believed that . Itis thought / believed that sunglasses were invented in China about 1000 years ago. = suggest / indicate (+ that) + subject clause ‘The discovery suggests that the port was a major international gateway. ‘The design on the ring indicates that it belonged to a ‘member of the royal family. = point to+ noun ‘The findings point toa previously unknown species offox. ‘+ Appear and seem are used in two ways: = Itappears seems that Mappears that the last use ofthe site was in about 1850. Itseems that the land tax triggered the uprising, = appear / seem to The artefacts appear to be of Greek origin. ‘The asteroid seems to be increasing in size.+ The modal verbs may, could, and can: here may be several further unknown species living in she caves. ‘he discovery could result in a change in the way the disease is treated. Unit 6 6.1 Perspective (1) and (2) ris important to recognize and to be able to express the perspective from which something is being discussed or esctibed. The main ways of expressing perspective are: * adverbs (politically, historically, ecologically, financially, theoretically, etc.) Historically, the main industries in the area were farming and lead mining. Politically and economically, the country went through enormous change. ‘The proposed development would have been ecologically damaging. We cam also use speaking: Scientifically speaking, black is the absence of all colour Medically speaking, the common cold is an upper respiratory infection, *» From a... perspective standpoint / point of view Froma business perspective, membership of the European Union has pros and cons. From an economic point of view, human migration has a number of benefits. We shall now look at forestry from a commercial standpoint. Asfaras... is concerned Asfar as sport is concerned, a number of countries enjoy huge success compared to their population size, dn... terms, In terms of... Inhealth terms, there is evidence that urban living can impact in a negative way, Low-cost air fares may be very costly in terms of climate change. Unit 7 7.1 Paraphrasing Paraphrasing isa crucial aspect of academic waiting teallows you to rewrite an author's idea or other published material in your own words, Paraphrasing an be complexand it can take time to develop a full ‘understanding of when and how to use it. However, Jnost basic paraphrasing includes a combination ofthe following: » A change in word form or part of speech (e.g. mvaded + invasion of is relevant + has relevance; succeed > be sucessful) ‘The Romans first invaded Britain in 3AD. > The fst Roman invasion of Britain tok place in 43AD. ‘Most children when starting school are linguistically table enough to succeed. > When they start school, the ‘majority ofchildren have the linguistic ability t0 be successful + Synonyms (e.g. most-+ the majority of, have the right > be entitled, indicate + suggest) ‘Most children when starting school... + When they start school, the majority of children ‘The automatic provision of primary school education for every child in England and Wales was established in the 1870 Education Act.» In England and Wales, all primary-aged children were given the right to an education in 1870. + A change in sentence structure or word order ‘The right to secondary education at age eleven had to wait until the implementation of the 1944 Education Act. > It wasn’t wil the 1944 Education Act that secondary school-aged children were entitled to an education. Following the 1944 Education Act, there was such a rapid increase in educational provision, in the USA and ‘many countries of Western and Eastern Europe as well «as in Britain, that some wrlters refer to the ‘educational explosion’ of the 1950s and 1960s. +> Once the 1944 Education Act was implemented, secondary education in the UK and in many other countries across the world expanded rapidly during the 1950s and 1960s in the so- called ‘educational explosion: + Note that tis generally acceptable to repeat key specialized words. Anuiber of studies have indicated that pre- task planning can impact positively on language performance in terms of fluency and complexity. + It has been shown that pre-task planning of speaking tasks can result in increased fluency and complexity, 72 Citation ‘When you refer to, summarize, or paraphrase an author's work in your writing, you must acknowledge the source of the ideas you are expressing, You do this by including the author's name and the date of publication. ‘Ihisis called citation, + When using e reporting verb (eg, states, suggests), you include the name ofthe author with the date of publication in parentheses. Howarth (2001) suggests that planning plays a key role in interlanguage development. Jones (2013) states that university entrance requirements vary grealy. Sangarun (2005) claims the results are inconclusive. + When not using a reporting verb, you include both the author's name and the date (separated by a comma) in parentheses Planning is believed to play a key role in interlanguage development (Howarth, 2001) When there is more than one author you separate them with a semi-colon: Research has shown that learners who plan tasks generally attempt more comples language (Skehan, 1999; Wigglesworth, 2001; Yuan & Ellis, 2003). + The