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LJU

STANDARDIZATION
OF TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENTS FOR AIRPLANES

KENNETH J. LUSH

IMTED STATS AI FORCE

AIR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPENTCO
AIR FORCE R.CHT TEST CENTER
EDVA ,9CAUFORMIA
Technical Note R-12

STANDARDIZATION OF TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE

MEASUREMENTS FOR AIRPLANES

KENNETH J. LUSH

UNITED STATES AIR FORCE

AIR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT COMMAND
AIR FORCE FLIGHT TEST CENTER
Edward ,, California
Technical Note R-12

INDEX

Summary

Notation

Introduction

Factual Data

Basic Relations

Ground Roll

Air Phase

Speed at 50 ft Altitude

Performance Reduction Equations

Ground Roll

Air Phase

Ratio of Mean Drag to Mean Excess Thrust

Ratio of Kinetic to Total Energy Increase in Climb

Thrust Correction

General

Jet Propulsion

Fixed Pitch Propellers

Constant Speed Propellers

Mixed Systems and Turbo PropellerB

Preliminary Corrections

Correction of Ground Roll for Wind

Correction of Air Phase for Wind

Correction for Runway Slope

Correction for Constant CL

Part Time Assistance to Take-Off

Technical Note R-12
Combined Formulae for Propeller Airplanes

Non-Dimensional Methods

Verification of Formulae

Acknowledgements

Conclusions and Recommendations

REFERENCES:

Appendix I - Approximation of the Mean Excess Thrust

Appendix II - Derivation of Performance Reduction Equations

Appendix III - The Transition Phase After a Take-Off at the

Minimum Safe Speed

Appendix IV - Correction of Propeller Thrust to Standard Conditions

Appendix V - Correction Formulae When ATO is Used Part Time

Appendix VI - Effect on Air Distance of Curvature of Flight Path

Appendix VII - Summary of Correction Formulae

FIGURES:

Figure 1A - Energy Increase on Climb

Figure IB - Techniques of Climb to 50 Feet

Figure 2 - Speed Change During Air Phase

Figure 3. - Standardization of Propeller Thrust

(Change of Thrust with Power, Density, Weight and RPM)

Figure 4 - Wind Correction to Ground Roll

Figure 5 - Check of Weight and Pressure Corrections

(Light Airplane with Fixed Pitch Propeller)

Figure 6 - Check of Weight Correction

(Medium Propeller Airplane)

Figure 7A - Check of Weight Correction

(Heavy Propeller Airplane)

Figure 7B - Check of Power and Density Corrections

(Heavy Propeller Airplane)
 Technical Note R-12

Figure 8A - Check of Air Temperature Correction

(Jet Fighter #1 - Ground Roll)

Figure 8B - Check of Air Teraperature Correction

(Jet Fighter #1 - Total Distance to 50 Feet)

Figure 8C - Check of Weight and Pressure Corrections

(Jet Fighter #1)

Figure 9A - Check of Air Temperature Correction

(Jet Fighter #2 - Ground Roll)

Figure 9B - Check on Temperature Correction

(Jet Fighter #2 - Total Distance to 50 Feet.)

Figure )C - Check of Weight and Pressure Corrections

(Jet Fighter #2)

Figure 10 - Variation of Acceleration With Speed

(Representative Examples)

i i
 j. Technical Note R-12

1.
STANDARDDIZATION OF TAKzý-OFF PER O•RI.ANCE

4 1.{EASU212-"NTS FOR A"RY'AS

i U7 ',iY
Foriiulae are derived by which take-off performance measurelrerits may be
standardized. These formulae are eaoy to use and they apply, with suitable
numerical c3nstants, to airplanes with any type of ;-.ro. ul3ive system, irc'Jd-
ing r:idxed typ4es and types using part-time assistance or boost.

Numier-cal consta'nts are proposod for use with triese formulae. iAx. erir~entai
data available support these constanits, but are insufficient to c:;ec% ther,
completely.

Syriýýol Defi'nition

C.. 1 -.

d Propeller diaxsitoer

D Total resist'nce at Speed V (aerodynamic drag

- roiling dry;)

i -D Value of D ;t speed V

F Tot;al thrust at spedA V

F Tot.-i thra-,t at speed V

F Static thrurt

Jet thrust of turbo !-ropeller engine at speed V

F Propelleor thrust -it speed V

SFR ATO thrust

F'R Mean effective A'PO thrust

[F-b Thrust of basic povt'er .11-its (without 1'TO)

at speed v
h Heic;ht of airp.lane above runway

(V Voi) ,/2g
"V/0 Reproduced From
J
-. V/nd Best Available COPY,
 Technical Note R-12

Symbol Definition

n Propeller speed

N Engine speed

P Power input to propeller

FPa Ambient air pressure

Q Torque input to propeller

38. Distance from take-off to 50 feet

Sg Length of ground roll

Sw
3 Ground roll with headwind

S 0Ground roll corrected to zero wind

ta Time in air phase

•a
t Time of ATO operation in air phase

tRg Time of ATO operation in ground phase

V True ground speed

VT Value of V at take-off

V5 0 Value of V at 50 feet

V Mean speed during phase (ground roll or air phase)

W Airplane gross weight

w Headwind

Angle of steady climb

Ambient air prc3suro/atandard sea level pressure

t •Air temperature 0 K/288

Air density/standard sea level air density

Slope of runway (positive for uphill)

Subscripts It s" and "t" refer to standard and test conditions respectively. The
f prefix n% indicates the correction required to bring the test value of the paran-
eter to standard.

2
Technical Note R-12

IWNTROD:JCTION:

1. In the presently used method of standardizing the take-off performance

of piston engined airplanes it is assumed that the excegs of thrust power over
drag power on or near the ground is equal to (or at least proportional to)
that in the air. Also, it i3 assumed that during the air phase of the take-off
this excess thrust power is used only to raise the airplane to 50 feet, the
usual increase in kinetic energy between the takeoff and 50 feet being neglected.
With increases in loading and in take-off speeds, both of these assumptions have
become untenable.

A revised method is developed in this report which does not require

thc abovc assumptions. Thl-Le miethod is readily appl..d Lo airplanes with propeller,
jet or mixed propulsion systems.

FACTUAL DATA:

2. Basic Relations:

2.1 Ground Roll: The equation of motion for take-off from a level
runway in zero wind may be written:
Sg 7 S

1
0
SIa
C)

where D - Total resistance, including tire friction

F a Total net thrust

S Distance from start of run to speed V

Sg Distance to unstick

t - Time

V True speed

VT Z True speed at uuisLick

(Corrections for wind and runway slope are considered later.)

To adjust the observed performance to standard conditions we wish to know

how Sg will vary with air temperature and pressure, airplane gross weight and net
thrust. To do so directly from equation (2-1), would usually be tedious. For-
tunately, for purposes of performance reduction it is permissible (and customary)
to approxirmate and~to work vith a "mean excess thrust", which wou•d, if applied
throughout the run, give the same ground roll. To reach a speed VT in a distance
Sg with a constant acceleration would require an Acceleration of VT2 /2 Sg. The
mean excess thrust is therefore given by:
 Technical Note R-12

mean. excess thrust a WVV/2g Sg (2-2)

The actual excess thrust changes steadily as the speed increases, so the mean
thrust -4ill be eulto the actualexes thrustant sonic spood V. Than if
and D are the thrust and total resistance at V T

g Z w V T (2-3)

It is showh in Appendix I, that a close approximation to (F- b) is obtained by

assuming that:

V 0.75 VT
With this assumption, the effect on take-off ground roll of changes in test
conditions may be deduced from equation (2-3) and the associated changes
in W, VT, F and D.

2.2 Air Phase: The equation of motion for the air phase with zero wind
may be written:
Sa :.

Si~

- /(2-4) ) ~t

where S = Distance from unstick point

Sa - Distance from unstick to 50 feet

t = Time

E = Total energy of the airplane relative to its

energy at the start of the ground roll

Now E W (h / V2 ) (2-5)
2p
where h height above start of ground roll

also V (F-D)
V (2-6)
dt

Substituting from (2-6) into (2-4)

4
sa - -
(F - -D) -F(
v, __a w
V,
- _D (2-7)

As with the ground roll, we may approximate, writing

sa - ,)W , t (2-8)

where F, D are mean values of F and D and K " (V. - v

It is not possiblo, in this case, to bo very pr.Ž-iso JbouLt Lhe cotiliLionj unider

4
Technical Note £i-12

which the actual thrust and drag will be equal to the mean values. However,
the speed range is not great and its effect on F and D will be slight. It
will be assumed that F and D are equal to the values of F and D at the speed
aane a fee' i the cla.sica U -o a climb away at constant
speed, this is the steady climb speed) and a height of 25 feet. It is of
interest that on large airplanes the ground effect may persist fairly strongly
even at 50 feet. However, this need only be considered in setting up the
method. It need not usually be considered in its routine application.

3. Speed at 50 Feet Altitude:

It is clear from equation (2-8) that the effect on air distance of any
parameter such as air density will be strongly influenced by any change of hv with
that parameter. Let us examine the relation between take-off speed and the speed
at 50 feet.

If the airolane leaves the ground at the maximum safe lift coefficient
it has at that instant insufficient lift available to change the direction of
flight. It will, however, continue to accelerate and as it does so, the available
lift will increase and eiable the airplauti LO change its direction of flight, say
to that at which it can climb at constant forward speed. However, unless the
remainder of the climb to 50 feet is a zoom with speed decreasing, some of this
speed increase will necessarily remain at 50 feet. If the unstick is del~'ed to a
speed higher than the minimum the airplane can be brought up into the climb more
sharply, and the speed change lessened, but even then a fairly drastic maneuver
would be necessary to bring the speed at 50 feet back to the unstick speed. Such a
maneuver would be unusual except with light arid docile airplanes.

Present take-off speeds for high performance airplanes are high enough
that this change in kinetic energy between unstick and 50 feet is between '/1-1
and 70% of the total energy increase, only 30% to 40% being used to increase
altitude. It is, therefore, necessary to decide how great the increase in
kinetic energy is and how it varies with test conditions.

As a matter of interest, and to fix ideas.let us first consider the

type of take-off in which unstick and transition are at constant lift coefficient
and the remainder (if any) of the climb to 50 feet is a straight climb at constant
speed. It is shown in Appendix III from an approximate analysis that in such a
case:
V50 VT (1 __) (3-1)

where y, is the angle of steady climb at the eventual steady climb speed V5 0 .
The total horizontal distance is overed then (Appendix 111)

a :50 T (3-2)
2
&'c g

If, as happens when the ratio of thrust to weight is large, the curved part of
the fligh#t path is not completed at 50 feet, a more complicated relation gives
the speed of 50 feet. Te vaiue of hv /hv / 50 given by this type of take-off
is shown b- the full cirve of Figure 1A. The straight portion refers to these
cases for which the trnr•3ition is complete before 50 feet, the curved portion to
those for which the airplane is still on a curved path at 50 feet. Tne chain
Technical Note R-12

dashed line is an empirical adaptation of the theory~derived by the British

around 1940 and applied to take-offs for which the aim was to achieve "the
minimum distance compatible with safety". As an illustration, the ratio of
the speed at 5U feet to the speed at take-off, has been computed from a number
of test take-offs and is plotted in Figure 2 against the available angle of
climb (iLe. the excess of thrust over drag, divided by the gross weight). It
will be seen that the trend to more increase in speed between take-off and
50 feet at higher values of ý'c is present, not only for the points as a wholc,
but also for most of the individual airplanes. However, no definite trend is
apparent for medium propeller airplane No. 2. In the case of the airplane with
fixed pitch propeller, most of the take-offs were ended by zoom climbs to 50 feet,
and a subsequent reduction of the attitude to that for a steady climb, to achieve
the minimum distance. Such a maneuver could hardly be considered practical
except on airplanes of that class with a gentle stall. The two take-offs by that
airplane using a more normal technique tend to agree with the other airplanes.
The data as a whole, tend to follow the British empirical relation.

