NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

SUBJECT : BIOLOGY (Code No. 044) COURSE STRUCTURE CLASS XII (2021 - 22)
EVALUATION SCHEME
Theory Units Term – I Marks

Units Term I
VI Reproduction: Chapter - 2, 3 and 4 15MARKS
VII Genetics and Evolution: Chapter – 5 and 6 20 MARKS
Units Term - II Marks
VIII Biology and Human Welfare: Chapter – 8 and 10 14 MARKS
IX Biotechnology and its Applications: Chapter – 11 and 12 11 MARKS
X Ecology and Environment: Chapter – 13 and 15 10 marks
Total Theory (Term – I and Term – II) 70 MARKS
Practicals Term – I 15 Marks
Practicals Term – II 15 marks
Total 100 marks

Unit VI : REPRODUCTION
1. Reproduction in Organisms Deleted TERM 1
2. Sexual reproduction in Flowering Plants
(05)CHAPTERS
3. Human Reproduction
4. Reproductive Health CH2
Unit VII : GENETICS AND EVOLUTION CH3
5. Principles of Inheritance and Variation CH4
6. Molecular basis of Inheritance CH5
7. Evolution Deleted CH6
Unit VII : BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE
8. Human Health and Disease TERM 2
9. Strategies for Enhancement of Food Production Deleted
10. Microbes in Human Welfare (06)CHAPTERS
Unit IX : BIOTECHNOLOGY
CH8
11. Biotechnology : Principles and Processes
CH10
12. Biotechnology and its Applications CH11
Unit X : ECOLOGY CH12
13. Organisms ans Populations CH13
14. Ecosystem Deleted CH 15
15. Biodiversity and Conservation
16. Environmental Issues Deleted

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 NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA
Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
CONTENTS

Sr No TERM I Remarks
MAJOR Experiments Term I
1.
A1 A1. Isolate DNA from available plant material such as spinach, green pea seeds,
papaya, etc. PAGE
A2. A2. Prepare a temporary mount to observe pollen germination
NO 1 TO 16
2 SPOTTING Experiments Term I
B1 B.1 Flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insects, birds).
B2 B.2 Identification of stages of gamete development, i.e., T.S. of testis and T.S. of
ovary through permanent slides (from grasshopper/mice).
B3 B.3 Meiosis in onion bud cell or grasshopper testis through permanent slides.

B4 B.4 T.S. of blastula through permanent slides (Mammalian).

B5 B.5 Prepared pedigree charts of any one of the genetic traits such as rolling of
tongue, blood groups, ear lobes, widow’s peak and colour blindness,
2 Reference materials and Illustrative diagrams 18-20
3 Project Briefing 21
4 General topics for individual project 22
5 Chapter wise exam oriented projects 23

MAJOR Experiments Term II

6
A3 3. Prepare a temporary mount of onion root tip to study mitosis.

A4. 4. Collect water from two different water bodies around you and study them for
pH, clarity and presence of any living organism
A5 5. Collect and study soil from at least two different sites and study them for
texture, moisture content, pH and water holding capacity. Correlate with the
kinds of plants found in them.

6 SPOTTING Experiments Term II

B6 B.6 Common disease - causing organisms like Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium,
any fungus causing ringworm through permanent slides, models or virtual
images. Comment on symptoms of diseases that they cause.
B7 B.7 Two plants and two animals (models/virtual images) found in xeric conditions.
Comment upon their morphological adaptations.
B8 B.8 Two plants and two animals (models/virtual images) found in aquatic
conditions. Comment upon their morphological adaptations.
7 Reference materials and Illustrative diagrams
 NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA
SUBJECT : BIOLOGY (Code No. 044) COURSE STRUCTURE CLASS XII (2021 - 22)
EVALUATION SCHEME
Theory Units Term – I Marks

Units Term I
VI Reproduction: Chapter - 2, 3 and 4 15MARKS
VII Genetics and Evolution: Chapter – 5 and 6 20 MARKS
Theory Revised Syllabus BIOLOGY (Code No. 044) for the Academic Year 2021-22 TERM 1

Unit VI : REPRODUCTION
1. Reproduction in Organisms Deleted TERM 1
2. Sexual reproduction in Flowering Plants Completed (05)CHAPTERS
Completed CH2
3. Human Reproduction
CH3
4. Reproductive Health Completed
CH4
Unit VII : GENETICS AND EVOLUTION CH5
5. Principles of Inheritance and Variation Completed CH6
6. Molecular basis of Inheritance Completed
7. Evolution Deleted

SUBJECT : BIOLOGY (Code No. 044) COURSE STRUCTURE CLASS XII (2021 - 22)
EVALUATION SCHEME Theory Units Term – I Marks

PRACTICAL

Evaluation Scheme TERM – I TERM - II MARKS

Part A
One Major Experiment Experiment No. – 1 Experiment No. – 3 4 marks
One Minor Experiment Experiment No. - 2 Experiment No. – 4, 5 3marks
Part B
Spotting (3 Spots of 1 mark each) B.1, 2, 3, 4, 5 B.6, 7, 8 3marks
Practical Record + Investigatory Project &Record + Viva Voce 5 Total
Total 15 marks

PRACTICALS Max. Marks: 15 for each Term Practicals should be conducted alongside the concepts taught in theory
classes.
A. List of Experiments TERM - I:
1. Isolate DNA from available plant material such as spinach, green pea seeds, papaya, etc.
2. Prepare a temporary mount to observe pollen germination.