sources are then included in more detail in the list of references or bibliography atthe end of the essay. LANGUAGE REFERENCE 155‘There are three main ways of showing that you have used. another writer's ideas: Direct quotation ‘The author's exact words are used. Quotation marks are used around the words, which must be quoted exactly as they are in the original. ‘Smith (2002) states ‘the three stages of labour are early labour, active labour, and transition into delivery’ Paraphrasing ‘There are three stages of labour (Smith, 2002). These are the early labour stage, the active labour stage, and the transition into delivery stage. » Smith (2002) states that there are three stages of labour: the early labour stage, the active labour stage, and the transition. into delivery stage. Using reporting verbs Reporting verbs that can be used for direct quotation or for paraphrasing include argue, believe, claim, indicate, note, state, suggest. Harrison (2014) argues that food plays a much greater, role than the purely nutritional, Sangarun (2011) elaims that further research will show .. Leech (2001) notes that ‘habitat destruction will lead to. Unit 8 8.1 Past tenses narrative sa description of a past event. A narrative ‘may require a variety of tenses, but the main tenses that are generally used are the past simple, the past Continuous, and the past perfect. Even though early forms of bicycle had existed fora few hundred years it wasn’t until the 1830s that a bicycle with pedals was invented. The inventor was Scottish blacksmith Kirkpatrick MeMillan and the idea came to him while he was watching some children riding a hobbyhorse. He had the idea of making a version which could be propelled without the rider’ feet touching the ground. Once McMillan had introduced his invention to the publi, other inventors and engineers started to develop their own version ofthe bicycle. By the end (of the century, the bicycle was almost the same as the bicycle of today. ‘The past simple is used to describe the main events, which are usually told in chronological order. «the idea came to him one day while he was watching some children riding a hobbyhorse. He had the idea of. ‘making a version which .. other inventors and engineers started to develop their own version of the bicycle. By the end of the century, the bicycle was almost the same as the bicycle oftoday. “The past progressive is used in contrast with the past simple to describe events or situations that were in progress atthe time of one or more of the main events, . the idea came to him while he was watching some children riding a hobbyhorse, 156 LANGUAGE REFERENCE « ‘the past perfect describes an event that occurred before the whole event began or before one of the main events, Even though early forms of bicycle had existed for a few hundred years, it wasn’t until the 1830s. Once McMillan had introduced his invention to the public, other inventors and engineers 8.2 Sequencing ina process Key features when describing sequence in a process are the use ofthe present simple and present perfect tenses and the use of sequencing words and phrases which indicate the order the events occur in. The passive voice isalso sometimes a feature. Tenses + The present simple is used to describe each stage of a process. A star begins its life asa large cloud of gas. Atoms in he yas are attracted 10 each other by the force of gravity and the cloud begins to coliapse. As the material ‘accelerates, the gravitational energy is converted into Kinetic energy and the temperature of the gas cloud increases. Light energy is absorbed by the green chemical chlorophyll. This energy allows the reaction between carbon dioxide and water, which produces glucose. ‘The present perfect simple is used to indicate that one thing happened before another. Once the gas cloud has reached a certain temperature, itis hot enough for nuctear fusion to take place. When too much hydrogen has been burned, the core of the star collapses under the force of gravity and the star changes state. Sequencing words and phrases + Linking adverbials (e., first, then, next, after that, in turn, finally) are used to show the sequence of events First, crude oil is pumped into a separator, which separates the oilfrom the gas and water. The oil is then ‘pumped to he onshore terminal. The oils cleaned ‘again and after that itis sent to a storage tank. Finally, the crude oil is exported to the refinery either by pipeline or tanker. Subordinators (e.g. when, after, as, once, as soon as) are also used to show sequence and how events relate to each other. Tectonic plates sometimes get stuck. Once this happens, pressure inside the earth’s crust starts to build up. As the pressure increases, it hegins to force its way through the ‘gaps between the tectonic plates. When this pressure is ‘eventually released, an earthquake tends to occur After the inital earthquake, there may be a series of after: shocks as the tectonic plates adjust tothe efects ofthe ‘main shock, Note that linking adverbials and sequence subordinators ccan go in a number of positions in the sentence, but they tend most frequently to go at the beginning ofa sentence or clause. In this position a linking adverbial is followed byacommaB.3 The passive voice Form [he passive is formed with be + past participle, | Ethanol is produced from ethene and water | When the component parts have been combined, the | mixture is heated to 100°C. Glass was first produced around 3500 BC. a passive voice is very frequent in academic texts and used for a number of reasons. One common use is en describing a man-made or naturally occurring ocess. This is because the passive voice puts the ‘us on what happens to something, rather than what smeone or something does. 1e passive can be used with or without an agent (the -son or thing that carries out or causes the action). ‘academic texts itis most commonly used without an ent. “The passive is used without an agent when the agent is ‘obvious, unimportant, or unknown. ‘he heat which is generated inside the star is then radiated away from its centre .. Gold is purified through a process of heating or through chemical exposure. Chemicals, called neurotransmitters, are released at ‘the nerve terminal, Afterall the salt has been removed, only water vapour remains. The passive is used with an agent usually when we are providing new information about an existing topic. We use by to introduce the agent. These chemicals are released by the pltuitary gland, which fs located in the base of the brain. Waste such as carbon dioxide, water, ammonia, and salts is removed from the body by the urinary system. Unit 9 9.1 Questions (2): Indirect questions indirect questions (e.g. Could you explain how a virus replicates?) are generally more tentative than direct questions (e.g. How does a virus replicate?) = Indirect questions begin with a question phrase. Common question phrases include Could / Can you explain ..? Could / Can you tell me/us..? Do you / Does anyone know ...? Have you any idea ..? Vm We're not sure I/We dor't/ didn't understand .. Could you tell us when the study was carried out? Does anyone know ifthere'sa connection between the two diseases? don’t understand how transfer RNA works. «+ The question phrase is followed by a question word or if. We use iffor a question that requires a ‘yes’ or ‘no! Could you tellus when the studly was curried out? Does anyone know if there's a connection between the two diseases? don't understand how transfer RNA works. ‘Note that we can also sometimes use whether Instead of if. + The word order after the question word / fis the same as in a statement. We do not put the verb before the subject and we do not use the auxiliary verb do. Could you tell us when the study was carried out? NOT Covie-youtelLuswhenwasthe stidy-eartiedout? don't understand how transfer RNA works. NOT Heon’tunderstend-how-does transfer RNAWOHE ‘+ We can also sometimes use question phrase + noun phrase. Do you know the date of the research? Could you explain the selection process? Ididin’t understand the last stage ofthe procedure. 9.2 Cause and effect Cause and effect connections are frequent in academic contexts. There are a number of ways of showing cause ‘and effect relationships. Some of the most common, include: Verbs ‘We can use verbs such as cause, lead to, result in, and + These mention cause before effect: Hydrocephalus causes the brain to swell ‘Smoking leads to premature skin ageing, Kidney damage often results in high blood pressure. + Use the passive of cause to mention effect before Frostbite is usually caused by prolonged exposure to cold temperatures. Linking words ‘We can use @ numberof linking words. These include the subordinators because and so (that) and the complex. prepositions hecause of, due to, and owing to. + These mention effect before cause: ‘One theory is that we dream because the brain needs to processall the day's information. ‘Many people suffer health because of the work that they do Usually, tiredness is due to a combination of causes, ‘here is risk ofl health owing to air pollution. Use so (thai) to mention cause or condition before effect: ‘Te inner layer of blood vessels is very smooth so (that) the blood can flow easly. LANGUAGE REFERENCE 157 --Nouns We can tse a numberof expressions using nouns such as cause, effect, consequence, an result + These mention cause before effec: Vitamin Bi deficiency is ofen the cause ofa toss of apperite he diaphragm constrctsand as a consequence, te volume ofthe lungs increases. ‘he programme ran for’ months, Asa result, participants lowered their average cholesterol count from 219 0 205. Too much time spent online can have consequences for 4 person’ health ana well-being. Too much protein inthe diet can have a number of negative effets, such as nausea and diarrhoea + These mention effect before cause: A person's health isa result of internal and external factors Malnutrition sa consequence of disease and ‘inadequate dietary intake Note that we can use hedging words such as can, may, possibly, probably, and perhapsand adverbs such as often, usually, sometimes and occasionally with some of the cause and effec language. ‘There are many diseases that can cause obesity Prolonged use ofsome medication may lead to vitamin 112 deiconcy Premature skin ageing ' possibly due toa combination offactors Unit 10 10.1 Linking words: Addition, contrast and concession Addition Often in academic argument itis necessary to present number of points support an argument, stance, or