If the :3ritish relation between V5/V and )1 were accepted instead of

the presently used assumprtion of constant Rft coefficients at take-off and at
50 feet it would m°arkedly reduce the effect of changes in thrust, density, or
weight, on the length of the air phase. For example, if the standard value of
•c were 90% of the test value due to thrust changes, the standard speed in-
crease between take-off and 50 feet would thereby be reduced to 90.4 of the test
value. For an hV of 100 feet, this would result in a change in air distance to
(equation 2-8):
ý Ct 50 I S x Sat

"= 22 Sat 1O4Sa

771) 50 100

whereas the assumption of constant lift coefficients at taKe-off and at 50 feet

would give
/It- Sat
•--• Sa 1•- Sa
at i11Saat

The present writer has the oninnon that. the British empirical relation was
a good assumption when it was made, and that the basic trend which it represents
still exists. There are a number of factors, however, of increasing importance,
which tend to reduce its prosent suitability, The older tail wheel ty-po of
landing gear never forced a delayed take-off, whereas tricycle landing gears
sometimes do so and "bicycle" landing gears leave the pilot little control over
unstick speed. Also, with modern airplanes operating from good runways, it is
likely to be economic to delay unstick and use the excess speed to achieve a
sharper transition and a shorter cir path, bec:ause the drag on the ground will
often be lower than that in the air. With bicycle landing gear in particular,
it would seem reasonable to trim before take-off for a desired climb lift co-
efficient. The airplane would then unstick when aerodynamic forces were SuffiC-ie.. nt
either to lift the -irplane in the ground attitude or to oitch it to a greater
attitude sufficient to lift it. Cases such as these, taken i-.itA; the increasing
ne1ed to rely on the airspeed indiccator, rather than the "feel" of the aFirlane as

6
 Technical Note R-12

data by ihich to judge how to take off, s uggest that an, assumption that the
lift coefficients at 50 feet, and at unstick, ,ire constant during the reduction
process, is probably the most reasonable to use,, It enables the quoted take-
off perforrnincA at a given gross weight, to be associ.,te with a specific speed
at 50 feet, which will be independent of air pressure and temperature. This
assumption will, therefore, 1e adopted for this Report.

4'. Ferformance Reduction Fviuations:

4.l Ground Roll: Using equation (2-3) we may consider the effect on
Sg of moderate changes in air density, thrust, and airplane gross weight. This
may be done by using the equation directly or by differentiating it with respect
to our variables. Let us first consider direct use of the equation. It is shown
in Appendix II that if unstick is at constant CL

-g - -v (Ti. /

where subscripts "t" and "s" refer to tý3st and standard coryitinns rfspert.ively,.
This form is intended primarily for miachine computing of the corrected take-off
performance of jet propelled airplanes. It roeuires evaluation of the test and
standard thrust, which presents no great difficulty with the jet airplane but
could be inconvenient with a propeller driven airplane. It would be a little
clumsy for desk computing, but it has the advantage of being more accurate for
large corrections Lhan a differential method. As F varies only slowly with air-
speed, it is usually sufficient to A•rite F = 0.94 x FO, the static thrust.
¶1 Alternatively, we may differentiate equation (2-3) with rpspect to our variables.
Assuming again that take-off is at constant CL, we have VT proportional to 'A/cT
and hence
3/ ... - ( 4 1,2)
9 )ý - ( F J)
This being so, it is sho.n, in Appendix II that

wt -4.. .
sgt
where the terms in L/ and A/-a give the effect of W and r on S at constant
T. Changes in W and oawill also, in general, affect Sg by changing T, but any
such effects will be accounted for in estimating z F. If weight corrections are
small, it would be convenient and legitimate to substitute WAfor Wt above.

This relation is general, being independent of the particular method of

propulsion. It is quite convenient to use, if, as seems likely, generalized
values of D/'(F-D) can be used. This and the estimation ofrAP/f for propeller
driven airplanes are considered later.

An alternative form of equation (4-3), derived in Appendix II is

z 'w•
°t •t (."-3a)

Sg9t "I)tj
7
Technical Note R-12

This form would be a little more accurate for large corrections, being equiva-
lent to a step by step application of equation (1-2).

4o2 Air Phase: For !et airplanes when mechanized computing -7 used,
or possibly when the departure of test c )nditions from standard is rather large,
it is profitable to use a relation similar to equation (4-1). It is shown in
Appendix II, that if the lift coefficients at unstick and at 50 feet are un-
changed during the reduction process, we may write

Sa +
(4-4)
sat L -- • I- -. '-
a~V V/'(7\~
where Sa is the distance coveredA between unstick and 50 feet, and, argain,
subscripts 'It" and Is" refer to test ,ind stand:-rd conditions respectively.

For propeller driven airplanes, and in general for desk computing, when the
differences betweIr test and standard conditions are not too large, it is again
more convenient to work with an eluation derived by differentiating the basic
relation. It is shown in Appendix iI that:

SSat Wt F-7 hv / 50

att

- V (4-5)
hv 50 j
Again, as with e.nuation (2-5), tie terms in '\ W and tw'give the change of S
with W and f at constant F; any e(ffect. of clian,.,es of W or ' oni F must be
included in A F. As with the ground roll c:;se, the relation is general, being
independent of the methodi of -ýpropulsion used. The rel ns('readilye
relati:fati is e easy stimto
to
apply, provided that AF/Ft and the values of 1h and D/(F-D) are readily estimated.
These matters are considered later. V

Equation (2-3), as (2-6), in exponential form

car) also be %written

A __ _j r Ft: (4-5a)

at

This form, like eqiation (2-6a), is a little more accurate for large corrections.

5. R;tio of Iean Drag to Mean Excess Thrust:

If, in either the ground or air phase, F is readily estiz"ated, then the
ratio of drag to excess thrust required to apply equation (\4-3) and (4-5), may be
deduced from the relations

8
 Technical Note R-12

D - T - 1 (5-1)

and F-D 2/ý,

or - w (hv/ 50/S

for the ground roll or air phase respectively.

This is what, in effect, is done in deriving equations (4-1) arid (4-4). However,
manual computing would be greatly simplified by assuming generalized values for
SD-/(F- D) for ground and air phases. This seems to be practicable. Table I
below, lists estiimated value- of Lhis ratio for a number of airplanes, based
on values of (F-- _!W computed from test data and estimated values of D4vi
(for propeller airplanes) or F-v/ (jet airplanes). (An exception is the heavy
propeller airplane, for which the values are based on the firm's estimates of
performance.)

TAPLE I

Ratio of Drag to Exces Thrust

Airplane Type Ground Roll Air Phase

Light, fixed pitch (Zero Flap) 0,2 0.3

Light, fixed pitch (500 Flap) 0.5 0.8

Light, constant speed (150 Flap) 0M2 0.5

Light, constant speed 0.3 0.5

Heavy, propeller O.2 0.6

Medium, propeller 0.3 0.6

Medium, jet* 0.5 1.2 Approx.

Medium, jet 003 0.9 Approx.

Fighter, jet 0.3 0.9

STake-off accelerations very poor for the class of airplane.

It should be remarked that the estimates for the air phase are rather
rough, because the experimental values of (F- D) were usually very erratic.
This is a common feature of take-off data, which very probably results from
inaccuracies in the measurement of the airplane speeds at take-off and at 50
feet. This difficulty is, of course an argument against the direct use of
experimental speeds (as in enuation ý4-4), where they are used to calculate
hv).

On the basis of Table I, it is suggested that values of 0.3 for the ground
run and 0.6 for the air phase be used. These would aprear to be representative
values except when the accelerAtion is very poor, (say less than 0.1 g during

9
 Technical Note R-12

the ground run) when almost any correction method is liable to give results.
In such cases, particular care should be taken either to run the tests under
conditions as near as possible to standard, or to test under a range of con-
ditions wide enough to give a check of the reduction formulae.

6. Ratio of Kinetic to Total Energy Increase on Climb:

To apply equation (4-5), it would also be very convenient to have

generalized values for hv/(hv , 50), that is, the ratio of the kinetic to the
total energy increase on the climb.

r In Figure 1A experimental values of hv/(hv / 50) are plotted for a wide

range of types of airplane. It will be seen, as experience of take-offs would
have suggested, that the scatter is very large. It should be noted that it was
difficult to raise the nose wheel of the jet fighter in certain configurations.
The effect of this is illustrated in Figure 1B which presents records of two
take-offs of this airplane made at approximately the same gross weight. In the
one case, the unstick speed was slow, and the transition long, persisting almost
to 50 feet. This, in fact, agrees well with the theory outlined above. In the
second case, the unstick speed was much higher, the transition brief, and the climb-
away quite steep. These are typical of what happens with early unstick and late
unstick, respectively. It would seem, for a given speed at 50 feet,that the
latter may well become the more normal, and probably, the more economical type
of maneuver.

Equation (4-4) implies that hvt is computed from the test data. This is
probably the most satisfactory meth6d if precision is desired, despite the
difficulty of measuring VT -and V 50 accurately. However, if desired, a rather
rough estimate of hv could be made from generalized data. Similarly, when using
equation (4-5), computation of the test value of hv is probably desirable from the
j point of view of accuracy. The weight error correction is usually small, so the
decision will be determined mainly by the size of the term La/lq . For example,
if test conditions were 2000 feet pressure altitude and 35 0 C and standard condi-
tions were sea level 150 C lo'•u would be 0.13. An error of 0.3 in the value
assumed for hv/hv 7 50 would then lead to an error of 4% in the corrected air
distance. If this order of accuracy is sufficient for correction over so large
a range, as it may well be in many cases, then manual computation of the correct-
ion could be sinplified by assuming, say
hv - 0.4 for light airp-lanes
h /50
hv
hv ý50 0.7 for other airplanes

The figure of 0.7 is a little on the high side for present airplanes and allows
for some future increase in ratio. ',hen machine computing is used the simplifi-
cation has little value.

7. Thrust Correction:

7.1 General: The above equations give the corrections to be added to

10
j Technical Note R-12

the test distances in terms of the corrections required to bring the test
weight, air density, and thrust to standard. These equations are independent
of the particular method of propulsion and can be applied to airplanes having
propeller, turbojet, rocket or mixed propulsion systems provided all of the
systems operate throughout the take-off. Assistance which operates during
only part of the take-off is considered separately later in the report.