B. Study/observation of the following (Spotting) TERM - I:

B.1 Flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insects, birds).
B.2 Identification of stages of gamete development, i.e., T.S. of testis and T.S. of ovary through permanent slides
(from grasshopper/mice).
B.3 Meiosis in onion bud cell or grasshopper testis through permanent slides.
B.4 T.S. of blastula through permanent slides (Mammalian).
B.5 Prepared pedigree charts of any one of the genetic traits such as rolling of tongue, blood groups, ear lobes,
widow’s peak and colour blindness,
 NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA
SUBJECT : BIOLOGY (Code No. 044) COURSE STRUCTURE CLASS XII (2021 - 22)
PRACTICAL INDES SHEET TERM 1

Index Sheet Term I

Mandatory to fill the date

Sr Experiment caption in brief Page No Date Submitted Teacher

on Signature
No
A. List of Experiments TERM - I:
A1 A1. Isolate DNA from available plant material such as spinach,
green pea seeds, papaya, etc.
A2. A2. Prepare a temporary mount to observe pollen germination

B. Study/observation of the following (Spotting) TERM - I:

B1 B.1 Flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind,
insects, birds).
B2 B.2 Identification of stages of gamete development, i.e., T.S. of
testis and T.S. of ovary through permanent slides (from
grasshopper/mice).
B3 B.3 Meiosis in onion bud cell or grasshopper testis through
permanent slides.

B4 B.4 T.S. of blastula through permanent slides (Mammalian).

B5 B.5 Prepared pedigree charts of any one of the genetic traits such
as rolling of tongue, blood groups, ear lobes, widow’s peak and
colour blindness,

/tad/*
 1

NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
A. List of Experiments TERM - I:

Experiment No A1 . Isolate DNA from available plant material such as spinach, green pea seeds, papaya, etc

Aim : To isolate DNA from plant materials such as spinach, green peas, papaya and any other available plant
material.

Introduction

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the two types of nucleic acids found in living systems.
DNA acts as the genetic material in most of the organisms. RNA, though, it also acts as a genetic material in some
viruses, mostly functions as a messenger adapter, structural and in some cases as a catalytic molecule. All human
knowledge, especially of natural sciences is directed to develop technologies for the comfort and well-being of human
beings Biotechnology has emerged as an off shoot of modern biology in the twentieth century. The current break
through in the field of biotechnology are production of genetically. modified organisms (plants, animals and micro-
organisms) through recombinant DNA (r DNA) technology. Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic engineering, has
allowed breeders to introduce foreign DNA in other organisms, including bacteria, yeasts, animals and plants). Such
organisms are called Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs). Thus, r DNA technology involves isolation of DNA from
a variety of sources and formation of new combination of DNA.

Principle:- Negatively charged polynucleotide polymer of DNA molecule can be isolated by adding chilled ethanol(a
non-polar solvent)t to the filtered supernatant of the squashed plant material treated with with NaCl (neutralising the
DNa and removing the protein molecules) and detergent solution (to dissolve the plasma membrane ).

REQUIREMENTS

Plant material (such as spinach leaves, green pea seeds or green papaya), mortar and pestle, beakers, test tubes,
detergent solution NaCl , papaya extract / pineapple extract /meat tenderiser, ethanol, spool etc. Or enzymes
(cellulase, protease, ribont1clease, lipases)

Procedure
(i) Take/a small amount of plant material (such as spinach leaves/green pea seeds/green papaya) and grind it in a
mortar using pestle.,
(ii) Break the cell wall and other envelope of plant cell, by treating the material by enzyme cellulose(by adding
detergent solution and smashing it well .
(iii)Treat the material with enzyme protease (papaya extract of pineapple) to remove histone proteins which are
intertwined with DNA.
(iv) Filter the content into a test-tube and add chilled ethanol gently by tilting so that two layers can be obtained.
(vi) ,DNA molecules get precipated in the middle of the the layers which can be spooled out using a glass rod.

Observation
The DNA appears as white precipitates of fine thread on the spool. (draw diagram in page No 3(Spooling of DNA)
Result/Conclusion:-

DNA precipitated in the middle as a white ring can be spooled out using a glass rod

Precautions:- Take required quantity of materials only especially reagents and chemicals keeping in mind the
principle of sustainable development.

You can do this experiment in home also with chilled sanitizer into the test-tube as described in the class. Keep
chemicals and glass wares/sharp objects like needles and blades with care and attention and to be out of reach of
your younger siblings and do not leave unattended. Stay safe stay healthy.

Try to do it, experience things differently, make a video of the same which will make to involve yourself in a better way
to experience as it purely deliberate learning activity. All the best.
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NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
REFERENCE FOR DOING THE EXPERIMENT IN HOME

In Brief (Understanding DNA_ : DNA is one of the genetic materials of most living organisms including plants ,
animals, bacteria, fungi and viruses. It is the hereditary material responsible for the passing on of
characters of the parents to their offsprings through generations. Information is stored within the DNA
molecule in the form of genes which are made up of several codons formed by the 4 nitrogen bases
Thymine, Adenine, Cytosine and Guanine in different combinations. Each codon is made up of a
combination of any 3 of these 4 bases and are called triplet codons. These triplet codons are transcribed
into the complementary mRNA which is then translated into the corresponding amino acids encoded by
the triplet codons. These translated amino acids eventually form proteins, enzymes and other
biomolecules that drive the various physiological functions within the organism. Extraction and isolation of
this important molecule is the first step in any experiment on Genetic engineering or Recombinant DNA
technology. In biotechnology research, Extraction of DNA is carried out using expensive enzymes and and
chemicals under controlled conditions in a lab setting.

One can also extract and isolate DNA using cheap and easily available materials that one can find in any
household. Although it’s a rudimentary alternative to the method employed in the laboratory, the basic
principle remains the same. The material is crushed to separate the cells. The cell wall and cell membrane
of the cells are then destroyed to reveal the DNA which is then extracted into a form that’s visible to the
naked eyes.
In this video, L................ am trying to extract and isolate DNA from a plant material ...................(such
as leaves, using materials that you can find in your kitchen).
To perform DNA extraction from plant cells, you’ll need the following:
Materials required :- Blender or Pestle and Mortar Weighing scale Strainer or a funnel with filter paper
250ml beaker or cup Ice cold water, Table spoon or spatula Test tube or a small graduated cyliner 5ml or
10 ml syringe or measuring pipette Glass rod or plastic straw
Chemicals required :- Sodium Chloride (Common salt) Detergent powder or Liquid soap
Meat tenderizer or Ice cold freshly prepared Pineapple juice or Papaya juice (both are enzyme sources): Ice
cold Ethanol or Isopropanol (Rubbing alcohol)/ sanitizer

To begin the experiment, weigh 50-100 grams of the plant material.