point of view. To do this, we ean use linking additive adverbial, + First (of all) furthermore, in addition, and moreover generally go atthe beginning ofthe sentence that ‘contains the additional point. First of al, globalization can refer tothe creation of a ‘world society’ In addition, globalization also refers to the inereasing ‘global mobility of people. Furthermore, global contraction may lead to social relationships becoming iisembedded’ ie. they may no Longer depend on sharing the same geographical space. + As well as goes before the first point or before the additional point. Iti followed by a noun phrase ora gerund (ng) clause, As well as the increased speed and range of travel, the impact of electronic media also makes the world seem a smaller place. or ‘The increased speed and range of travel as well as the impact of electronic media make the world seem a smailer place. 158 LANGUAGE REFERENCE As well as becoming more flexible, the workforce Is becoming less standardized. + Also most commonly goes before the additional point. {It goes before the main verb or after be, Globalization can also refer to ‘global contraction’ i. ‘the way the world appears to be shrinking, As well as the increased speed and range of travel, the impact of electronic media also makes the world seem a smaller place. Contrast and concession Itis often necessary to present and contrast two sides to ‘an argument. To do this, we ean use contrastve linking words. * On the one hand most commonly goes atthe beginning of the first point. On the other hand generally goes atthe beginning of second sentence and/or after a coordinator such as but. On the one hand, globalization unifies the world. But ‘on the other hand, it excludes a large proportion of the ‘global population. But is the most common way of showing contrast. It goes between the ideas itis contrasting, Itcan continue the sentence, usually after a comma, oritcan starta second sentence. Product demand remained high in Europe. But it declined in the Far East. However goes atthe beginning in the middle, orat the end ofa second sentence. We can use nevertheless in a similar way. ‘The brand image was modernized. However, sales remained static, ‘The brand image was modernized. Sales, however, remained static. ‘The brand image was modernized, Sales, remained static, however. Yet goes between the ideas it s contrasting The company experienced huge losses in the early 2000s, et itcontinued to expand its operations. “Although and even though can generally go at the beginning of the sentence or between the ideas they ‘are contrasting, They are followed by a subject clause Although air travel is statistically safer than travelling by car, many people are afraid to fy. Many people are afraid to fly even though air travel is Statistically safer than travelling by car. Despite and in spite of go atthe beginning of the sentence or between the ideas they are contrasting, They are followed by a noun phrase, a gerund (-ing) clause, ofthe fact that + subject clause. Despite a number of concerns, the product launch went ahead. RBC’ profits Increased by over 20% in spite of losing ‘over 100,000 customers. Despite the fact that it occurred well over a century ago, ‘his particular financial crisis is stil being felt today. Note that yet, although /even though, despite /in spite fare generally used to show or to emphasize that something is unexpected or surprising. In doing so, they can often present an element of concession,Writing Sample answers Unit 2C Writing (2) Task 5 (page 033) Economic geography Geography is the scientific study of the earth's surface, physical features, and populations.’ Economic geography is a branch of geography which facuses on people's economic activity around the world.’ It looks at the relationship between economic activity and the environment. It also examines industries in different countries and the ‘ay that these industries are organized. In a globalized world, economic geography is becoming an increasingly important subject." D> Key features in Academe writing jon ofa key term, ‘ge se providing a definition *Prepostional phrases which exend the definition. “an evaluative sentence concluding the paragraph phy. ing (2) Task 3 (page 047) ‘Good preparation for lectures i important, as students who are fami = lecture are able to follow it more easily. Therefore, itis always a good idea for students do some background reading before a lecture. This gives students the opportunity Ho think about the main ideas surrounding the topic, consider supporting details, and ‘ote down any questions which they have." Italso helps students to think about their sponse to the content ofthe lecture. Key Features in Academie Writing A clear use ofa determiner o show cohesion, Unit 4C Writing (2) Task 4 (pge 061) igure 3 compares the amount of sugar in eight different foods, measured in teaspoons x serving The amount of sugar varies greatly from one food to another, from as litle (0.5 teaspoons in a serving of cornflakes to 9 teaspoons in ice cream. The amount f sugar in products stich as a chocolate bar or a can of cola is very similar 6 and 7 teaspoons respectively." Interestingly, the amount of sugar in savoury foods like ked beans is similar to sweet