7.2 Jet Propulsion: EstijmLation of test and standard thrusts for a

jet airplane is fairly straight forward and little general comment can usefully
be made.

Rocket thrust does not vary with speed during take-off and the thrust of
the turbojet engine does not vary rapidly. Consequently, it is unnecessary
to correct the test thrust for the changes in mean speed between test and
standard conditions. With the turbojet engines, however, it is desirable to
estimate the test and standard thrusts at approximately the right speeds. It
is best to base these estimates on a measured test thrust and an estimated
correction, but failing this, the mean thrusts may be assumed to be, say,94%
of static thrust if the air intake pressure losses under static conditions
are not large. However, some care is necessary; for example use of an intake
designed for very high speed may result in a thrust which is relatively poor
under static conditions but recovirs during take-off as the velocity ratio
(inlet speed/free air speed) becomes smaller. The engineer must use his dis-
cretion in such cases.

7.3 Fixed Pitch Propellers: Fixed pitch propellers are presently

found only on very light low speed airplanes with unsupercharged engines. For
such airplanes it is proposed to approximate the reaction of the -propeller to
change in operating conditions by assuming that:

a. The torque coefficient CQ is unchanged between test and

standard conditions

b. The thrust coefficientCT varies linearly with advance diameter

ratio J, the slope being such that CT becomes zero at take-
(bff rpm at an airspeed equal to five times the take-off speed

where CQ = torque/p n. d

CT - thrust/i /0

J =
n = propeller rotational speed

d propeller diameter

The engine may be at maximum permissible speed or at full throttle. In the first
case, reduction will be at constant engine speed and we will have

thrust c< o- CT

dF d2 / dCT (7-1)
F - CT
Si11
 Technical Note R-12

It is shown in Appendix IV that with the above assumptions we may then write:
A- T 1. Lao -- Oo. 1\-w
77
-- Wt(7-2)
w--

In the second case, of the full throttle engine, we must also make assumptions
about the variation of available torque with air pressure and air temperature.
It is proposed to assume that

torque available c- Pa.

-Ir
With this assumption, as C is to be constant,

I Pa

that is,

We then have (Appendix IV)

I- * . TL--0 - (7-3)

,_ I_ AT (7-4)

7.4 Constant Speed Propellers: It is shown in Appendix IV that

change of propeller thrust between toest and standard conditions may be written,
in the absence of compressibility effects on efficiency:

+
.... k"y' - - (7-5)

where A , A, , An, and A. are propeller functions. Generalized curves for these
functions in terms of propeller efficiency vt and advance diameter ratio J are
given in Figure 3. To use the figure an approximate estimate of q would be made
by comparing the power input to the propellers with the thrust power as given
by the observed acceleration or climb and the estimated drag.

Precise values of these functions are not required, it being sufficient to

estimate them within 0.1 or 0O.2. Further generalization is, therefore, attractive.
To study this the positions representing the mean conditions during the ground roll
and the air phave have been estimated and mapped on the diagrams. (These points
are not, of course, experimental data. They merely indicate the position of the
particular case on the diagram). From inspection of these points it is tentatively
proposed to assume that

12
Technical Note R-12

Ap 0.7

A = 0.5

AN P-05

AW -- 0.2

These numbers are tentative only, and should be checked from time to time.
In case of doubt, however, one may revert to the curves. Corrections for
engine speed will usually be very small, so a relatively large error in AN
may be tolerated.

7.5 Mixed Systems, Including ATO and Turbo Propellers: Mlixed

propulsion systems are quite straight forward to deal with when all components
are operating throughout the take-dff and climb-away. However, one must know
what proportion of the total mean thrust is contributed by each group. For
example, suppose that an airplane had both propellers and turbojet engines;
then we may write

-- - - .... (7-6)

where F - thrust from jet engines

7
r thrust from propellers

V : • i- [/

and \T_. A may be estimated as in the preceding section.

The turbo propeller engine, of course, is usually mixed installation from

this aspect, as there is usually a small but appreciable residual jet thrust,
qmounting to about 10% of the total. However, experience may show that in this
case it may be accurate to assume that the jet and propeller thrust are in con-
stant proportion, so that

F1, (7-7)
8. Preliminary Corrections:

8.1 Correction of 7hround Roll For Wind: Correction of the ground roll
for wind is presently made by the formula

S, -v_ (8-1)

where - ground roll in zero wind

Se - ,round roll with wind

w - head wind

13
Technical Note R-12

VT = true test ground speed at unstick, with headwind

The exponent is usually taken to be 1.85 or 1.9. This formula was derived
empirically many years ago, so it seemed desirakie to re-examine it. The
above ratio has therefore been computed over a range of J-/VT assuming

(a) Acceleration decreasing linearLy with airspeed

to:

(1) 80% of its initial value

(2) 40% of its initial value

(b) Acceleration decreasing linearly with airspeed

squared to:

(1) 80% of its initial value

(2) 40% of its initial value

The figures of 80% and 40% are representative of jet and propeller airplanes
respectively. The ratio so computed is plotted in Figure 4, together with
that given by the empirical equation. The curves for assumption (a) and (b)
were indistinguishable over the range shown.

It will be seen that the cases differ little up to very high wind speeds,
and also that the empirical formula agrees excellently. As its form is very
convenient it is, therefore, proposed to retain it.

8.2 Correction of Air Phase for Wind: The test air distance is
presently corrected for wind by adding the drift, i.e., the product of the
headwind and the time in the air phase. Th:i3 co-rrection is exact (apart from
wind gradients) and will be retained.

8.3 Correction for Runway Slope: An uphill slope sin ý will decrease
the excess thrust available for accelerating the airplane by W sin .

Following the method of section 2.2, working with a mean excess thrust, we
have equation (2-2).
tV2
Test mean excess thrust - .LTt
2g Sgt (8-2)

Hence, on a level runway at the test weight, air temperature and air pressure

Mean excess thrust = Wt 2Tt sin (8-3)

2g Sgt

The corresponding ground roll, to reach the take-off speed VTt , will theretfore
be: 2 /( i-

14
:1
 "Technical Note R-12

SThus, correction for runway slope is made by dividing the test distance by
2gSg
(1 / 2 sink), where sin is the uphill slope.
,[" VTt2

8.4 Correction to Constant CL If the lift, coefficients at tak'e-off

r
and t 50 feet are widely scattered, it may occasionally be •sirablc to correct
the corresporning distances to selectod values of the lift coefficients.

Ground Roll: The basic ocuation for the ground roll is equation
(2-3) 2
S: W VT
-- -T
2g?
2 "Vt 1(-5
2g X 7
2
As the lift coefficient at take-off is pro,)ortiorlal to W/VT correction is r~~
primarily by multiplying the test value of Sg, aft3r correction fo" ..ind U'd
j runway slope, by the ratio

( ~))

"U•,it. jet airp-lanes, the mean thrust will b6 sensibly unaltered. with propellor
airplanes, however, the change of speed will also alter the thrust. From eqlua-
tior. (A-4-7) of Appern.Aix IV we have
AT- _

But we are proposin- to ass=ze, section 7.4, that

A-W = -0o 2
where from Appendix IV etiiation (A-4-lO)

AW 2 1)

i.e. -l- 014i

The chan.e in S which results from the change in thrust is given in equatior (,-3)
by 1
IF1

BesprodceC
i. e 0 with the assumption of F,,ection 5 that
S 9 tF t e p r od u ca
bedRO M
F D 15
 Technical Note R-12

we have
AF.Sg - .o3 (-0.4) A VT
S9t VVTt

0.52 L VT
VTt

0.3 Lh (47- s)t

• -w
VT q approximately

as Vis propDrtional to VT.

The complete correction of the ground roll to constant take-off lift coefficient
is therefore given for propeller airplanes by

-~ S
gt \v - t

1 1.3
V,) approximately (8-6)

and for jet airplanes by W

g 54T (8-7)

For mixed propulsive systems which include propellers / F must be evaluated

j separately. Then
I -Ss 1,L• z•- -/ i
st W •

I equation (2-s)
Air Distance: The basic equation for the air distance is

Ssa= W (50$hv)

The primary correction to constant lift coefficients is made by allowing for

the change in h v. We have

hv 2g in consistent units
2g

The most straightforward attack is to compute hvt 4nd hvs using the relations

I
16
J I
Technical Note "-12

2 VST
V5.0 VS-0

vrs==

Then for jet airplanes no thrust correction is required and we have

Sa. 50 hV
Sa t
50 hvt

With propeller airplanes, the thrust must be corrected, as for the ground roll,
By a similar analysis, we have, since we are taking as mean spe-d, the speed
V50 at 50 feet (Section 2.2).

Z
f
/_ýEF 'I 'I
W (8-9)
+ 03
Sa Vt
t

Again, for mixed propulsive systems using propellers must be evaluated

separately and substituted in the equation _77
V I
a.
(8-10)
-Ta,

'Where the factor 1.6 is the value proposed in section 5 for 1 -57

Part Time JATO; Correction of take-offs in which ATO is used for

part time, which is examined in the next section, is inherently complicated by the
fixed endurance characteristic of the usual rockets. As correction to constant
lift coefficient is rarely needed anyhcw, it is not considered desirable to treat
this case here. If desired, any particular case can be dealt with by an adaptation
of the above analysis and that of the next section.

9. Part-Time Assistance to Take-Off:

As has already been remarked, rocket assistance over the whole of the
take-off is no different in principle from any other method of providing the re-
quired thrust. Many ATO units are, however, of limited endurance and are operated
only over the last part of the take-off, when their assistance is most helpful, It
is this "part-time" feature of ATO which necessitates a separate treatment.

To make use of earlier analysis it is desirable to convert the actual thrust

F of the A'10 into ar effective mean thrust FR. It is shown in Appendix V that
ths may be approximated satisfactorily by means of the equation

17
 Technical Note R-12

% SR FR(9-1)
S

where

SR distance covered with ATO operating

S total distance covered during the phase

Consideration will be given to standardization to two cases only:

a. ATO stops as airplane passes 50 foot screen

b. ATO stops as airplane takes off

(a) will be the more usual case, but (b) may be needed for the case of a short
runway with no obstructions ahead of it.

Consider first the air phase. The ATO units will probably be fired too
early or too late to burn out at exactly the desired point, so correction must
be made. The test mean thrust is deduced by inserting test values of FR, SR,
and S in equation (9-1) above. The standard mean thrust is also easily deduced,
as the ratio SR/S will be equal to unity in case (a), and zero in case (b).
Standardization is then effected by substituting these mean thrusts in equation
(4-5).

Now consider the ground phase. Again, the test mean thrust is readily
evaluated using equation (9-1). The point at which the ATO is fired under
standard conditions, must, however, be adjusted to make it burn out at 50 feet
or at unstick, as desired. To do this, we first estimate the firing time under
standard conditions during the air phase. In case (b) this is, of course, zero.
In case (a) we may approximate it by the equation

tRas 2 ZSa
6/(VTs ý V 50t) (9-2)

when ty =as JATO time in air phase under standard conditions.