Transfer it into a pestle and mortar or a blender and blend it with about 100ml of ice cold water and half
a teaspoon of Common salt. Filter the blended mixture into a beaker using a strainer or a funnel with a
filter paper cone.
Add a tablespoon of detergent powder, dishwashing liquid soap or SDS to the filtrate in the beaker and
stir the mixture gently. Allow the mixture to stand for 5-10minutes.
After 10mins or so, transfer about 10ml of the mixture in the beaker into a test tube or graduated
cylinder. Add a pinch of meat tenderizer or about 5ml of pineapple or papaya juice to it. Gently agitate the
test tube to mix the two liquids.
Wait for 5-10mins for the digestion reaction to occur. Now, hold the test tube in an inclined position and
using a glass rod or a pipette, carefully add about 5ml of ice cold rubbing alcohol or ethanol such that the
alcohol flows gently down the inner wall of the tube and forms a layer on top of the digested plant extract
in the tube.
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NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
REFERENCE FOR DOING THE EXPERIMENT IN HOME

 Observe the interface between the two liquids. You will find the DNA begin to precipitate in the alcohol
in the form of white, gelatinous strings or clumps. You can separate and remove the DNA thus obtained, by
spooling it onto a plastic straw or a wooden stick. This is all about extracting DNA from plant cells that you
can perform at home
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING : GLIMPSES FROM 2020-21 BATCH
(4. Experiential Learning : LEARNING OUTCOME : Art Integration in Biology Class XII)
https://youtu.be/BZnirrx_ork

Spooling of DNA(drawing)
 4

NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING : GLIMPSES FROM 2020-21 BATCH
(4. Experiential Learning : LEARNING OUTCOME : Art Integration in Biology Class XII)
https://youtu.be/BZnirrx_ork

DNA isolated

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 5

2. Prepare a temporary mount to observe pollen germination.

Aim: To study pollen germination on a slide in a nutrient mediun.

Principle: Pollen grains germinate and form pollen tubes after they get deposited by the process of pollination on
compatible stigma. Pollen tube, made up of cellulose, is an extension of the inner wall of pollen grain (intine). It
emerges through one of the germ pore and passes through tissues of stigma and style to reach the ovule. The
growing pollen tube is observed by staining with cotton blue.

In nature, pollen grains germinate on the compatible stigmas of the carpel. Pollen grains can also be induced to
germinate in a synthetic medium. During germination, intine (inner wall) of pollen grain emerges out as pollen tube
through one of the germ pores in exine (outer wall).

Requirement: Calcium nitrate, boric acid, sucrose, distilled water, petridish, slides, coverslips, brush, needle,
microscope, and mature pollen grains of Tradescantia /balsam/Jasmine /lily/pomegranate/ /grass/ Vinca
rosea/China rose/Petunia.

Procedure
(i) Prepare the pollen germination medium by dissolving 10g sucrose, 30mg calcium nitrate and 10mg boric acid in
100ml of distilled water. Alternatively 10% sucrose solution can also be used.
(ii) Take a drop of medium or 10% sucrose solution on a cover slip and sprinkle mature pollen grains on the drop.
(iii) Invert the cover glass on to a slide
(iv) After 10 minutes, observe the slide under microscope.

Observation
Several pollen grains germinate and put forth pollen tubes can be seen germinates.
Look for long blue-coloured tubular structures traversing through the tissues of stigma and style

Result/Conclusion :-
Pollen grains germinate after 5 to 10 minutes and when observed under microscope the pollen tybes germinating
through the germ pores can be seen. (Diagram)

Discussion

Pollen tubes are seen amidst the stylar tissue. Many pollen tubes may be seen. Trace the origin of pollen tubes to the
pollen grains present around the surface of the stigma.

Questions
1. Can pollen grains of one plant species germinate on stigma of other species? Give reasons.
2. Do all pollen tubes reach the ovules?
3. Are all the pollen tubes of equal length? If not, why

(6.Experiential Learning LEARNING OUTCOME Home to Bio Lab Pollen Tube germination - Sansitha 12H)
https://youtu.be/mN0z_g7103s

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NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
Spotting

B. Study/observation of the following (Spotting) TERM - I

B1. Study of flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind,water,Insects and birds)

Aim : To study the flowers adapted to pollination by different agents such as wind, insects and birds.

Material Required : Fresh flowers, Magnifying glass

Theory : What is Pollination?

Pollination is the process of transferring pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma of the same or
different flower. Pollination can be carried out by different agents such as wind, water, birds, insects, etc.
Following are a few observations of the flowers that are adapted to pollination by wind, insects and birds. Flowers
Pollinated By Wind
Anemophily or wind pollination is a form of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by wind. Anemophilous plants may
be either gymnosperms (non-flowering) or angiosperms (flower-producing). However, flowering anemophilous species
do not develop scented flowers, nor do they produce nectar. This distinguishes them from entomophilous and
zoophilous species (whose pollen is spread by insects and vertebrates respectively).

Male and female reproductive organs are generally found in separate flowers, the male flowers having a number of
long filaments terminating in exposed stamens, and the female flowers having long, feather-like stigmas.

Pollen from anemophilous plants tends to be smaller and lighter in weight than pollen from entomophilous ones, with
very low nutritional value to insects. However, insects sometimes gather pollen from staminate anemophilous flowers
at times when higher protein pollens from entomophilous flowers are scarce. Also anemophilous pollens may also be
inadvertently captured by bees' electrostatic field. This may explain why, though bees are not observed to visit
ragweed flowers, its pollen is often found in honey made during the ragweed floral bloom. Other flowers that are
generally anemophilous are observed to be actively worked by bees, with solitary bees often visiting grass flowers,
and the larger honeybees and bumblebees frequently gathering pollen from corn tassels and other grains.

Almost all pollens that are allergens are anemophilous. Ragweed, the bane of many hayfever sufferers, is
anemophilous. Its pollen has been found at sea hundreds of miles from its source. Spring hayfever often traces to
pollens from birches.