foods like chocolate biscuits ~ 2 teaspoons per serving. jowever, in other products the difference is much greater. For example, ice cream has early’ three times more sugar per serving than low-fat yoghurt -9 teaspoons compared 0 3.25, Key Features in Academic Writing "Aclear statement of what the visuals presenting =A dear statement ofthe overall tends. * Use of language of comparison and contrat, “Use of approximation, SAMPLE ANSWERS WRITING 159Unit SC Writing (2) Task 4 (pagea7s) ‘Due to limited resources, and an environment that is changing for the worse, humans need to make bold technological decisions to survive! Do you agree or disagree with the statement? ‘There are now over seven billion people on the planet and the population is growing, ‘More importantly, economic development in countries like China and India is also increasing rapidly. This growth in population and economy leads to increased demands (on natural resources. However it seems thatthe environment cannot cope with this rapid development.* In many Chinese cities, for example, air pollution is now at Gangerous levels. Research conducted by the China Agricultural University of Beijing has shown that this pollution cuts light by about 50% and affects plant growth. Pethaps the only answer isto find new technology that can control or reduce this pollution. > Key Features in Academe Writing, "Use of hedging language to moderate claims, * Aciear transition from broader background content to topic specifi material “Use of evidence to suppor the main idea, “Aconciuding sentence that sums up the write’ stance and refers tothe essay tle. Unit 6C Writing (2) Task 4 (page.08s) Studying abroad ean give you valuable experience in your futur if, Profesional, ‘most people wll come into contact with people ftom other cultures at some time their lives For example, you work fora multi-national company. you wll prabebly have colleagues fom diferent cultural backgrounds. In ths way, experience oflving onl studying in another country can be very help asitopensthe mind to diferest elturl behaviours” > Key Features in Academie Writing “ntroduetion ofa perspective to suppor he main point * Aconeluding sentence that restates the main point and offers evaluation, Unit 7C Writing (1) Task 4 (age 101) Python is free, open source programming language that was developed in the 1980s bby Guido van Rossum. Itis used both by frsttime programmers and large software companies because itis easy andl quick to use. Ithas also been noted that Python is ‘good for teaching programming since it uses many of the same basic principles of more complicated! programming languages, like C142 > Key Features in Actdemle Writing "Use of synonyms to show paraphrase. *Own language used to capture the man ideas of te paragraph. Unit 7C Writing (2) Task 4 (page 103) A Lightbown and Spada (2003) note that in first language acquisition there is significant similarity in children’s early’ ‘language, wherever they are from in the world. B Lightbown and Spada (2008) state tha first language acquisition is remarkable for ‘the high degree of similarity which we see in the early language of children all over the world: 160 SAMPLE ANSWERS WRITINGUnit 8C Writing (2) Task 3 (page 117) Production of glass bottles Glass bottles are made from! four main raw materials; calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, waste glass, and sand, These materials are placed in a furnace and then heated to 1,400°C. At this temperature, the raw materials melt and molten glass is formed. A quantity of molten glass is then dropped into a mould. When it sin the mould, itis treated with compressed air, which forces the glass into the shape of the mould. After thas been shaped into a bottle, the glass is removed from the mould and allowed to cool. > Key Reaturs in Academe Writing ‘The pasive voice Is used to place the focus. on proces instead of people Stages in the process are shown bythe use of subordingtors. Unit 9C Writing (2) Task 4 (page 131) Environmental science study The aim of the study was to find out the causes of flooding in an urban area. Many homes ‘sad flooded and water had also caused damage to roads and public areas, As a result, People were forced to leave their homes, and local businesses and factories were also affected, While the direct cause ofthe flooding - long periods of heavy rain in the area - was clean our research group wanted to examine the indirect causes. The study found that a major ‘ason for the flooding was intensive building in the area and the fact that there was ‘oo litle grassland where the water could escape into the ground. This has important Snplications for the ways that towns are planned and builtin the future. Unit 10C Writing (2) Task 6 (page147) ‘creased freedom of movement has meant that more people are now ving in foreign countries than previously. There are both advantages and cisadvantages of this for the host countries. Argue one of these viewpoints. the past two decades, there has been an increase in the movement of workers from Pe country to another. The main reason for this has been the demand of international companies to make global business easier: However, there is a debate about whether this ‘ezge-scale migration of people isa positive