Sas = standard air distance

VT - standard take-off speed

SV 50 s standard speed at 50 feet

If now, the time for which the ATO was operating in the air phase during the
test was tRa , we must correct the test time of ATO operation in the gou
phase by adding to it

tR tRat - tRa (9-3)

(The thrust and endurance of the ATO units may be assumed equal under test and
standard conditions.) Allowing for this, it is shown in Appendix V that equation

18
Technical Note R-12

(4-3) may be adapted to give the form

Sgt ±

1.-I- • - s'

+ (9-4)

where = F/FR
F - total mean effective thrust

FR effective mean test ATO thrust

F-\b -correction to mean thrust of basic

propulsion systems

t - test time of ATO operation during ground

Rg t phase

This correction process is quite a little more complicated than that for take-
off without part time assistance, but the complication is not too formidable.
It would seem inevitable at the present time.

10. Combined Formulae for Propeller Airplanes:

For airplanes using propeller thrust only for take-off it may be con-
venient to substitute from the proposed generalized thrust equations (7-4 or
(7-3) and (7-5) into equations (4-1) and (4-5).

Recapitulating and inserting the proposed values of hv, - D)

_/(Fand
so on, we have
k Sg _ 2.3 Z•i -1.3 Zý F- (1O-1)

Z% -TaS 2.3 W - t AO- t 16 AF (10-2)

for all except light airplanes.

2.0 4o -.- A (10-3)
- AW- _

for light airplanes.

Also, for fixed pitch propellers

l.1L A ~
A- - o •W (10-4)
Ft, at constant engine speed
19
Technical Note R-12

AF- 1.- + (10-5)

at full throttle

while for constant speed propellers

0.7 + 0 n ," -.' (10-6)

T
Substituting, as appropriate, we have:

Light airplanes with fixed pitch propellers

At constant engine speed

- 2. 4 a-
st Wt OA (10-7)

and A S
a- 2.2 - , A2- (10-8)
at

at full throttle
A S.____ k"._ - .. _VT:
Al;.
Sgtg:2.4 ( 0
Wt t o

-3-S 2.2 Olt + t (10-10)

Light airplanes with constant speed propellers

Asgt
3%g, -=22o.6
6 1 _,,,__o-
A ___ A1• ( 0- 1

AS _7__ A?-I
Sv'(10-12) (10
Sa - 2 .3 Wk 1 ' -2 --
t

Heavy airplanes with constant speed propellers

- 2.6 1.7 0' _ O, -- (00-13)

gt
L\Sa - 2.6 ..... 1,5- O,9 ... . ,1 (10-1-4)
Sa t

Large Corrections:

If rather large corrections are involved ( j2Sj >0.2 St) it may be

20
Technical Note R-12

preferable, again, to use the exponential form similar to equations (4-3a)

and (4-5a). For example, instead of equation (10-13) one would use the
alternative equation
Sg") -7 -7

°t SSW I -) 4 /o

110 Non-Dimensional Methods:

"Non-dimensional" methods of performance reduction are in general use

for reducing level speed performance tests on turbojet airplanes to standard con-
ditions. Consideration of their use for take-off reduction is in hand as a sep-
arate project, but a brief general discussion would be of value here.

Making assumptions similar to those used above, of constant lift coefficient

at unstick and at 50 feet it can be shown that

where S - distance to unstick or to clear a screen of height

(50/e) feet.
F total net thrust

W - airplane gross weight

6 (air temperature °K)/288

6 -air pressure, atmospheres

With the simple turbojet airplane we can substitute for F/S in terms of N/0 ',
if desired, and write
-kA (11-2)

Thus, if the ground roll and distance to (50/8) feet were measured at the stan-
dard values of (N/IF) and (W/A) the standard values of ground roll and distance
to 50 feet could be very readily deduced. Alternatively, these standard values
could be deduced by interpolation from tests made over suitable ranges of N and
W.
With propeller airplanes also, substitution for F-/ is permissible since with a
propeller at given Mach number
F/, (11-3)

The mean Mach number of each phase is unchanged by test conditions if the lift
coefficients and W/S are held constant, so we may substitute from (11-3) into
(11-1) and write

21
Technical Note R-12

Hence, the standard tests could be deduced directly from tests at the desired
values of the above three variables, or by interpolation. To be able to do
this one must be able to vary (3/ independently of N/4O. This can be done with
the usual piston engine installation with constant speed propeller but will be
impossible with some turbo-propeller installations with single coordinated
engine controls.

It should be noted that in the above it is assumed that the lift coefficient
at height 50/0 feet is unchanged in test conditions, whereas in the earlier treat-
ment in this Report the lift coefficient at height of 50 feet is assumed constant.
However, these assumptions will usually be identical.

It is not proposed to prejudice conclusions of another project by extended

discussion here, but certain preliminary conclusions are readily drawn. Firstly,
the method is very attractive if it is in fact practicable to make tests at the
desired standard values of the independent variables, as the reduction process
then amounts only to dividing the test ground roll and distance to (50/e) feet
by the test value of e . Secondly, if precise control of any one of the variables
to the desired standard values is not practicable, tests must be made over a range
of that variable to permit interpolation. The poor repeatability of take-off tests
may make it uneconomical to do this, at least if tests are to be made over a range
of two or more variables, unless final data are also required over a range of
variablge, for example, of weight, pressure, altitude, and air temperature. When
tests and reduced data are both required over a wide range of conditions, however,
the technique again appears very attractive.

12. Verification of Formulae:

The reduction formulae have been checked:

a. Against tests over a wide range of pressure and weight, on a

light airplane with fixed pitch propeller.

b. Against tests over a wide range of weight on a medium

propeller driv'en airplane.

c. Against tests over a wide range of weight and a range of

power and air temperature on a heavy propeller bomber.

d. Against tests over a very wide range of air temperature,

air pressure, and a moderate range of weight on two jet
fighters.

e. Against design firm's predictions over a wide range of weight,

air temperature and air pressure for a medium jet bomber.

Light Fixed Pitch Airplane: Take-offs were measured on this airplane

from a runway at Edwards and from sod near sea level. The test air temper-
atures were very close to standard, so the data give no check of that correction.
They do, however, indicate the suitability of the pressure and weight corrections.
Corrections for pressure were made using formulae produced for the particu-

lar airplane before the generalized equations (10-7) thru (10-10) were available.

22
Technical Note R-12

The relations assumed were for 20 flap,

-. S 2.5 Pa
Sg9t Pat

and •S
a- 2.0 'Pa
Sat Pat

These factors, 2.5, and 2.0, compare with 2.4 and 2.2 in the general equations.
The differences are not significant, as they correspond to about 1% of the
ground roll (3 ft) and 1-1/2% of the air distance (3 ft). The distance to 50
feet so corrected is plotted against gross weight in Figure 5 for concrete
and sod runway. ft will be seen that the distance to reach 50 feet from the
concrete runway is, after correction to sea level, about 20-30 feet less than
that from the sod runway. This difference, about 10% of the ground roll, is
roughly what would be expected from the difference in runway surface. Thus,
the data indicate that the proposed reduction formulae are not seriously in
error as far as pressure corrections are concerned.

To check the weight correction, a plot has also been made in Figure 5
of logl 0 5o against log1 o.
0 The proposed relations for ground and air distances
would cor espond to a slope of 2.3 for the total distance to 50 feet. This also
is plotted in the Figure 5. It will be seen that the proposed slope agrees sat-
isfactorily, particularly as test weights on such airplanes differ little from
standard, and hence, no great degree of precision is required of the correction.

Medium Propeller Airplane: The tests on this airplane covered a wide range
of weight, 100,000 to 160,000 lbs,, but insufficient range of other parameters
to give a satisfactory check of the reduction formulae. The test data have been
corrected to a selected power and to standard air temperate and air pressure. The
corrected distance is plotted against gross weight in Figures 6A and 6B, again on
a logarithmic scale. To reduce scntter, the ground rolls have been corrected to
a mean lift coefficient, The slopes given by the generalized equations are drawn
in; it will be seer, that the proposed slopes agree with the test data within the
errors of the data,

Heavy Propeller Airplane: Tests on the Model P,and M'odel B of this type
each covered a wide range of weight. Taken together, (the airplanes being very
similar) they also covered a considerable range of air temperature and power.

The ground rolls and the air distances have been corrected to constant
lift coefficients at take-off and at 50 feet, to 150 C. sea level and 3000BHP/
engine. They are plotted against weight using a logarithmic scale in Figure 7A.
The slope corresponding to the proposed correction has been drawn in. It will
be seen that the proposed slope fits the experimental data very well. There is
no difference apparent between the two models. The distances have been further
corrected for weight, asing the proposed correction, andi~are plotted against
power and air density in Figure 7D. It will be seen that the ground roll
corrections appear to bring the test data together well within the experimental
scatter. The evidence for the air phase is le3s satisfactor-j, but does not disprove
the proposed corrections.

23
 Technical Note R-12

Jet Fighter No. 1: The tests on this airplane were designed to investigate
the effects of alr temperature and pressure, and airplane gross weight on take-
off performance. They covered a range of 6000 ft in pressure altitude, 20 0 C
in air temperature, and 20% in gross weight.

From static thrust measurements it appeared th;t over the take-off range
of conditions

1W (12-1)
I t"

% -- (12-2)

where P a-/Standard sea level gir pressure

at
But fron. equations (10-1) and (10-2)

2 .3 _ _
6V
___-
___
' A F (12-3)
S

and 2.3 (12-41

also, T- /t r- )
hence •--_- _

i.e., d- __•• _ d

and, hence, approximately,

__ LAz- (12-5)

Substituting from (12-2) and (12-5) into (12-3) and regrouping the terms, we
have
2.3A 2.3 .3_ 72.7 A Ta (12-6)

sgt W Tat
Similarly, for the air distance
SSa - 2.o3 A - 2.3 LZ..• $ 2.8 Ta (12-7)
Sat Wt t
Tat
If we multiply each side of (12-6) and (12-7) by Sgt andSat respectively,

we have, for the total distance cf 50 feet $50 -g S Sa, approximating

24
 Technical Note R-12

1 S50o ASg /LLsa

2.3 Z 2.7 ina proximately

-T

A0~~
50
3
~
W
7
ZA
+),
$ 2.7 ATa
25S 0 nno
(12-)
-t \T7t Tat

Integrating equations (12-6) and (12-8) we have,

02,31 / 2.7 01 Tat I constant (12-9)

2.3 lo01•,& 2o7 Io Tat V constant (12-10)

In figures 8A and 8B log S 9t and log $50t are plotted against log Tat for each

combination of W and • , a:Wd lines are drawn through the experimental points with
a slope of 2.7. It will then be seen that these lines agree well with the exper-
imental points.

Accepting this relption between distance and air temperature the test dis-
tances have been corrected for temperature. The logarithm of the distances so
corrected are plotted against log Q/6 in Figure 8C. It will be seen these points
also agree well with the predicted slopes.

Thus, the tests on this airplane agree very well with the proposed rediction

Jet Fighter t;o. 2: The tests on this airplane were designed, as were
those on Jet Fi.;hter No. 1, to determine the take-off performance over a wide
range of Oir temperature and pressure and a moderate range of weight.

