From city marketing to city

branding: Towards a theoretical

framework for developing
city brands
Received (in revised form): 30th June, 2004

Michalis Kavaratzis
studied business administration in Greece and marketing in Scotland. Since April 2003 he has been a researcher in the Urban
and Regional Studies Institute (URSI) of the University of Groningen in the Netherlands, focusing on the topics of place and
city marketing. His particular interest is in place and city branding and he recently commenced work on a project which will
investigate branding processes in major European cities.

Abstract Cities all over Europe include more and more marketing techniques and
methods in their administration practice and governing philosophy. The transfer of
marketing knowledge, however, to the operational environment of cities proves a cause
of difficulties and misalignments, mostly due to the peculiar nature of places in general
and cities in particular as marketable assets.
In this paper, city branding is suggested as the appropriate way to describe and
implement city marketing. City marketing application is largely dependent on the
construction, communication and management of the city’s image, as it is accepted
that encounters with the city take place through perceptions and images. Therefore the
object of city marketing is the city’s image, which in turn is the starting point for
developing the city’s brand. The most appropriate concept to understand marketing
applicability within cities is the recently developed concept of corporate branding, which
with the necessary modifications is applied to cities.
The core of the paper is a theoretical framework to understand the city’s brand and
its management, which was developed through a review of the literature on both city
marketing and the corporate brand. City branding provides, on the one hand, the basis
for developing policy to pursue economic development and, at the same time, it serves
as a conduit for city residents to identify with their city. In this sense the relevance of
and need for a framework describing and clarifying the processes involved in city
branding are equally strong for facing increasing competition for resources, investment
and tourism on the one hand and for addressing urgent social issues like social
exclusion and cultural diversity on the other. The framework focuses on the use of city
Michalis Kavaratzis
Urban and Regional branding and its potential effects on city residents and the way residents associate with
Studies Institute, and experience their city, and it is based on a combination of city marketing measures
Faculty of Spatial Sciences,
University of Groningen, and the components of the city’s brand management.
The Netherlands.

Tel: ⫹31 50 363 6602;

Fax: ⫹31 50 363 3901;
e-mail:
Keywords: City branding, city marketing, corporate branding, city image, city
[email protected] branding variables

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 From city marketing to city branding

INTRODUCTION with characteristics once distinctive to

While the marketing of urban places has businesses — risk taking, inventiveness,
been practised, at least, since the 19th promotion and profit motivation
century (Ward, 1998), cities increasingly (Hubbard and Hall, 1998). The use of
tended to rely on marketing methods in marketing was only a natural
the last three decades, when ‘competition consequence of such entrepreneurial
for inward investment, tourism revenues governance. Its implementation, however,
and residents at various spatial scales was (and to a great extent still is) limited
intensified’ (Kotler et al., 1999). to methods and techniques that were
It is clear, though, that the early easily transferable from the original field
examples mentioned in the literature are of marketing application, and in most
only promotional activities undertaken by cases restricted to promotional measures.
cities or regions in various places and One reason for this partial
times. According to Ashworth and implementation is the limited knowledge
Voogd (1994: 39) ‘there is nothing new and limited understanding of marketing
about places being promoted by those among people with the task to
likely to profit from their development. administer cities, another the embryonic
What is new, however, is the conscious stage of marketing in the public sector, a
application of marketing approaches by third the limited understanding among
public planning agencies not just as an marketing academics and practitioners of
additional instrument for the solution of the peculiar nature of places; practitioners
intractable planning problems but, who were frequently asked to implement
increasingly, as a philosophy of place city marketing. But as Ashworth (1994:
management.’ 647) states, ‘. . . much of the crudely
The context in which marketing defined and vaguely targeted boosterism,
became accessible to city administrators widely if inaccurately spread by many
was provided by the rise of the so-called public sector place promotion agencies
‘entrepreneurial city’, and the marketing barely counts as marketing at all.’
of places has been one of the defining The implementation of marketing
features of the entrepreneurial modes of philosophy and methodology, or at least
urban governance that have come to of marketing techniques that were easy to
prominence since the 1970s. According adapt and use in the practice of city
to Griffiths (1998: 41), governance, has been mirrored by the
‘entrepreneurialism as a mode of urban increasing interest of academics from
governance came about as a response by various fields, who believe that the
individual cities to the collapse of the principles of marketing are, with the
Fordist social democratic arrangements necessary modifications, applicable to
that had facilitated the spread of cities and their operational environment.
managerial forms of governance’. The Ashworth and Voogd (1994) attribute the
essence of this transformation of urban theoretical emergence of place marketing
politics is that policies pursued by local to three developments within the
governments are steered away from the marketing discipline that paved the way,
traditional activities associated with the by solving the difficulties of transferring
city and state (Hubbard and Hall, 1998). marketing knowledge from its initial field
Entrepreneurialism captures the sense in of industrial goods and services to places.
which cities are being run in a more These are the development of marketing
businesslike manner, and the practices in non-profit organisations, of social
that have seen local government imbued marketing and of image marketing, all of

