How do organism reproduce

 Reproduction is a biological process by which living organism is able to

reproduce young ones/progeny of its own kind.

Significance of reproduction:

1. It ensures the continuity of various species from generation to

generation
2. Addition of new species
3. Replacement of dead organism
4. Transfer of variation and adaption from one generation to other.

 The reproduction involves a mechanism called DNA copying or DNA

replication which is capable of producing similar multiples of blue prints.
 The cellular components of hereditary transmission are in the form of
macromolecules called DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid).
 DNA is present in chromosomes, which reside inside nucleus.
 DNA contains all the information to make specific protein which in turn
forms enzymes to control chemical reaction in the body. It is these
chemical reactions which govern the metabolism in the body to produce
specific characters.
 Thus for transmitting characters to the next generation, prior to the
reproduction ,DNA forms its copies to be transported to the newly formed
reproductive cells.
 The process of formation of new DNA strand from the older ones is
called replication of DNA. This is because the DNA copies generated
during the process of replication are similar but not identical to the
original copy. Minor alterations during DNA replication are responsible
for bringing variations in the long run.
 Thus all the reproductive gametes may not have exactly the same
characters. In this way, mistake in the process of DNA replication is one
of the fundamental reasons for the origin of variation which is passed
over to the next generation through the process of reproduction.
 Variation

 DNA copying is accompanied by the creation of an ndividual cellular

apparatus. Afterwards, the cell divides effectively producing two new
daughter cells. It always causes some or other type of variations in newly
formed cell. This brings the differences found in the morphological and
physiological features of an organism. Since no biochemical reaction is
absolutely reliable, DNA copies generated are similar but not absolutely
identical.
 The DNA copying should be perfectly accurate in reproduction process.
The variations among the individual will occur if not so. This may be
beneficial or fatal for the individual. This inbuilt tendency for variations
duing reproduction is the basis for evolution.

Importance of variation

 Stability of populations of species in particular places or niches are

maintained by the process of reproduction. Those organism which have
the same body designs occupies the same niche or place in the ecosystem.
 However, there are chances that niches can change due to reasons beyond
the control of organisms. The changes may be in the form of increased
temperature on earth, varying water levels or any other ecological
disturbances.
 The population tends to wipe out completely if a niche suitable for
organisms of a particular population is drastically changed. However a
few individuals of population of a species may survive the changed
niches which have undergone variation in their features due to variations
in DNA copying mechanism.

For example, a population of bacteria is growing in the temperate water and

has developed an environmental harmony. Suppose the temperature of water is
somehow increased due to global warming then the bacteria will definitely die.
However, only those will survive which have developed resistance to heat.
Variations are thus useful for the survival of species over time.

Types of reproduction

Living organism reproduce by two ways – asexual reproduction and sexual

reproduction.
Asexual reproduction

 Asexual reproduction involves the production of an offspring from a

single parent without the fusion of gametes.
 Asexual reproduction mostly occurs in unicellular organisms (like
bacteria, protozoans etc), some plants (like algae, fungi, bryophytes, etc.)
and certain multicellular animals (like sponges and Hydra). In this
method of reproduction, the young ones receives all its genes from one
parent.

Basic feature of asexual reproduction:

1. Only one organism is involved; different sexes are not involved.
2. All the cell divisions during this type of reproduction are mitotic.
3. New individuals produced are genetically identical to the parents.
4. It is a rapid mode of multiplication
5. No gametes are formed and hence no fertilisation takes place.

Types of asexual reproduction

There are many types of asexual reproduction such as fission, fragmentation,

regeneration, budding, spore formation and vegetative propagation.

Fission:

The process of reproduction by which a unicellular organism splits into two or

more than two separate daughter cells is called fission.

This type of reproduction is common in unicellular organisms like Amoeba,

paramecium, and Euglena. Fission is of two types – Binary fission and multiple
fission.

Binary fission :

 This is the division of parent cell into two small, nearly equal sized
identical daughter cells. The two daughter cells then grow into adult
organisms. The two daughter cells then grow into adult organisms.
 In this type of reproduction, the nucleus first divides into two nuclei
(Karyokinesis), which is followed by the division of cytoplasm
(Cytokinesis). The cell finally splits into two daughter cells. The two
daughter cells grow fully and divide again.
  This method of reproduction occurs in favourable conditions of life. The
daughter cells formed are morphologically and genetically identical.
Binary fission can be seen in bacteria, Amoeba, yeast, Leishmania and
Euglena.
 The cell division can occur in any plane as in case of Amoeba. However,
organisms like Leishmania. (cause Kala-azar), which have a whip like
flagella at one end, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in
relation to the flagellum.