The equations for the ground roll and air distance were dedaced as for
Jet Fighter ½o. 1. They were

log Sgt = 2.3 log _W

W 3.26 log Ta t constant (12-11)
Stt
and log Sa = 2.3 log *
.t 3.48 log Tat , constant (12-12)
At

As the air distance is only about 20% of the total, we may deduce as the relation
for the total distance to 50 feet

E log S50t = 2.3 log -Wt $ 3.3 lo6 Tt I constant (12-13)

As with the previous examnple, logl 0 S, and log 1 0 S 5 have first been plotted

25
Technical Note R-12

against loglO Tat (OK) for the experimental data for each value of W and

to check the proposed temperature correction (Figures 9A and 9B), and curves
with the predicted slopes have been drawn through the groups of points. It
will be seen that the proposed correction is satisfactory, although the data
suggests that it may be a little too large.

The values of log1 o Sgt and log1 0 350t given by these curves for 22 0 C
(log Tat = 2.47) have been cross-plotted against log 10 (W1, ) in Figure 9C. Here

it will be seen that the data for the two gross weights fit together well, but
that the experimental slope is no greater than 2.0 and markedly less than the
predicted slope of 2.3. So low a slope for ground roll is hard to explain
if it is accepted that all take-offs were made at indicated speeds 130 mph and
120 mph at the high and low gross weights respectively, as a slope of 2.0 would
only be expected if there were no drag. However, in the absence of measured
take-off speeds, further investigation is not possible. This apparent error
of 15% in prediction would lead to an error in the corrected distances of 1% for
every 1000 feet difference between test and standard altitudes. This would ap-
pear tolerable. Later tests on another model, not reproduced here because the
results were much more scattered, also tended to support a slope against log
W/S of 2.0 or less.

Medium Jet Bomber: This case has been approached differently, using
the Operating Manual. Accepting the figurev given by the performance charts
for the ground roll under one set of conditions, the proposed reduction form-
ulae have been used to compute the performance under widely different condi-
tions. This computed performance has then been compared with that given by
the charts. The results were as follows:

a. Correcting from 61% of maximum gross weight, Sea Level,

60°F to maximum gross weight, 6000 ft., 38OF :-
compute4 distance - 0.96 x chart distance

be Corrections from 83% Wmax 3000 ft., 120 0 F to 83% Wmax,

3000 ft., O°F :-
computed distance = l1 x chart distance

c. Corrections from 83% Wmax Sea Leve),60°F to 83% Wmax,

6000 ft., 60°F :-
computed distance - 0.97 x chart distance

Here also, the agreement is fairly good.

12. Acknowledgements:

Equations (4-1) and (4-4) were originated by Captain Paul E. Shoe-

macher. The theoretical treatment of the speed increase on the climb to 50
feet and the empirical modiffcation of the results, discussed in paragraph 3,
and illustrated in Figures 1A and 2, were the work of P. A. Hufton, then of
the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, England.

DISCUSSION:

The proposed reduction formulae are sumnarized in Appendix VII.

26
Technical Note R-12

The basic formulae can be used, with suitable numerical constants, for
any propulsive system, including mixed systems, and systems using part time
assistance or boost. The Pormulae should be easy to apply, with the possible
exception of that for part-time assistance; even then, the complication is not
great.

For turbo-jet airplanes, the formulae check satisfactorily with experimental

data over wide ranges of all parameters. For one airplane, the experimental rate
of variation of take-off distance with weight and air pressure was 151' less than
that predicted, corresponding to an error of 1% in corrected distance for every
1000 feet difference between test and standard pressure altitudes. However,
this error is considered tolerable. Also, the experimental value is open to
attack on theoretical grounds and was not supported by measurement of take-off
speeds.

For fixed pitch propeller airplanes, the corrections for weight and air
pressure check satisfactorily with experiment, No data were available by
which to check the temperature corrections.

For airplanes with constant speed propellers, the weight corrections check
well with experiment over a wide range of test weight. The power and density
corrections could not be fully checked with the data available, but they were
shown to at least approximate the correct values.

It should be noted that these formulae should not be used to correct for
big differences between test and s andard conditions if the take-off accelera-
tion is very low (for example if(VT/2g Sg) is less than Ol in consistent
units). For such cases any general method of standardization other than one
based on interpolation between test data is liable to be inaccurate, and care
should be taken either to make tests under near standard conditions or to
cover a large enough range of test conditions to permit reliable interpolation
or extrapolation.

The methods assume that the lift coefficients under test and standard
conditions are the same both at take-off and at 50 feet. This assumption has
been made on general grounds rather than from empirical analysis.

The assumed propeller characteristics should be checked from time to

time, particularly if unusual installations are to be tested. No method has
been proposed by which to estimate the thrust corrections for propellers suffer-
ing marked compressibility losses as reliable generalized data were not to hand
at the time of writing. The propeller tip Mach number should be checked if it is
expected to be high (for example, with an ungeared propeller of large diameter)
and special consideration given if it exceeds unity.

From the brief consideration given them, it appears that, in some cases
at least, non-dimensional methods may be an attractive alternative to the above
methods, requiring no numerical assumptions about thrust changes whether of a
propeller or a turbo jet engine. This type of method is being further considered
as a separate project.

CONCLUSIONS AUID RlICO;,'•."Y D'AIONS:

Correction formulae have been derived which are easy to ase and apply, with

27
Tecluhical Note R-12

suitable numerical constants, to airplanes with any type of propulsive system.

Generalized numerical constants are proposed for insertion in these

formulae. The experimental daLa available supports these constants but is
insufficient to check them completely. However, the propeller assumptions
should be checked occasionally.

Non-dimensional methods, which show promise of being a convenient alter-

native in some cases at least, are being investigated as a separate project.

It is recommended that the Froposed methods be used for standardization

of future take-off test data.

-28
 TECHNICAL NOTE R-12

REFERENCES

1. The Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew Theory. H. Glauert. Cambridge

University Press, England, 1948.

29
I •
TECMNICAI NOTE .R-12

APPEWIX I

Approximation of the Hean Excess Thrust

INTRODUCTI 011:

The excess thrust and hence the acceleration decrease with increase of
airspeed until at take-off, they are about 80% (for jet airplanes) or 40%
(for propeller airplanes) of their initial values. The slope of the curve
can usually be approximated closely by assuming it to be linear with regard
to either speed or speed squared. Representative cases are shown in Figure
l10 We will show that in either case, a figure of 0o75 VT for V will give
an acceleration very close to the true value over the required range of
slopes. This being so, this value for V should be satisfactory.

NOTATION:

Symbol Definition

D total resistance

value of D when V = V

F total net thrust

T value of F when V a

rl, r2 constants in acceleration - speed relations

S distance to attain speed V

S distance to unstick

t time

V true speed

VT take-off speed

v V/VT

value of V at which F- D = WVT2/2gS

(paragraph 2 of main text)

cL acceleration

o(o acceleration at zero forward speed

mean acceleration (VT 2 /2 S )

30
TECHINICAL NOTE R-12

Excess Thrust Linear With Regard to Speed: We will work in terms of the
acceleration cL , where

W (F- D) (Al-I)

We will write

d (- n0) (Al-2)

s
S

Then we have Sg j dS

~dt/ dt
vT
0

=
jC VdV

2 1

0
VT d

VT d(- r v
- -- 7- d(r v) 4 1 4 (-rlv)
1 c0 0

VT2
3%lrl loge rI) (A1-3)

31
 TECIHICAI NOTE 4-12

Let us denote the mean acceleration , which would produce the take-off
speed VT in the ground roll distance Sg. by- . Then

2
V
S_ T (Al-4)
g

But from equation (Al-3)

2 2
_ 01
••or (n-*5)
2S r, 4 loge (1- rl)

He n c e d 0r 2
-= ol (Al-6)
rI 4 log8 (1 - r1 )

If an assumption V = 0.75 V is to be satisfactory, Z1must be sensibly

equal to the acceleration c-/.75az that speed, The ratio l 0./ has been
computed over a range of rl, with the results tabulated below.

ri 0.2 o.4 o.6 0.8

0/o.75/5ý 0.98 0.97 0.97 1.03

It will be seen that the above assumption is satisfactory over the likely
range of r. The approximation gives a good estimate ofF. and hence of
F- D). Ao, as the ratio / --' varies very slowly with rI it will
also give a good estimate of the change in ( B) between test and standard
B-
conditions, even if the test and standard values of rl may differ appreciably.

Acceleration Linear with 'Regard to Square of Speed: In this case, we will

write

0 (1 - r2v) (Al-?)

Then as before
VT
s¢ .. V d__Y

0
!
o 32
 TECHNICAL NOTE 1ý-12

T vdv
1 - r 2 v2
0

1
VT 2
2d.o r 2 9- d(r 2 v 2
2

00
2 or2
-- _ -loge UI - r2v 2
2o( r2
T2 0 _
0

- 2d 0 r 2 e ( r2) (AI-8)

But we also have, as before, (equation (Ai-4),

2S

gr
Hence •/ -g o loge 2 Ul - r.) (-
(A, -r)

05t o ( 1- (o075) r 2 (Al-b)

Hence 7,lI _ 1
- - (Q,7$)2 r.2 loge (I - r2 ) (Al-lI)

33

V'
TECHNICAL YOTE )e-12

d 0 5/- has been computed for this case also over the likely range of
r 2 , with t?* results tabulated below:

r2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

d 0.75/h 0.99 0.99 1.O0 1.l1

It will be seen that over the likely range of r 2 (around 0.2 to 0.6) the
ratio is again very nearly unity, and that -/0.?5 will approximate J• closely.
That is, the excess thrust at 0.75 VT is a close approximation to the mean
excess thrust.

34
 TECIMNICAI, NOTE R-12

APPENDIX II

Derivation of Performance Reduction Equations

NOTATI ON

Syo Definition

CD9 drag coefficient during ground roll

CLg lift coefficient during ground roll

C lift coefficient at take-off

Da aerodynamic drag

B total resistance at mean speed.

F total net thrust at mean speed&

hv (V250 - VT2) /2g

K, K11 K'', K'il constants of proportionality used temporarily

and defined locally
L aerodynamic lift during ground roll

Sw gross wing area

V.mean speed during phase

= 0.75 VT for ground roll

= V5 0 for air phase

VT true speed at take-off

V50 true speed at 50 ft.

W gross weight of airplane

coefficient of rolling friction of tires

relative density of air - local

density/standard sea level density

Subscripts 't' and Is' denote test and standard conditions respectively.

35
 TECHNICAL NOTE 1-12

Derivation of Squation (4-2): We have (equation (2-2) of main text)

S W2 (
oC _ _ (A2-1)

Hence, if subscripts 't' and '1' denote test and standard conditions
respectively

S-FD

wt wt Ds (A2-2)
C
5 ~t L t- t W Ft - t

Now • is the total resistance at speed " = 0.75 VT* We have

D (W
/(-L) 4DI

where L aerodynamic lift

Da = aerodynamic drag

coefficient of rolling friction of tires

Hence, if CD and CL are the drag and lift coefficients during the ground
g g
roll, SW is the gross wing area,

Dkw 4 SW 2g
(C D~g CL )

- /2V * 2 SW (0.752) (CD PGL (A2-3)

36
I
TECHNICAL NOTE 1R-12

If, further, CLT.0" is the llft coefficient at take-off

w a • T2 SW CL.o.
p (A2-4)

Substituting for SW from (A2-4) into (A2-3),

SVT we have

1- W 4 (0.75)2 W CDg -)XLg (A2-5)

CLT.O.