Other common anemophilous plants are grass species, conifers, sweet chestnuts, and members of the hickory family

Most of the conifers and angiosperms exhibit wind pollination. Such flowers do not produce nectar and fragrance. In
the flowers pollinated by the wind, the microsporangia hang out of the flower. As the wind blows, the light-weight
pollen blows with it. The pollen gets accumulated on the feathery stigma of the flower. These flowers appear even
before the leaves when the spring commences. Few examples of such flowers include:

These flowers are usually small and in-conspicuous. 2)These flower lack nectar and have no fragnance. 3) Their
anthers are large and borne on long stalks. 4) The stigmas of these flowers are long and broad ,to catch the pollen
grain easily. 5) Pollen is small in size easily transported by the wind. Some pollen has wings e.g. in Pinus plant.
 7

NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
Spotting B1. Study/observation of the following (Spotting) TERM - I:
B.1 Flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insects, birds).

Rice, Barley, Papaya, Maize, Corn, Oats

Wind-pollinated flowers are typically:
 No bright colors, special odors, or nectar, Small, Most have no petals
 Stamens and stigmas exposed to air currents, Large amount of pollen
 Pollen smooth, light, easily airborne, Stigma feathery to catch pollen from wind
 May have staminate and pistillate flowers, may be monoecious or dioecious
 Usually single-seeded fruits, such as oak, grass, birch, poplar, hazel, dock, cat-tail, plantain, and papyrus
· * wheat * rice * corn * rye * barley * oats * pines * spruces * firs * cattails * Wind pollinated (anemophilic) flowers
are small, inconspicuous, have dull or no petals or nectar. The stamens produce huge amounts of pollen and are
exposed to the .

Hydrophily is a fairly uncommon form of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by the flow of waters, particularly in rivers
and streams. Hydrophilous species fall into two categories: (i) Those that distribute their pollen to the surface of water. e.g.
Vallisneria's male flower or pollen grain are released on the surface of water, which are passively carried away by water
currents; some of them eventually reach the female flower (ii) Those that distribute it beneath the surface. e.g. seagrasses in
which female flower remain submergered in water and pollen grains are released inside the water.
Surface pollination Surface pollination is more frequent,[1] and appears to be a transitional phase between wind pollination
and true hydrophily. In these the pollen floats on the surface and reaches the stigmas of the female flowers as in Hydrilla,
Callitriche, Ruppia, Zostera, Elodea. In Vallisneria the male flowers become detached and float on the surface of the water;
the anthers are thus brought in contact with the stigmas of the female flowers.[1] Surface hydrophily has been observed in
several species of Potamogeton as well as some marine species.

Submerged pollination : Species exhibiting true submerged hydrophily include Najas, where the pollen grains are heavier
than water, and sinking down are caught by the stigmas of the extremely simple
female flowers,[1] Posidonia australis orZostera marina[2] and Hydrilla

Flowers Pollinated By Insects : The flowers pollinated by insects are bright-coloured and produce nectar. The
fragrance of the flowers attracts the insects. The pollen are sticky, large, heavy and rough so that stick to the body of
the insects. The stigmas are also sticky so that the pollens depositing are not dispersed. Nectar guides are present on
the petals. Few examples of the flowers pollinated by insects are: Magnolia , Aster, Lithops
COMMON NAME LATIN NAME POLLINATOR COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION
Okra Abelmoschus esculentus Honey bees (incl. Apis ceran… fruit
Kiwifruit Actinidia deliciosa Honey bees, bumblebees, sol... fruit
Potato Solanum tuberosum Bumblebees, solitary bees.... seed
Onion Allium cepa Honey bees, solitary bees, bl... seed
 8

NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
Spotting B. Study/observation of the following (Spotting) TERM - I:
B.1 Flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insects, birds).

Types of Cross-Pollination

The process of cross-pollination requires the help of biotic and abiotic agents like animals, birds, wind, insects, water
and other agents as pollinators.

Pollination by Animals – Zoophily Animals play an important role in plant reproduction. They help in seed dispersal.
When an animal eats the fruit of a plant, they move to a different location. This movement helps in spreading the
seeds and with this, we get new plants to new locations.

Artificial Pollination – Anthropophily Artificial pollination is done by human beings. This process is also
called as the Anthropophily. If there are any difficulties in the pollination process through abiotic or
biotic agents, the artificial method of pollination is performed by spreading pollen grains over the female
flowers. Hybridization techniques are also used in this process.

Flowers Pollinated By Birds - Ornithophily

The flowers pollinated by birds are strong and are adapted to allow the birds to stay near the flowers without their
wings getting entangled in them. The flowers are tubular and curved that facilitates nectar-sucking by birds. The
flowers are odourless and bright-coloured that attracts the birds. While sucking the nectar, the pollen gets deposited
on their beaks and neck and is transferred to the plant they visit next. Few examples of flowers pollinated by birds
include: Hibiscus Fuchsias , Bromeliads, Verbenas. Beebalms

Related videos for refere

7.Experiential Learning Part ... Entamophily Autogamy, Allogamy and Xenogamy

https://youtu.be/cbtM3hyiOKw

23 Experience Inter and Intra Specific Competetion in Nature ... Potter and golden wasps
https://youtu.be/l1to1G72B3A
 9

NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
Spotting
B.2 Identification of stages of gamete development, i.e., T.S. of testis and T.S. of ovary through permanent slides
(from grasshopper/mice).