Multiple fission

 The type of fission where the parent organisms divides into many
identical daughter organisms at the same time.
 Multiple fission can be seen in organisms such as Plasmodium (malarial
parasite), chlamydomonas etc.
Fragmentation:

 Some multicellular organisms having simple body organisms reproduce

by breaking of their bodies into small pieces. Each of these pieces is
called a fragmentThese fragments grow into new individuals and the
mode of reproduction is called fragmentation. For example, the green
filamentous algae Spirogyra, mycelial fungi and thalloid bryophytes.

Regeneration:

 Some animals like hydra and planaria can regenerate into a complete
individual from a single segment of their body part.
 Thus, regeneration is a type of asexual reproduction in which the
development of new organisms occurs from just a broken or cut part of
parent organism.
 This is carried out by specialised cells which proliferate and make a large
number of cells. From this mass of cells , different cells now undergo
changes to become various cell types and tissues to make a full organism.
 The regeneration of an organism from its cut body parts occurs by the
process of growth and development. The cells of cut part divide and form
mass of cells. These formed newly cells then change their shapes or
become specialised to form different types of tissues and organs.
Budding :

• A new organism develops from an outgrowth or bud. Eg : yeast or hydra.

• Seen in Yeast (a fungus). The parent yeast cell develops a protrusion or

an outgrowth at its upper end. The nucleus of the parent cell divides and
one of them moves into the outgrowth which grows bigger and finally
separates from the parent cell to lead an independent existence. Very
often if the conditions are highly favourable, a chain of buds is formed.
 Budding in hydra:

• Seen in Hydra. Parent Hydra develops a bud at its lower end. This grows
in size and finally breaks off to live independently.

Spore formation

 A spore is a single or several celled reproductive structure that detaches

from the parent and gives rise, directly or indirectly, to a new individual.
 The spore formation is also a type of asexual reproduction. Here living
cells or spores have the ability to germinate and give rise to a new colony
of daughter organisms.
 In many multicellular organisms, blob on a stick like structures are
involved in reproduction. These blobs are known as sporangia, which
contain spores as reproductive structures.
 The spores are covered by thick walls that protect them in unfavourable
conditions. When these spores come into contact with some moist surface
like soil and can begin to grow.
 The thread like projections called hyphae develops on the bread, if moist
bread is kept open for few days. This is because the spores of Rhizopus
present in air settle down on the bread and germinate to form a new
Rhizopus colony.
 Vegetative propagation

Vegetative propagation in plants is a method of asexual reproduction in which

part other than seed s are used as propagules (root, stem and leavesi n place of
seed). In fact, it is a method of propagation in those plants which have lost their
capacity to produce seeds or they produce non viable seeds.

Among flowering plants, every part of the body such as root, stem , leaf or bud
takes part in vegetative propagation. It is of two types, natural and artificial.

Natural vegetative propagation

By root – Sweet potato

By stem – Potato

By leaves – Bryophyllum

Artificial method of vegetative propagation :

It is manmade and developed by plant growers and horticulturist for commercial

production of crops. Some common artificial methods are :

1. Cutting: The small piece of any plant (stem, root or leaf) used for
propagation is called cutting. Stem cuttings are most commonly
propagation of many horticultural plants such as frappe, rose, sugarcane
etc. In this method 20 -30 cm long pieces of stem are planted in natural
position in the wet soil. It gives off the roots from the lower end and
shoots buds from the aerial nodes. A cutting develops a new plant, similar
to the parent plant.
 2. Grafting: It is the method of obtaining a superior quality plant from two
different plants by taking the root system of one plant and the shoot
system of one another. The plant whose root system is taken is called
stock while the plant whose shoot system is taken is called scion. Thus
grafting is a method in which stock and scion are joined in such a way
that they developed into a single plant.

3. The ends of stock and scion to be grafted are cut obliquely and placed
face to face in such a way that two are in intimate contact. Then both
scion and stock are bound firmly with tape and covered with soft wax to
prevent them from infection and dehydration. E.g. : mango, guava, pear
etc.

4. Layering : Eg : Jasmine

Tissue Culture: The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in
a nutrient medium under aseptic conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a
nutrient medium where it forms a mass of cells called callus. This callus is then
transferred to another nutrient medium where it differentiates and forms a new
plant.

Importance of Vegetative Propagation

• Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.

• Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also
reproduce by vegetative propagation.

• All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.

• Seedless varieties can be obtained.

• The property of vegetative propagation is used by horticulturists in

developing methods like layering, grafting to grow many plants like
sugarcane, roses, or grapes.