or a negative phenomenon. This essay will ‘=gue that increased freedom of movernent has in fact had positive effects on the host ‘suntries, both economically and culturally. People migrate to work in other countries for several reasons: they cannot find work ‘their own country; the pays better in another countzy or they ate recruited by sempanies in the host county which need theit skills and expertise. In each of these ses, the new worker arrives in the host country in a highly motivated condition. In ‘ition, he or she is very often able to do the same job more cheaply than a local worker sedis sometimes willing to undertake jobs that local workers may not do. ven though an increased number of workers may put extra pressure on the host ‘Seentry’s resources, on balance there is an advantage from an economic point of view. *Ssrant workers often help to improve the infrastructure ofa country - which can help ‘Seate more jobs - and the taxes that these workers pay also help to improve services Sx the local people. Culturally, there ate also benefits. Iflocal people accept the new ssigrants, the whole country benefits from the increased cultural diversity and the new ‘éeas these migrants bring, With more increased cultural understanding, a population is ‘more likely to be successful in the global workplace. S=conclusion, freedom of movement of workers around the world isa way of helping ‘Ssuntries (o make economic and cultural progress, rather than remaining isolated from ssch other. Everyone benefits from the free movement of goods these days, and the Sevement of people, and their skills, isa natural part of this, Sey Featuresin Academie Writing ‘clea statement of aims that outlines essay structure. SAMPLE ANSWERS WRITING 162,‘Additional material from units Unit 1A Listening and Speaking TASK 7 (page 011) 1 Read the information in the table below. 2 Form questions to ask Student B about subjects b, d,f, and h. Write your questions incolumn 2. 3 Ask Student B your questions. Note down the answers in column 3. Try to ask a follow-up question to get further information, 4 Answer Student B's questions about subjects column 3. 1 Subject 2 Question 3 Answer Get advice about changing my course ,¢,and g, Use the information in ‘You must see your course tutor if you want to change your course, but it may not be possible, b Get alist of books to buy banere 2 Ifyou ae sick or unable to attend a lecture You must email your tutor to tell them a minimum of two hhours before the lecture, 4 Pay for my accommodation When ..? e Taking my laptop / tablet / mobile into lectures You can take a laptop or tablet into a lecture but you cant use a phone. 1 Get astudent card How .? & Eatat lunchtime ‘There are restaurants and sandwich bars in the Student's Union building, 1 Use the university fitness centre ba? Unit 2A Listening and Speaking TASK 6 (pace 025) 1 Explain the concept of speed reading. Use the notes. Speed reading = reading fast. Two main methods Skimming = read approximately 600 words per minute to get general idea of text 2 Meta guiding = use a pen or finger to guide you down the page Ul 1 Read information (a) and (b) to Student B and then answer his / her questions, The body that controls the use of drugs in sportis called the World Anti-Doping Agency. (doping means taking drugs to improve performance) 'b ‘The founder of the Olympics said the important thing in life is not conquering but fighting well 3A Listening and Speaking TASK 7 (page039) (conquering means winning or overcoming others) 2 Now listen to Student B's information and ask him / her questions for repetition or clarification, 162 ADDITIONAL MATERIAL FROM UNITSUnit 4A Listening and Speaking TASK? (page0s3) °° | USsmoking and obesity, 1960-2008 1 Look at the two lines in this graph showing the number of = (000. a cigretessmatedinteNanitheperneeeetenee, (ery overweight) adults. Eon! 2 Compare the two trends, Use Academic Language and the . i) sentences in Task 7to help you. avo Make sure your presentation B a + inteoduces the topic 1000 * describes what each line in the graph shows + compares these two trends. Unit 6A Listening and Speaking TASK 7 (page 081) * Read the information and prepare a short presentation, Use Academic Language ‘0n perspectives and end your presentation with a conclusion, Sea salt production Industrial process ‘made from evaporating sea water Chemical composition natural product - nothing added Nutritional benefits + contains beneficial minerals such as magnesium - potential pollution in sea water Financial perspective expensive to produce Unit 7A Listening and Speaking TASK 7 (page 095) Toponymy robervimy Is the study of place names, It fsa subject that is useful to geographers, Rcauseitprovdes reference system formapping places inthe worldand understanding the changes that have taken place there. For example, a place may be named after 6 forest that no longer exists, It is also useful for sociologists and historians, because Lunde'standing place names can help Us to follow patterns of migration among different peoples: A place may have @ name in a language that is not the same as that of the hTentinhabitants. indicating that another people lived there at some point. By following {he development of its place