Experiment B2. Identification of stages of gamete development: - TS of Testis (A) and TS of Ovary (B)

B2A : Aim: To study the discrete stages of gametogenesis in mammalian testis

Principle: In all male and female organisms gamete formation takes place in their gonads, i.e., testis and ovary
respectively. The process of gamete formation, called gametogenesis involves meiotic cell division. The gametogenic
development in testis is called spermatogenesis and in ovary it is oogenesis. They exhibit marked differences and can
be examined in transverse section (T.S.) of these organs.
Requirement: Permanent slides of T.S. of testis and ovary, compound microscope, lens-cleaning paper and cleaning
fluid
Procedure
(i) Clean the slide and microscope’s eye and objective lenses with the help of lens cleaning paper using any cleaning
fluid.
(ii) Place the slide on the stage of the microscope and observe first under lower magnification and then in higher
magnification. Observe various stages of gamete development.
(iii) Record your observations in the notebook and draw labelled diagrams.
Observation
T.S. of testis
3 (a) Fig. 3.1 T.S. of mammalian testis
Seminiferous tubule
Spermatozoa

Germinal Epithelium
Spermatogonia

Fig 3.1

(i) You will observe a large number of seminiferous tubules underlower magnification. Observe a complete tubule in
higher magnification and view various stages of gamete development from periphery towards lumen (Fig. 5.1) and
identify the following types of cells namely, Germinal epithelium, Spermatogonial cells, Primary spermatocytes,
Secondary spermatocytes, Spermatids and Spermatozoa.
(ii) In T.S. of testis the space between tubules are filled with blood vessels and a specific cell type called Leydig's cell
or Interstitial cells.
 10

NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
Spotting B.2 Identification of stages of gamete development, i.e., T.S. of testis and T.S. of ovary through permanent
slides (from grasshopper/mice).

Experiment B2 : T.S. of Ovary

B(B) : Aim: To study the discrete stages of gametogenesis in mammalian ovary (B)

Aim: To study the discrete stages of gametogenesis in mammalian ovary

Principle: In all male and female organisms gamete formation takes place in their gonads, i.e., testis and ovary
respectively. The process of gamete formation, called gametogenesis involves meiotic cell division. The gametogenic
development in testis is called spermatogenesis and in ovary it is oogenesis. They exhibit marked differences and can
be examined in transverse section (T.S.) of these organs.
Requirement: Permanent slides of T.S. of testis and ovary, compound microscope, lens-cleaning paper and cleaning
fluid
Procedure
(i) Clean the slide and microscope’s eye and objective lenses with the help of lens cleaning paper using any cleaning
fluid.
(ii) Place the slide on the stage of the microscope and observe first under lower magnification and then in higher
magnification. Observe various stages of gamete development.
(iii) Record your observations in the notebook and draw labelled diagrams.
Observation

Germinal epithelium

Graffian follicle

Antrum

Corpus luteum,

Egg
Corpus albicans

Fig. 3(b) T.S. of mammalian ovary

(i) In the section of ovary, there is a mass of tissue lined with germinal epithelium. Inside that you will
observe an ovum, which is a cell surrounded by one to several layers of follicular cells. As the ovum
matures, the number of surrounding follicular cell layer increases (Fig.)
(ii) In the later stage of follicular development a cavity called antrum appears.
(iii) The cavity gets further enlarged and the follicle grows bigger. This is the stage of Graafian follicle ready to
release the ovum (ovulation).
(iv) In the next stage, you may notice a Corpus luteum, and/or Corpus albicans, which differ from each other and also
from Graafian follicle in their features.
Discussion
Spermatogenesis is a continuous process after attainment of puberty, and that is why gamete development and
spermatozoa are observed in a single seminiferous tubule. In case of ovary, the follicular development stages are
observed.
Questions
1. What would happen if meiosis fails to occur in gametocyte?
2. At which stage of follicular development, is ovum released?
3. Spermatogenesis is a continuous process. Justify the statement.
4. Draw a labelled diagram of T.S. of testis. 5. Draw a labelled diagram of T.S. of ovary.
6. What would happen if sperms are devoid of their tail?
7. What are the consequences of failure of ovulation?
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NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
Spotting

Spotting Experiment No B3. Meiosis in onion bud cell or Grasshopper testis through permanent slide.

Aim : To observe the stages of meiosis on onion bud cell or grasshopper testis through permanent slides.
Materials Required : Permanent slides of meiosis Compound Microscope
Procedure
Place the slide on the stage of the microscope.
Look for dividing cells with lower magnification.
Observations : The different stages of meiosis are observed along on the basis of the following features.

Stages of Meiosis I
Prophase I
In this stage, the chromosomes condense and move towards the centre of the cell. It consists of five different sub-
phases:

 Leptotene: The homologous chromosomes replicate.

 Zygotene: Synapsis between homologous chromosomes start.
 Pachytene: The sister chromatids separate but the homologous chromosomes remain attached.
 Diplotene: The two homologous chromosomes migrate apart and disintegrate between the chromosomal
arms.
 Diakinesis: The condensation of chromosomes stop at this stage and the chiasmata is clearly visible under an
electron microscope. The nucleolus and the nuclear envelop disappear at this stage and the centrosome
moves to the equator.
Metaphase I :
The homologous chromosomes that contain two different alleles for each gene, line up on the metaphase
plate to be separated.

Anaphase I
The separated chromosomes are pulled towards the centrioles on either side of the cell.

Telophase I
The chromosomes are completely pulled apart and new nuclear envelope forms.

Stages of Meiosis II

Prophase II
In this stage, the nuclear envelope disintegrates and centrioles develop.

Metaphase II
The chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate and the chromatids are on either side of the metaphase
plate.

Anaphase II
The sister chromatids separate and are known as sister chromosomes.

Telophase II
The cell divides into two and new nuclear envelope surrounds the chromosomes.
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NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL

Prophase is the first phase of mitosis followed by G2 phase. It involves following events-
(a) Initiation of condensation of chromosomal materials.
(b) Movement of centrioles towards opposite poles of the cell.
(c) At the end of prophase, endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear membrane, Golgi complex disappears
Metaphase starts with complete disappearance of nuclear membrane.
The most suitable stage for study of morphology of chromosomes. In involves
(a) Condensation of chromosomal materials in to compact and distinct chromosomes made up of two sister
chromatids attached with spindle fibres with kinetochores.
(b) Chromosomes arrange at centre of cell called metaphase plate.
Anaphase involves the
(a) Splitting of each chromosome at centromere into two sister chromatids.
(b) Two chromatids start moving towards opposite poles.
Telophase is the last stage of mitosis which involves
(a) Chromosomes reach at opposite poles and loose its identity as discrete unit.
(b) Nuclear membrane reassembles around the chromosome clusters.
(c) Nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER reappear.
Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm of a cell after karyokinesis (division of chromosome) into two daughter cells. In
animal cells, appearance of furrows in plasma membrane that deepens gradually and joins to divide cytoplasm into
two parts. In plant cells, wall formation starts at the centre and grows outwards to meets lateral walls. The formation
of cell wall begins with formation of cell plate.
Significance of Mitosis
a. Mitosis produces diploid daughter cells with identical genetic complement.
b. It helps in repair of cells specially in lining of guts and blood cells. c. Meristematic division in apical and lateral
cambium results in continuous growth of plants.
Meiosis- The cell division that reduce the number of chromosome half and results in the production of haploid
daughter cells. It helps in production of haploid phase of life cycle of sexually reproducing organism.
It involves following events.
(a) Two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division called meiosis I and meiosis II but single cycle of DNA
replication. (
b) It involves pairing of homologous chromosome and recombination of them.
(c) Four haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis II.
During Laptotene, the chromosome becomes distinct and visible under microscope. Compaction of chromosome
continues throughout the laptotene phase.
During Zygotene stage, chromosomes start pairing together (synapsis). The paired chromosomes are called
homologous chromosome. Synaptonemal complex formed by a pair of homologous chromosome is called bivalent or
a tetrad.
During Panchytene stage, crossing over between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosome occurs for
exchange of genetic materials. The crossing over is enzyme – mediated process which involves enzyme
recombinase.
Diplotene is recognized by dissolution of synaptonamal complex and tendency to separation of bivalent except at the
site of crossing over. This forms an X like structure called chiasmata.
Diakenesis is marked by terminalisation of chiasmata. The nuclear membrane brakes and nucleolus disappear. In
metaphase I the bivalent chromosome align at equatorial plate and microtubules from the opposite poles of the
spindle attached to the pair of homologous chromosomes. Anaphase I – homologous chromosome separate but
sister chromatids remain attached at centromere.
During Telophase I, nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears and cytokinesis follows. This is called as dyad of the
cells. The stage between two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis and it is short lived that follows Prophase II
Meiosis II It is initiated immediately after cytokinesis before chromosome gets elongated. In prophase II, nuclear
membrane disappears and chromosome becomes compact. At metaphase II stage, the chromosomes align at
equator and microtubules attach with kinetochores of sister chromatids. Anaphase II start with splitting of centromere
of each chromosome to move towards opposite poles.
 13

NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
Spotting B.4 T.S. of blastula through permanent slides (Mammalian).
Experiment No B4. T S of Blastula through permanent slide.

Aim: To study the blastula stage of embryonic development in mammals, with the help of permanent slide, chart,
model or photograph
Principle: The zygote undergoes a few cycles of mitotic divisions to form a solid ball of cells called morula. The cells
continue to divide and at a later stage a cavity is formed within it. This stage is blastula. The internal structural details
of blastula can be observed in its transverse section.
Requirement: Permanent slide, chart/model of T.S. of blastula, compound microscope, lens cleaning fluid and paper
Procedure
Observe the slide under lower magnification of the microscope. In case of chart/models/photographs, note the feature
of blastula in your practical record and draw labelled diagram.
Observation
In transverse section, the blastula appears as a sphere with a cavity, called blastocoel within it (Fig) Notice an outer
layer of blastomeres called trophoblasts. A cellular mass, adhered to the trophoblast is present on one end of the
blastula. It is called inner cell mass.
Blastocyst formation
The zygote develops by mitosis, and when it has developed into 16 cells becomes known as the morula. Until this
stage in development, all cells (blastomeres) are autonomous and not specified to any fate. In many animals, the
morula then develops by cavitation to become the blastula. Cellular differentiation then develops the blastula's cells
into two types: trophoblast cells that surround the blastocoel and an inner mass of cells (the embryoblast). The
conceptus is then known as the blastocyst.The side of the blastocyst where the inner cellular mass forms is called the
animal pole and the opposite side is the vegetal pole. The outer layer of trophoblast cells, resulting from compaction,
pumps sodium ions into blastocyst, which causes water to enter through osmosis and form the internal fluid-filled
blastocyst cavity (blastocoel). The blastocoel, trophoblast cells, and inner cell mass cells are hallmarks of the
blastocyst.(Fig)

Blastula stage of a mammal

EXERCISE Match the following

Column I Column II
Questions (a) Trophoblast (i) Dividing cells of the morula
1. What are the differences between blastula and morula? (b) Morula (ii) Outer layer of blastula
2. What are the main structures you observe in T.S. blastula? (c) Blastocoel (iii) Solid ball of cells
(iv) Cavity
3. Match the stages in column I with features in column II
 14

NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII BIOLOGY PRACTICAL

Spotting B.5 Prepared pedigree charts of any one of the genetic traits such as rolling of tongue, blood groups, ear
lobes, widow’s peak and colour blindness,

Experiment No B5. Study of prepared pedigree charts of any one of the genetic traits such as rolling of
tongue, blood groups, ear lobes, widow's peak and colour blindness

Aim: Preparation and analysis of Pedigree Charts

Principle: The Mendelian concept of dominance and segregation can also be studied in humans by preparing and
then analysing the pedigree charts. The internationally approved symbols for indicating males and females, marriages,
various generations (I, II, III), etc., are given below.
Requirement: Information about characters/traits in a family for more than one generation
Procedure
Select a family in which any one of the monogenic traits such as tongue rolling, widow's peak, blood groups’, red-
green colour blindness, dimple in the cheek, hypertrichosis of ear( hairy pinna), hitch-hiker's thumb, etc., is found. Ask
the person exhibiting the trait to tell in which of his/her parents, grand parents (both maternal and paternal), their
children and grandchildren the trait in question is present. Among surviving individuals the trait may also be examined.
The information made available is the basis for the preparation of pedigree chart using the appropriate symbols. A
careful examination of the pedigree chart would suggest whether the gene for the character is autosome linked
dominant or recessive, X - chromosome linked dominant or recessive, Y- chromosome linked or not.
Explanation
1. Autosome Linked Dominant traits: These are the traits whose encoding gene is present on any one of the
autosomes, and the wild type allele is recessive to its mutant allele, i.e., the mutant allele is dominant.
The pedigree-chart can be of the undernoted pattern where the female being interviewed is exhibiting the trait, and is
indicated by an arrow-mark in the chart.