Hence, assuming CDg, CLg, CLT.o" and/t constant, we have

'f..
Dt wt

Substituting for 15 it from (A2-6) into (A2-2), we thus have

Sgt _ a-s wt TO

- Vw itt-Dt
we~ e Ft-t
S4 1
FtV (A2--7)

From equation (2-3) of the main text, we may deduce that

2
VT
- ' VT
2g(A2-8)

37
 TECHNICAL NOTE R-12

Hence, we my rewrite equation (A2-7) in a form more directly related to

experimental data, as follows:

SCt Vt Grs8 2g St Wt 1

S. W •t LWtVT 8 -w F -4 t 41 (A2-9)
go W
we Ct WtV2 W

or

S WsB +t
t2 g wt (A2-10)

WtVTt

Derivation of equation (4-4): Equation (4.A) of the main text may be

derived somewhat similarily. We have (equ~tion (2-8) of main text)

S50__V. hy45 A-1

a F - D 50

and hence,

at Wt 'f e-3 hvt 4 50

S
To t - -t hv a 0(A2-12)

We have assumed that the test and standard

lift coefficients are the same,
both at take-off and at 50 ft. Hence

2 2
50
V t t2 Vt
W=
(A2-13)

V508 YT 3

38
TECI{NICAL NOTE R-12

VS0 e2 - YT6 2 V6 O-• ¥5 0t 2 - t2

G"t 2-
Hence, we have h • 5T 2g

s t h (A2-14)
Wt Cs vt

Also, if the drag and lift coefficientsat the mean air speed V are constant

2 2
S
V52S D
Cw . S• c
•t ½ftV2 t t
-wc •c
2

Ps VTO SW CL Ws
SC -- (A2-15)
Wt
PtTt2 SW CL

Hence,

W Ds 1 4._ (A2-16)
W t Bf P - -F14 -D

Substituting from (A2-14) and (A2-16) into (A2-12) we have

Sa Vt 10 +t~
t _ F1 4 1 -

t 8

39
TECHN11CAL NOTE R-12

= [h = +-
+
50o-4LW t: t(
T ,ý-•
t
7
Vsa-It h~t4 50)

50 Sat 9 / ht + 50

Inverting, this becomes

we C-t
(A2-17)
(-

htt + 50 + Sat &- Sat •t

W a t

Derivation of Equations- (4-3) and (4-3a): We have (equation (A2-1)

2
s9 =c K _L (A2-18)
Sg crT -V say

Now by definition, as 3 depends on W only (equation (A2-5) and hence, S

varies only with W, 0- and 7

S 7'
Sed
DS d-4 gI (A2-19)
s g - Sg e g

But
Sg = 2 w . 4K W2
S _ 41

as W2 1 +X 2 1 _

40
TECHNICAL NOTE rt-12

- s9 2 • Tv

Tha t is
T -Sg D W __D (A2-20)
Sg , -W- = -D

Since

flocW =K W sa•

%w K' = D
w

T
(A2-21)

Also,
0. Sg = _ r, W2I

-K Sg

s9 (A2-22)
•

?urthe r,

2s 2
• (•-)21
TECHNICAL NOTE rf-12

ki e -
(A2-23)

Substituting from (A2-20), (A2-22) into (A2-19). we have

dS / dd0- F\W d?
9- 2 4 =-.- Y - (A2-24)
g

This equationebeitutin differentials, is exact. to our purpose

To apply soit on,
we approximate by substituting A S, /iV for dSg, dW and giving the
approximate equation

s•9 9:=(2 4 f - - ) W
WI - L- D (A2-25)

Writing in observed base values, this becomes

AS t =2K- U ) A W Ar T (A2-25a)
ii wt
W- t

When, as is usual, the weight correction is small, it will be more convenient

and will introduce negligible error to substitute We for Wt, writing

Sg t
=g (2 4
F
D)
D /
W
Ws
&T
0t
.- ~
Ft
(A2-25b)

An alternative form is obtained by integrating equation (A2-24), assuming

.the coefficients of dW, da- and dF constant, giving

loge 7
logo S = )Cloge W- loge
8 r -

42
TECHNICAL NOTE iý-12

That is, f/\

(2 4 -) - -I---
S o4 W' Y ' D
g

(2+ D

and hence

-s W 2 F-D Oý F-D (226)

Derivation of Equations (4-5) and ( 4 -5a): We have (equation (2-11) of the

main text and (A2-11) of this Arpendix).

hv + 50
Sa T_
50 - 50

We have already seen, while deriving equation (2-12), that (equations (A2-14)
and (A2-15))

W W
hn' c--- K'V' say

0C W K''' W say

Hence,

hv Kit hK''
v

W =-1 (A2-27)
V

Similarly,

W 1 (A2-28)

43
 TECHNICAL NOTE R•-12

oi" ?h - -I(A2-29)
hv ý)"

We may regard Sa as dependent on W, 7 and oa only, and write

dSa W J''a dW - dc- + Sa df (A2-30)

aa a W a a

Now,

C)Sa _
- 50 4 5o05 50 hv 45° 0
50 D)2 50 TW

50W f-

h + - 50 Whw

-w- 7 50W-5 50 1_4+ __ hy61 6W

ohv
h=5 )

S1 + _ V
aj - D 7ld h 4 50 hv JW

Substituting from equations (A2-27) and (A2-29) and dividing both sides
by Sa, we thus have

%'•• =1 4 • v(A2-1)l

a T hv 4 50

44

I
TECHNICAL NOTE +-12

Further,

Sa - ow 1 Dhv
C)-3 50 Jk3

-Sw hv 4 50 hv *- Dhv
F- D 50 h4 50 hv -

Substituting from aquation (A2-29) and dividing both sides by S'-we have

a h, (A2-32)
SUrh- 4 50
a v

Also,

Sa 50W h 4 50

S(F - .)2 50

-5oW _ , _51 1

y- D 5
Sa

Hence,
•s a _ Fi
_D (A2-33)
S T

45
TECHNICAL NOTE 9-12

Substituting from equations (A2-31) thru (A2-33) into equation (A2-30)

we thus have

dSa 1 4 4v y dW
Sa _ h + 50) 7

hSa a--

-( 1 4 ~ z (A2-34)

This oquation, like equation (A2-24) for the ground roll, is exact. As
in that case, we may now approximate and write

ASa + h +5

F-at v + 0 Wt

- +t
hv+50

- y 1 -41) 4 - (A2-35)
t

For small weight corrections (say, less than 5%) it is again permiesible to
write W9 for Wt.

Alternatively, we may use an equation analogous to equation (A2-26). This

Is, by analogy

a9 F- h 4,50) hV F-50)
F - D
- we
sat \t' (A2-3

46
TECHNICAL NOTE T+-12

APPENDIX III

The Transition Phase After a Take-Off at the Minimum

Safe Sopeed

INTRODUCTION:

If the airplane takes off at the minimum safe speed, it has at that moment
no excess of lift over weight with which to change the direction of motion.
However, as the airplane accelerates the lift available without exceeding the
makximum safe lift coefficient increases, and it becomes possible to pull the
airplane up into a climb. This maneuver can be continued, using the raximum
safe lift coefficient throughout, until the airplane either reaches 50 ft.,
or the angle at which it can climb steadily.

These maneuvers give an idea of the likely increase in airspeed between

a minimum speed take-off, and the 50 ft. screen. Both are considered below.

NOTATION:

Symbol Definition
2 2
hv (V50 - VT )2)

Sa distance from take-off to 50 ft.

t time

t time to attain steady climb from take-off

C
t5 0 time to 50 ft. from take-off

V true speed

VT take-off speed

V5 0 speed at 50 ft.

(thrust-drag)/(weight of airplane)

angle of climb

2g Sa/VT

2g/VT

47
TECHNICAI NOTE R-12

The Equations of Motion: We will assume that the thrust and drag remain
constant throughout the transition from take-off to steady climb. This is a
rather severe assumption for those cases for which the transition continues up
to around 50 ft. altitude, but is necessary to permit a reasonably simple treat-
meent.

Suppose that at a given

instant, the airplane speed and
angle of climb are V and ý, . With V
the above assumption of constant
thrust and drag, the excess thrust
will be constant, equal to oý W say. _.. ..
Vr

Then

Ct normal acceleration

r ij~(A3-2)
from consideration of the lift available.
Differentiating (A3-2) we have

d~ V dXV V

dt
oIV d (A3-3)
41•

Substituting from (A3-1) and (A3-2) for EVand Ldt we then have

dt d

I4
TECHNICAI NOTE R-12

r v

22

V..

2 2
sinusoidal motion Ftbout dt
This equation indicates a

We will follow this until we reach either the angle at which steady climb is
possible or 50 ft., whichever occurs first.

As a solution to (A3-5) we can write

I(A3-6)

since is initially zero when t is zero

• t- 2

Hence

(A3-7)

Steady Climb Attained Before 50 ft,: If, now, we further assume that
the possible steady angle of climb is equal to ? i.e. that the excess thrust
is still unchanged, we see that the airplane attains the steady climb angle
when

S• (k3-8)

49
TEf'I)CAL NOT-E R-12

- r Vi J-
S~(A3,-9)

During this time, we have

distance covered - t V

C-

C.

\L
CT7

= V •.i L -
•
-5 s uWj 0

Hence we liave total distance to 50 ft., Sao is equal to

Vo 0 -4

50
 TECHNICAL NOTE a-12

_0 + _ V_ (A3-1)

The speed on the steady? climb is then

S v- V0±

oo
00

V--a
- vN + • r

V ~1- - Vr v4

-~t
P~or the kinetic energy increase between take-off and .50 ft.. ve have

approximately (A3-13)

But, we also have, considering the total energy increase,

2

-4-tOV •(.z.
(A3-14)

i. 51
TBCMNICAL NOTE R-12

Dividing equation (A3-13) by equation (A3-14), we have

In the above analysis, any increase in induced drag due to curvature of

the flight path, is ignored. It is shown in Appendix II that this increase
will increase the air distance by less than about

1.2

say

Thus, this effect will change the transition distance by less than 15%.
An the present analysis is approximate only, being designed to indicate the
order of and shape of the effects investigated, this is considered good
enough.

Transition Incommlete at 50 ft.: From equation (A3-10) the height gained

during transition to steady climb will be exactly 50 ft. when

r C

Substituting from equation (A3-11),

v•

2- from equation WA-9)

 M1ICAL NOTE 1;-12

I- _ I- (A3-16)

IUnder theBe conditions, we have (equation A3-15)

... =, -. ._ 064- (A3-17)

For higher values of VT 2 /( Y-I S.) transition is incomplete at 50 ft.