names, historians can also understand better the cultura development of a particular region, Place names could have religious significance for example, or they could show that a place was amiltary base, asin the name Fort Willom: Unit 8A Listening and Speaking TASK 6 (page 109) * Kead the notes and use them to give a spoken description ofan Arctic expedition, Remember to use sequencing words and the correct tenses. North Pole in the Arctic Ocean in area covered with sea ice First men to set foot on North Pole: Russian team in 1948 1870-1900 - many try and fall to reach North Pole 1920-1940 planes fly over North Pole, but unable to land Russian team land there in a plane in 1948 They spend two dys making scientific observations, then return & Describe the events to your partner, ADDITIONALMATERIAL FROM UNITS 163, ‘aout obesity1A Listening and Speaking TASK 7 (page 012) 1 Read the information in the table below. 2 Form questions to ask Student A about subjects a, ¢, , and g. Write your questions incolumn 2. 3. Answer Student A's questions about subjects b, df, and h. Use the information in column 3. 4 Ask Student A your questions. Note down the answers in column 3. Try to ask a follow-up question to get further information. 1 Subject 2 Question 3 Answer @ Get advice about changing my course Where .? 1b Gotalist of books to buy ‘You can get alist of books from your department, but check if ‘they are in the library before you buy them. you are sick or unable to attend alecture What .? Pay for my accomadation ‘You must pay for your accommodation before the first day of term, - Taking:y laptop / tablet mobile into lectures Con .7 Geta student card You can get a student card from the Student's Union You will need a passport photo, The cai costs £10. 8 Eatat lunchtime binere 2 Fh Use the university fitness centre Theresa fitness centre on campus which is free to all students, but you need your student card Unit 2A Listening and Speaking TASK 6 (page025) 1 Explain the concept of memorization. Use the notes. Memorization = making sure something stays in your memory. Two main methods: 1. Loci method = connect each thing you want to remember to a particular place (eg, the place on a page where you saw it) 2 Rote learning = say or write something many times until you have learned it Unit 3A Listening and Speaking TASK 7 (cage 039) | Listen to Student A's information and ask him / her questions for repetition or clarification, 2 Read information (a) and (b) to Student A and then answer his / her questions. 1 The use of new materials in sport can be a difficult ethical area, An example is, polyurethane swimsuits that cover the whole body. (polyurethane is kind of thin plastic used in paints) 2 Sportspeople always face an ethical dilemma in dec towin. (a dilemmas difficult choice) ing what steps they can take [ADDITIONAL MATERIAL FROM UNITS.Unit 4A Listening and Speaking TASK 7 (page 053) = FAO Food Price index mene = Water catastrophes weridie 3 Weather catastronhes wocdwide 1 Look at this graph showing the world price of food and the number of extreme weather events in the world. 2 Compare the two trends. Use Academic Language and the sentences in Task 7 to help you. ‘Make sure your presentation: + introduces the topic ‘+ describes what each line in the graph shows + compares these two trends. 400 FAD Food Price Index 8 Unit 6A Listening and Speaking TASK 7 (page 081) 1 Read the information and prepare a short presentation. Use Academic Language ‘on perspectives and end your presentation with a conclusion. Table salt production Industrial process intensive process -rock salt mined, then processed to remove impurities Chemical composition _ minerals, e.g, magnesium, removed Nutritional benefits + fodine (essential for brain development) added Financial perspective cheap to produce Unit 7A Listening and Speaking TASK 7 (page 095) Diminutives ‘A diminutive is a linguistic term for words which mean something small or something ‘which is special to someone. They are generally formed by adding a particular ending ‘to an existing word. For example, the French word for a truck of lorry is camion. The diminutive suffix is -ette, so a small lorry is a camionette, Diminutives are used in many languages also as a term of affection. In Portuguese these are very common in names Paulinho s the diminutive of Paulo. Some languages use diminutives much more than others. Spanish, for example, has a lot of diminutive forms, whereas English has relatively few, One is the suffix -et, as in booklet to mean smail book. Another, used as a term of affection mainly Is the adding of the letter -y Johnny instead of John. doggy instead of dog. Unit 8A Listening and Speaking TASK 6 (page 109) 1 Read the notes and use them to give a spoken description of an Antarctic expedition. Remember to use sequencing words and the correct tenses. ‘Antarctica the last continent to be explored by geographers First man to reach South Pole: Roald Amundsen in 1911. Antarctica first seen in 1820; ater that, discovered little by litle Between 1930 and 1950 Antarctica mapped by plane and ship South Pole station set up in 1956; now a permanent station for intemational scientific research 2 Describe the events to your partner. [ADDITIONAL MATERIAL ROM UNITS. 165 )*