The characteristic features of inheritance of such type of traits are:

(a) Transmission of traits occurs from parents of either sex.
(b) Males and females are equally affected.
(c) The pedigree is vertical, i.e., the trait is marked to be present in each of the generations.
(d) Multiple generations are characteristically affected. Brachydactyly, polydactyly, dimple in the cheek are some of
the common traits of this type.
 -15-

2. Autosomal Recessive trait: These are the traits whose mutant allele is recessive to its wild type allele.
The pedigree chart can be more or less of the pattern given below where the lady (marked by the arrow) is showing
the trait.

The bar in the example represents the presence of corresponding dominant or recessive allele for the specific trait.
Suppose the given trait is albinism. Denote its dominant allele as ‘A’
that produces pigments, and the recessive allele as ‘a’ that fails to synthesise the pigment, melanin. The female (our
subject in generation III) is therefore of genotype aa. She must have received each of her ‘a’ allele from both the
parents (generation-II), who are therefore themselves normal but are definitely of genotype Aa, and are carriers of the
trait. The allele a must also have been present in her grand parents too, of course in heterozygous condition also to
make them carriers (generation-I)
Albinism in the subject’s children (generation-IV) suggests her husband too to be of genotype Aa, a carrier. Marriage
of her albino daughter to an albino man is bound to produce all her grand-children albino (gen-V).
The following are the salient features of the inheritance of such type of traits.
(a) Occur in equal proportions in multiple male and female siblings, whose parents are normal but carriers;
(b) The siblings are homozygous for the defective allele, but their parents, though some may appear normal, are
obviously heterozygous, i.e., are merely carriers of the trait.
(c) Consanguinity (marriage between man and woman genetically related to each other, such as cousins) occasionally
results in the appearance of such traits.

3. X-Linked Dominant traits: These are the traits whose encoding gene is present on the X- chromosome, and the
mutant allele of which is dominant over its wild-type allele. Such traits are very rare, and are almost difficult to find in
the population. One example is oral-facial-digital syndrome (Duchene Muscular Dystrophy), which results in absence
of teeth, cleft (bifid) tongue associated with mental retardation. The pedigree chart may appear as follows .The
possible genotypes of the above pedigree can be written as follows
 -16-

Fig. In page No 15 Genotypes of individuals shown in Fig..Here, the dominant mutant allele is denoted by ‘D’, and its
recessive wild type allele is denoted by ‘d’. Remember that human females have two X- chromosomes (XX), and the
males have only one X and one Y chromosome.
Males receive their lone X-chromosome from their mother, and the Y-chromosomes from their father, whereas
females receives one of her X-chromosome from her mother, and the other X from her father.
The characteristics of such inheritance are:
(a) The trait appears in almost all the generations, and the inheritance is vertical.
(b) If the female is affected, then about half of her sons are affected.
(c) If the male is affected then all of his daughters would be affected, but none of his sons are affected.
(d) In short, the pedigree resembles the pattern of inheritance of autosomal dominants, except that there is no male-
to-male transmission.

4. X-linked Recessive traits: These are the traits whose encoding gene is present on the X-chromosome and its
mutant allele is recessive to its wild-type allele.
Red-green colour blindness and haemophilia, are some of its well known examples. The characteristic features of
such inheritance are:
(a) Females express the trait only when they are homozygous for the mutant allele, whereas the males do so even
when they are hemizygous for it.
The pedigree chart would appear as the following one

(b) About half of the sons of the carrier (heterozygous for the trait) females are affected. In case of homozygous
females showing the trait, fifty percent of her daughters and all of her sons are likely to be affected.
Therefore, the males are most affected in the population.
(c) Affected persons are related to one another through the maternal side of their family.
(d) Any evidence of male-to-male transmission of the trait rules out the X- linked inheritance.

5. Y-chromosome linked traits (Holandric Inheritance): These are the traits whose gene is present on the Y-
chromosome. The females do not have any Y-chromosome, whereas all the males must have a Y-chromosome to be
a male, and this Y-chromosome they get from their father. Therefore, any trait linked to the Y- chromosome must be
present only in males, and certainly not in any of the females. This is why these traits are also called male-sex limited
traits. All the sons of the affected male would express the trait whereas none of his daughters would do so. The
pattern of the pedigree chart would be as follows

Hypertrichosis of the ear (presence of hairs on pinna) is one most common example of such traits.
 -17-

Questions
1. How will you differentiate between autosome linked dominant and sex chromosome
linked dominant pedigree chart? Explain.
2. Discuss the differences in the patterns of autosome linked recessive and sex chromosome linked pedigree.
Note: Students may be asked to prepare the pedigree-chart from given data and analyse the
pattern of inheritance. The work may be done as a project.

Colourblindness Pedigree Chart

**************************************///*///***************************************
 18

NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

ILLUSTRATIVE DIAGRAMS

Spotting Experiment No B2 Study of Gametic development TS of Testis

Spermatogenesis

Spotting Experiment No 03(a) Study of Gametic development TS of Ovary - Oogenesis

 19
NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA
ILLUSTRATIVE DIAGRAMS
Comparative Study

Comparative Study of Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis

Fertilization

.
 20

NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

ILLUSTRATIVE DIAGRAMS
Spotting Experiment No B6 : Entamoeba histolytica Life Cycle
 -21-

NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

PROJECT REPORT (Font Ariel 22)
Students are instructed to make Experimental based individual project report on
topic of their interest from Class XII Biology chapters (See page No 23)
Topic selected should from Class XII Biology (NCERT)16 chapters (From Unit VI to X ).

It should follow Scientific Method of Experimentation with proper captions as

follows:-

Index (Sr No, Content and page Number to be mentioned)

Aim:- To study...........(script font Ariel 12)

Objectives:-
Materials Required:-
Principle:- (Heading/Caption Font Ariel 20)

Procedure:-
Observation:-
Conclusion/Result:-
It should be minimum 15-20 pages excluding front page, certificate,
acknowledgement and bibliography

Diagrams/Photographs and data and observations are to be properly noted/written

with proper boarders in A4 sheet (one sided).