At the 50 ft. point, we then have

50 height gained

- 5V~ cAt approximately

]- - -4°±c

- [ -

! - r
V 0 t-(
3, itI A3-18)
*1 TIXONICAL NOTI R-12

&It the air distance Sa is approzixtely given by

I
SCL - Vr (A3.1 9)

Also, from equation (AL3-7)

11

have
Hence, we

1-

I (A3-21)
I
Considering now, the speed at 50 ft., we have

I 0

L3•

. |

SV (i-. (A3-22)

(I 45
•5-4•
 TECHINICAL NOTE R-12

- approximately

5 ,
S from equation (A3-22)

I
But hv 4 50 = total energy increase/V

I Hence,
I _ _v

I~W 01 W' -23)

I ~Equation (A3-15) can now be written

I •, _ ____
-•
J
-7 (A3-24)
-r-
Equation (A3-24) applies for values of • down to 2 * after which equation
I (A3-23) should be used.

Using these relations h 0 in plotted against T

VT g Sa in Figure 1A.
11, 4 50
J , ' .. 55

!1~
 TECNICAL NOTE Ri-12

I APPENDIX IV

Correction of Propeller Thrust to Standard Conditions,

NOTATION:
ISymbol Definition

CLT lift coefficient at take-off

Cp Ply n3 d5

I C
CQ Q0 n 2 d5

I C F/?•n 2 d4

ET value f0CTVwhen V

d propeller diameter

F thrust

F thrast at mean speed V for phase

J V/nd

i •7/nd
n propeller rotational speed

I N engine rotational speed

i P power input to propeller

Pa ambient air pressure

I & torque

V true speed

iVT true speed at take-off

V5 0 true speed at 50 ft.

mean speed during phase

I V airplane gross weight

11 56
I!
T TThCMIICAL NiOTE 1-12

1 INOTATION (CONTINI"UD) :

Symbol Definition

propeller efficiency

value of ', given by simple momentum theory

air density

St air density/standard Sea Level density

Subecril•ts O, a, t denote to static, standard and test conditions respectively.

Constant Speed Propellers: If there are no coupressibility effects on

efficiency we mty write

.TL = f(C}. J)

where C, = P n 5
a3

IJ = Vind

d = propeller diameter

n = pror-ller rotational speod

and a consistent system of units is used. Thtft is, NYis a function of Cp

and J only. Hence, by definition,

], i, 'ý' ,4( 4-• •/ (ALjl-1

-(A4-2)

J We also have, by definition

SF = 17-P
F 5V

57
TY:CF•NICA]. NOTE P-12

dF -- 4 2d - C

- V .- ' - v - V

F ur t h e r , ¢ .- -
Fece 4-(43 mp
• L--- "-'~J '...-

Fu r te. r ,_}
. •
P..... . . . .......
. . . . . . .....
_ .. .• d -.

where :r = relative density, pro-oortiorvtl to

11 = enfine speed, proportional to propeller spced

Similarily,

J = V/nd

58
 TFC ','ITF
IiC...NOE v-12

V Vdn
dJ- Td -
nd

V (dV- dn\
Ind V ni

dJ _dV - n E~V MN (45

V n V N

Substituting from (A4-4) and (A4-5) into (A4-2) we have, after regroupinC,

- lL C
cP .
C)J
I _ C-- L-,
",~ "" ':~. ", e 2.,C, ,:,,

i Substituting from (A4-6) into (A4-3), we have

[ I, ' ..-
J,- ..• ' '!7
-

C. F, i - , k T'

I / V (A4--r)

Considering now the mean thrust Fin each phase at speed Vwe have fcr
the ground -phase

V
IL -=- C~/6V (-r

:'( (AJ-8).

I 59/
 TEChNICAL NOTE R-12

.;and for the air phase

-7T
-"-(A4-9)

In the first case

I J<:. •4 r I:1-
ýV J.. "

7: ~ (A"!-lC.

By inspectiob of equations (A4-8), from which the above equation -*as

deduced, and equation (A4-9), it will be seen that the same relation will
hold for the air phase. Hence, substitutiin- in (A4-7) we hrve for the mean

thr.1st T at speed V.

S - + - - -.. .::.. -- L.~ .....

( C) ± .. ~kŽ .... ,- ,. L K ÷.... . .

I I
r/ *1-"An
3> 7
TEC}[NIC.&I, N•OTE lv-12

Approxiniating, we may therefore, write,

A ~ 4 (A4-22)

Values of Derivatives of Pr,=pe]er .fficjencr,: Iluch of ti.e enerty, loss in

the propeller at take-off consists of k.inetic enere'y transmitted to the air flow-
ing: throut-h the i-rpeller disc. It is'stherefore, possible that simnle niomentuat
theory ma,,: r-iv some idea of how the nropeller will behave.

If - f is the propeller efficincy riven ý)y rcco,)ntinp only for this lost
kinetic enerrit (the "Froude Efficiency") it Is shown in Charter XV of 'ýeferenc'e 1,
t Mft

.... . . . (A4-13)

Differentintinj this equaction

C--- i
_ -.. i.. ..%... ./j

._.1 C ~j 5/

DividinC by equation (A14-13) we have,

or,-,2. -. -. ZLi. - 1

61
 S'2IKCiWICAL NOTE r•12

"Wit by definition

rA ,)~~~ 0/.¢ " _ .

The coefficients of -- and -- in eiu.tions (All-I4) and (AL-I53 1nu"st

Cp
be identical, so we have

Ii
I (
I -l .. 5'
-"•" ... (AL.-V /)

In Figure 3, the curve for Aj is that given by assuning that equiation

(A2-17) applies to the actual efficiency -ýi Computed values of _

for a wide range of mropellers agrees with this curve to within 0.2, which is
near enough for our purpones. Also, in the curves for Ap and A., the base
lines (not labeled for particular J) are derived from equations (A2-16) and
W(A2-17). The branches lnbeled for particular J are nman curves derived from
computations for a wide rtnge of propellers, based on MACA data,

Fired Pitch Propellers: It id stated in Section 7.3 of the main text, that
I it is assumed that for fixed pitch propellers in the take-off range

(a) the torque coefficient Cq is constant

(b) the thrust coefficient CT varies linearly with advance diameter

ratio J, becoming zero at five times the take-off speed.

I
1 62

I
TECHNICA1 NOTE P-12

First let us consider the variation

Sof C the thrust coefficient at the
mean speed, with J. From the diagram
we see that assumption (b) gives

TC

1.4-
"I'

• . • - C . _ CL--,
k - ¾

thergondpae
Ingoerl ma 0be
a hnr hencear
nenieTp andbtents

conditions. BY definition
I~

F L (A4-20)

Forth
haear e "•".....
a•Lae •. n veag vlu J=
C. L +
oiJT63in
"".

L4 + +

iA

N (A4-21)
C
 TECITIC&L NOTI. .14-12

Put from equationm(A4-18) and (A4-19)

0 =(A4-22) for Cround phase

Cr o (A4-23) for air phase

From equation (A4-5) and (A4-1O)

7 V-

I
Hence from (A2-22) and (A2-23)

V- '. q for the ground rhase (A4-25)

0,14- -1- o , , ,- for the air phase (A4-26)

Substituting in equation (A2-21) we have for the ground phase

!1.09-,• ,• (jL-27)

1 64
 1 T£UCHRIC"L NOTE R-12

and for the air phase

-L• . 2 a --* (A4-28)

Correctton at Constant Enizine Speed: If the engine is at maxim= per-

missible speed under both tent and stancard conditions d- is zero. Rounding
off equations (A4-27) and (A4-28) we then find that the following equation may
be applied to 'hoth grcund and air phases

I - di
4.1 (A4-29)

I Approximately, we may therefore write

1 t Wt
(A4-30)

Correction at Full Throttle: If the engine is at full throttle its

rotational speed will change with air temperature. We have, from assumption
(a) of paragraph 5.3 of the min text

9 C - -.
- ~co us tu

where Q = torque

j] Hence

I (A4-31)

where Pa = ambient air pressure

Ta = ambient air temperature

I
 TECM1;ICAI 1I.OTV R-12

We will further assume that at full throttle,

-~~
(A4-.32)

Combining (A.I-31) and (A4-12)

N F

: . 1.I '• 7 .1 :

I- . ..... . -k-( T:l "'

T,
- 0 (A4,-33)

],Subs•titutini, in eqj*,tions (A4-27) and (A4-28!) t nd round inc: off, we zra,

II write, for both d-round and air phIa ses

Ai 4- T. (A4-3J)

• , or, in the approximate form

1 -i- 0,4. . -- . (A4-36.)

I
1
I
1
I 66
.1
 TECHNICAL :.OTE i-12

APPENDIX V
I
Correction Formulae When ATO is Used Fart-Time

NOTATIONt:

Swymbol Definition

Stotal resistance at sieeed

I. F effective total mean thnist

FR thrust of ATO units

effective waen thriut of ATO units

durint, phase

, -b ean bMsic thrust (without ATO)

S distance covered during ph•-se

S t-round roll

SR distance covered du'rint: phase with ATO

ora
ope t Int

t• "aduration of ATO within air phase

t• icduration of ATO in •.round phase

'TT
VT take-o ff speed

SVR mean speed during part of ground. roll with

ATO operating

',1 airplane gross weight

air dene ity/standard uea level air density

,I

1 6

I
 Eal~..tion of Fffecthve .P,•n
'ockot Phrit: To uso the general equations
connecting; take-off ground roll and air distance with mean thrust it is desiratle
to -substitute for the thrust of any ATO operrvted over part of the phase, a mean
effective ATO thrust assumed to rct throiA-hnut the relevnnt phase. To dc so, we
need a relation by which to approxir.ete such a Mean effective thrust from the
test data.

An approach which zhows immediate pronise is to use a mean effectiv~e thrust

I which does the same work c the airtInne. That is, to write

i--
__ 5. -(A5-1)

where F- 2 thrust of ATO devices

S = length of ohvse of take-off

SS = distance over which ATO orerates dO;rin- iThase

= t=mean effective thrust of ATO

We will show by representative examl•les, thmt this bpproxirition is satisfactory

for the ground roll case, in which a wide rannre of speed and rossibly of aceel-

I
.-
eration is covered. It will then be prcsusmed that tho approximation it sati'-
factory for the air phase, over which tho ttir speed does not var.,',nuch.

The fnllowint exturples hove been co:sidered:

II Basic excess thrust decreasint- linearily with increase of air speed to

(i) 8Mb of its initial value

(ii) 20', of its initial wilue

1" with ATC fired at

(i) 2)0% of take-off opeed

01) 80b of take-off speed

The assluned ATO thrust was equal to onp-half of Initial static thrust. The
nmean excesF thrust was cormuted usine; equmtion (A5-l) and the ratio of the actual
ground roll to that tiven by the relation
--

"' -- V. X (mean excess thruist)

I68
 TF-CN'K1CAL -OTE R-12

has been computed, with results as follows:

S3!±sic Thrust at ATO FirinF- Speed Ap ijroximte (ircund Roll

Basic Static Thrust TO Speed Exact Ground Roll

1J 0.8 0.2 1.003

0.8 1.90o6

I 0.2 u.2 I .(C4

0.8 1 °o6

I It wil)be seen thEt the error is onl," apprecinble in the extreme ctise in
which the basic excess thrust falls off very sharply and the ATO is fired rather
late in the run. So severe a fnll in bas.c exces.s thrust would only occur with
an overloaded propeller nir!.-ane. Even then, the error iu rot very l.Arge for
purpo)ses of data sitandardizatIon and ray be accepted.