Headings -Font Arial Font size 20

Script - Font Arial Font size 12
Select topic of your choice, inform and discuss with your teacher before doing.
 -22-

NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA

Class XII Biology Practical Suggested topic for Biology Individual Project (CBSE) 2021-22
(Board Examination point of view)

1.Environmental Endocrine Disruptors : Effect on human Reproductive system

2.Study of hormonal control in gametogenesis
3.Survey on importance on sex education in schools.
4. Reproductive health and birth control measures pros and cons.
5. Reproductive health and Sexually Transmitted Diseases
6. A Case study on Assisted Reproductive Technology
7. Adopting a child by a childless couple and social outlook.
8. Study of Mendelian laws and experiments
9. Study of co dominance and multiple allele inherited traits.
10. study of Sex linked inheritance with examples
11. Study of Sex determination in organisms
12. Pedigree analysis ; A Case study of ................
13. Study of Human Genome Project
14. DNA Fingerprinting
15. Study of evolution of life and evidences of evolution
16. Study of analogous and homologous structures in plants and animals
17. Common Human Diseases (Study of any single disease in detail with a case study report
(Diabetes/Cancer/Malaria etc)
18. Communicable diseases and their control On Recent Diseases – Covid 19
19. Case Study of Common bacterial diseases and control ( with one case study)
20. Case Study of Common viral diseases and control ( with one case study)
21. Study of animal breeding techniques as a Strategies for Enhancement of Food Production
22. Study of plant breeding techniques as a Strategy for Enhancement of Food Production
23. Microbes as human’s friend (Study of useful microbes)
24. Setting up a Biogas plant in my house
25. Study role of Microbes in Sewage treatment plants
26. A Study of Biotechnology Principles Genetic Engineering and RDT(Recombinant Gene Technology)
27. Study of GMOs
28. Study of PCR and disease confirmation through application of Biotech
29. Study of Animal relationships in biosphere
30. Study of an ecosystem (explaining the different components by visiting a pond/forest/grassland/desert)
31. Why bio diversity conservation is needed?
32. Study of endangered species in India
33. Environmental issues and sustainable development

Note:- Refer format of project work Lab Manuel Class xii Bio page No 21

/tad/*
 -23-
NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA
Class XII Biology Practical : Exam Oriented Suggested Topics for Biology Project class 12 (CBSE) 2021-22

UNIT & CHAPTER Topics

Unit VI : REPRODUCTION
1. Reproduction in Organisms 1.Asexual reproduction modes in organism Deleted
2.Study of vegetative propagation in commonly uses in plants
2. Sexual reproduction in 1. A detailed study of pollination and agents of pollination.
Flowering Plants 2.Gametogenesis in angiosperns a detailed study of the processes pre
reproductive stages to seed formation.
3. Human Reproduction 1.Study of hormonal control in gametogenesis
2.Survey on importance on sex education in schools.
4. Reproductive Health 1. Reproductive health and birth control measures pros and cons. TERM 1
2. Reproductive health and Sexually Transmitted Diseases
3. A Case study on Assisted Reproductive Technology
4. Adopting a child by a childless couple and social outlook.
Unit VII : GENETICS AND
EVOLUTION
5. Principles of Inheritance 1. Study of Mendelian laws and experiments.
and Variation 2. Study of co dominance and multiple allele inherited traits.
3. study of Sex linked inheritance with examples
4. Study of Sex determination in organisms
5. Pedigree analysis ; A Case study of ................
6. Molecular basis of 1. Study of Human Genome Project
Inheritance 2. DNA Fingerprinting
7. Evolution 1. Study of evolution of life and evidences of evolution Deleted
2. Study of analogous and homologous structures in plants and animals
Unit VIII : BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE
8. Human Health and Disease 1. Common Human Diseases (Study of any single disease in detail with a case
study report (Diabetes/Cancer/Malaria etc)
2. Communicable diseases and their control TERM II
3. Case Study of Common bacterial diseases and control ( with one case study) (05)
4.Case Study of Common viral diseases and control ( with one case study)
5.Covid19 and common man Dos and Don’ts
9. Strategies for Enhancement 1.Study of animal breeding techniques as a Strategies for Enhancement of Food
of Food Production Production DELETED
2.Study of plant breeding techniques as a Strategy for Enhancement of Food
Production DELETED
10. Microbes in Human 1.Microbes as human’s friend (Study of useful microbes)
Welfare 2.Study of Microbes in Sewage treatment
Unit IX : BIOTECHNOLOGY
1. Principles of Biotechnology TERM II (02)
11. Biotech_ Principles
and Processes 2. GMo and significance in modern world
12. Biotech- Applications 1. Applications of Biotechnology
Unit X : ECOLOGY
13. Organisms and 1. Population Interactions
Populations 2. Population factors contriburing Population and Population Growth curves
14. Ecosystem
15. Biodiversity and 1.Biodeversity and need for Conservation of Biodiversity
2. Flora and Fauna of Karnataka
Conservation
3. Biosphere reserves and National Parks in India
16. Environmental Issues

Note :- Students can select their own topic of interest related to the included chapters in the term 1 and term 2
syllabus. It should be aimed at examination point of view . Select your topic, inform discuss then start working on
it instead of changing it at the eleventh hour. Projects not related to examination point of view will not be
considered.
 -24-
NEHRU SMARAKA VIDYALAYA
EXPERIENTIAL MOTIVATIONAL VIDEOS “ALIVE EXPERIENCE AND BE CREATIVE”
Useful link from Dept of Biology BIA as under :-

My Experiential Learning Video Channel : https://youtu.be/xATB5xMJ0lI

Pollen Tube germination by Sansitha 12H : https://youtu.be/mN0z_g7103s
Learning Outcome Class XII Bio 2020-21 batch : https://youtu.be/BZnirrx_ork
Learning Outcome Class XI Bio 2020-21 batch : https://youtu.be/d7jdqyNRtik
Learning Outcome Class X Bio 2020-21 batch : https://youtu.be/qtIJmkRPoDg
Entamophily Autogamy, Allogamy and Xenogamy : https://youtu.be/cbtM3hyiOKw