I 3Evw1liftien of C.'jInEo in Grexnd ].,l1: Prom equation (A5-1), we have

S(A -2)

where V = mean true speed d'-rin;: r'&rt of rhese durin- which

R ATO is operating

ItRg= durntion of ATO durirj- phnse

Aeiýý,';ng FR constant, we hnve for the -round phase

K *K

= - .S f - - 'j t-- -- 8 (A5-3)

69
£ *1
 We will now aprroxim•:te ,ind assume that is proportional to T/AY".
This will be true to the first order.

Then

I
I (A5-4'

If F is the total mean thrust and Fb the mean thnst of the basic tower
I plants, we alroady hove (equation (A2-24) of Avoendix II).

) ( Dr -5)

SSubstit'tlng from (AS-4) nnd (A5-6) into (A5-3) we thus h ve

ii-I,: " T--..X- .... .. , '/-... . ,

-• .-

÷:',
-•'• - 0 A -•dt

77 + ( _ ...

V _

k....F F4- o!

70
TECHNICAL !.;OTE 4,-12

Hence

Fý,,

F --

- (

,F F

Substtu~ting into ecivtion (A5-5) we have,

"- C. •

rl S,, I '"~~1 g
3:
"• -- :
. :

1 - ,] .--.-- -

F F ,

t • .. .. . .. ... .-.. . ....... . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .

,, .. ... . . .... ......

,-F..,,,--. )*
- I.. F "-

/ -. • .

Reproduced From
Best Available Copy,
71
JTVC'-CNICAI. ::OTE t1

Writing = 0.3, as is proposed in Sectiop 5 of the mirn text, nrid

writine: S for d, etc., and OR for this becomnes

Lt(

72
TECi'l.1:Aik ',OTi. Y'-12

Effect on Air Distimceof Gurvntur Yl-htPah

eso

I T1ROXiCTI101:

The air vhase bee-ins with the aiyiidane movine- pnrnllel to the rturiway tind
ends with It climbint: qt an aprreciable angle. A lift in excess of the aiirplane
weiCht must be pro~luced to bring, azýout this change of the direction of motion,
a lift which will reshilt in.an increaseO ind-:ced dx't. It is shown below thrt
the enerV7 exr.nnded in ovreorcoint tijii induced drat- is sirAll enoug}:h to ralce any
chtnni:e in it between test nnd standard conditirns ne&1.i-ible.

'.%'e
will assufte zero wind.

Dhdrng in strail-ht level flig-ht -- t 4the iirrourir-to hei:'ht

over the ero'Ind

KD induced draj- un.-'-r the a bove cond ition

n =nornral mcceleromet'Žr readint,'

ii heij;ht

Hi dH/dt

V =tru.e upeed

He dflefdt

w 4 W dV
V1 1 e V j; dt

- F -DDh n-)~
2

if L eIs the loss in H0 when the fli,-ht pnth is curvad, i.e. when n 1
if the ~nnc;Xe of clim~b is snunll

73
 "Yor srnktll even ttudl an,:1et.- of '~.i~,tho total lose li in",r~ iL, re w I t 11471
frorn flyint. for a while nlone: a~ cur~ved path is

whe re = momentnrýr ftn~le of clir~b

zd /dt

Fence A ~ ie

2d Dmi
where V,rd is the s-noed !'or -jinimur drat D, in, !IF-ncC, Wý!':"0,v

V. -

n ~IPI tm 1.

74
 "This lfistanncý is notlesmi-1-? 1c-il' not, lor~t.. Fort ~xauple, with P. VT Of
200 ft./u~c trA (Dridn/4) = 0.1 it woulid te al'oat 150 ft. *Yora it
airplane with a VT~ of aloit 60, it wotild b,. abo'xt 15 ft. It is, therefore,
1e:iltiirite w!.en at:-tndmrdizinC !-ir distarces, to oii.separs-te c~nnsldertitior. of

this distaince.

I 75
 TECH;NICAL .''"..'T 4-12

APPENDIX VII

"" 2t',n a• of Correction Formulae

A sumnmry is presented below, of the correction formulae proposed in the

main text. ?his summtvry qIsan outline only, Pnd is not intenced as i fully
detailed rcutltne.

NO'2ATIO::

j~j" ',-,bo iDe" nl tion

mean thrrunt

A Tb correction to mern thruist of basic propulsive

systcmc- (used in Ftamiv rdizirk- JATO take-offs)

mean Jet thrust of turbo prcmllpr eri-inas

Fp
]- mefn prnpclo.r thrutut

FR JATO th'-ut

effe(ctive riear, jAT0J thnist for phase

t; entiine speed

P brake power to propellers

S . length of phase

Sa lenr0th of air phase

S lenrth of -rc-und roll

distance coverod in irmise wit.h ATO operating.

S0 len-th of phase corrected for wind and rinwny

slore

SW leng:th of phnse with wind in(] slopin" runway

76

al
 NCTA
IOL( C§> TIN TYDI:

S.to ef n io
t durttion of air phase

T ambient abs'nlute air t emnem~tixre

t RadurAtion of .JATO in air phana

t;" duration of JATO in c_-rutind p~hase

V.T true ý-rokind speed at take-off

v ~t-uo zre>.Anh sread rit 5f ft.

W hestd I nd

vrose wvtieht

reD~tive density = tct-idýA dono't~y/aqtan&dard

Bill~GlP of r.inwa~y (reolt ivo uphill)

Corroctions tire first unude -or wi~nd, and rmnway sioT-. Corrfections to
co nstqrt CL will not bp rncdo Ps n routine, lind wiill t~herefore,* be or-jitted
he re . They are detailed in So'ction 8 of the main tpext.
C-v--rections of the ýImm~d roll fnr wini, rerd ,-trnwN. s~ltot, may be urado 1using

t A

Correction of' the air phvsoo is -r~de by add1in- tChe drift

tot

MAIN C(011;CP710S:

JLetAAir zIo - MpcIhanical '`orr-jjlj In this cas)e, eq-ir-t1icns (4-1) and

77
 TECr:,,ICAL TOTE ?-12

(41-4) will comi:only be used. These are

- -- "- V-•, - - ,(!'-+(KP-3)

it

and . - )' .• "' • . )'• (A7-4)

It imy usually be assumed that = 0

0o94 x stLLtic thru,:t. Intakoes
giving a very bnd static performnnce 3hoeld, however, he tiven special co:nsider-
ationo

The Okneral Ca1.e: For mixed systems not dorinantly rropeller driven, -and
jet airplanes when mcclanica] co•,•utu a in not used, the Feneral ecunti'nrs (j--•)
or (1-3a) and (4-5) or (4 -5a) will be used. With the corntants FroposeC, ttese

(A--j

cr alternative%-

.- - =-•-" r• •(A'?-3a•,)
=

or alterrnatively
• -_ I'-,-) (47-!~=cr / Iz. (AMA&r

For moderate corrections either t.ype of equbtion is satisfactoiy, but if

the corrections are large (for example, 3S/S 1 -- C.2) the exponential forms
will be appreciably more accurate.

78
T!,CINIA, NO0TE' R-12

Fixed Fitch ProvSellers: Correcticns may he at constant en-'ine sZTeed or

at full throttle here. At censte,_nt- enzine speed we use equations (l1G-?) and
(i0-8), that is

41 "'4- ' (-1,-?)

and

-... .•. . .. .'(AT- C.)

If A S/S is rniuericnly large, it is nagin pre.feran1!e to use the expone:ýtial

fo rms

*,,•. I ..

a n.d-

. . . (.A7-9)

and ailso ecuations (10-9) and (117-10).

_.Best Available Copy (A7-9i)

79' Bes AvilblCpy
Atf

with the exponential

worreerwondinlg forms

Reproduced From
TYCP"ICA2. ;Y,,OTF T-12

__/-~1k) l(4-) i '- ° (A/-ha)

Con- tant _l!eed ?repellers: This section applieB to airr-.Thnes which are
entirely, or almost entirely, prcpeller driven at take-off. For the ro-M.nd
roll, we hbave (equation (10-11) or (10-13).

-" l.l .,c, ..K, 2..- •, .L'J.. ...( ..-_ )

•.t.

r.nd the alternntive form

For the air phase, we distir(_'ish betwoeen lii-ht n•4nhetvy airplFnep.

For liit 'IArnlanes, we hnve (equationi (IC-12)

L\7

or al ternatively

- V~ +~ 07-13a)
t

F'or heLvy, airticanes (eown"tion (lt-14)

AS.%, .. I C.,' . AYL•, . A" (A?-14)

t. =. .• L ,,7. ) ,.,-

or ti tern• tlvely

*.,,,

Reproduced From
Best Available Cop,
80
TECHIICjjjjj. INi0TE i4-12

Mirbo Propelleorq: It will probably be found thnt, equations (A/-10) tind

(A7-12), or their nl1trnateq mAy be used for turbo orope!ler airolneub. Lco'-
if t zis
prproxiration I's to e nvoidod, the data rust be standardi . "f.u

equrtions (A7-5) and (A".-6). To estimate " us8 eq awtion

Ft

and e•tinte Y ,by eT ation (7-5). i.e.

Pn.rt-Time Assistance: At-ain, eque tions-<A7-5) and (A7-6) are -se .' .:,
but with an effective mean thrt'.,t. We are corsiderInr, pTrin.rily JATO, but -,,
method can be anplied to other forms of thrust boo.;t oner .ted over a 11::` t-ý
period.

The test effective, imiehn thrist xoost FR in e tYe -rovnd

'L..r roi-
phase .1ven by eqi.iption (9-!)

where FR -TATIO thrust

distance covered in .)hase with JATO coerntin.

S total leni-th of rhase

The standard effective mrean thrtit in the air panee Is either zero (ATO to r,':-
at take-off) or equal to the actunl ATO thrust (ATO to last to 50 ft.). The
standard effective menn thrist in the iro-ind roll, however, depends on the tiwe
t during which the ATO is to orerate in the air phase under stnndard c.r ts

We have (equ,ation (9-2)

t 0 ATO ceasine Pt trike-off

= 2SeO/(VBT 4 V65 ) for ATO ceasing7 at 50 ft. (7-1)E,

Reproduced From
Best Available Copy 81
TECi•ICAL N:OTE R-12

Hence if
"at was the test duration of the ATO in the air ph&se, we maLt correct.
t,

the AT0 duration in the .round roll by (equ.tion (C?3).

-. - E (A7-19)

The correction to the tir phase is then given by equation (A?-6) using the total
,ean effective thrust. For the t;r','•nd rc-ll, however, we 'ise eq'i'.tion (9-4)

__ {e

£t.

BeSt Avail ableCopy

82
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