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Kavaratzis

which contributed to the liberation of operate, and at the same time a matter
traditional marketing thought from goals that needs clarification and further
and practices attached to this initial field development. Borchert (1994)
of application. The development of the demonstrates that ‘a consensus about
concept of non-profit marketing (Kotler what marketing of urban places should
and Levy, 1969) has freed the application include is lacking so far, with many
of marketing from its connection to direct authors having a very limited
financial profit making, while the concept understanding of the nature and
of social marketing (Kotler and Zaltman, consequences of marketing’. As
1971) introduced the possibility to use Ashworth (1994) concludes, ‘place
marketing in order to alter or reinforce marketing is a legitimate form of
sets of attitudes held by targeted marketing in the sense that the
individuals or groups, with the final goal terminology, techniques and philosophies
being the good of society at large. The of marketing can be applied to places but
notion of image marketing stems from the equally, if it is to be attempted
realisation that images can be effectively successfully, then a special type of
marketed while the products to which marketing has to be devised’.
they relate remain vaguely delineated One of the basic elements of this ‘new
(Ashworth and Voogd, 1994), a notion type of marketing’ is the determination
that was warm-heartedly accepted by city of the major action areas that the
administrators faced with the complex and implementation of a strategic marketing
intricate city product. plan should incorporate. It is the
There are, however, more recent articulation and description of broad,
developments within the marketing distinct categories of actual measures and
discipline that make the distance from field actions that are or should be dealt
traditional, general marketing to place and with by city marketers in the effort to
city marketing shorter and the transfer of implement integrated city marketing.
marketing knowledge easier. According to The intention is to create a mix of
Borchert (1994), ‘the majority of components that need to be managed
publications [on city marketing] are at and orchestrated, and in this way ‘not
best limited to some aspects of marketing only delineate the domain (by
and in most cases there exists only a weak articulating its key elements), but also
relation with modern developments in provide a basis in which the area may be
marketing theory’. One concept that has operationalised’ (Balmer, 2002).
emerged in recent years and has a clear
and direct relevance to marketing
implementation in cities is the concept of FROM CITY MARKETING TO
corporate branding and corporate-level CITY BRANDING
marketing, which is a theoretical and Firat and Venkatesh (1993: 246) consider
practical development of the earlier that in postmodernity ‘marketing is the
concepts of corporate image and conscious and planned practice of
corporate identity (eg Balmer, 1998; signification and representation’. This
Balmer and Greyser, 2003). thought plays an important role in the
The applicability of marketing theory development of the theoretical
and practice in urban governance and framework, which is described in this
urban administration is a matter of great paper. It provides the basic guidelines
interest, especially within the changing that lead from the city marketing mix to
environment in which cities in Europe the city’s brand, which are the two

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 From city marketing to city branding

distinct approaches to city marketing (a) Promotional measures

combined here. (b) Spatial-functional measures
(c) Organisational measures and
(d) Financial measures.
The city marketing mix
The first way to approach the topic is The scope and effectiveness of city
the determination of a set of instruments marketing is largely determined by the
and activities at the disposal of the selection and application of the appropriate
marketer that can be combined into a combination of these measures.’
marketing programme and ‘are useful in
pursuing a certain market response’ (van Kotler et al. (1999), although adopting
Waterschoot, 2002). In marketing science the marketing mix as suggested by
this has been termed the ‘marketing general marketing, distinguish between
mix’. The importance of the four distinct strategies for place
determination of the marketing mix, improvement that are the foundations for
meaning ‘the combination of marketing building a competitive advantage. These
measures needed to achieve the desired are:
strategy’ (Ashworth and Voogd, 1990),
has been highlighted in city marketing — design (place as character)
literature (eg Kotler et al., 1999; van den — infrastructure (place as fixed
Berg et al., 1990) and it is acknowledged environment)
by most commentators as an essential — basic services (place as service
step in the whole marketing effort. provider)
There have been attempts to articulate a — attractions (places as entertainment
mix of elements equivalent to the famous and recreation).
4Ps of the traditional marketing
paradigm. The actual determination, Hubbard and Hall (1998) describe a
however, of what the marketing mix generic entrepreneurial model of city
should include in the context of city governance. As goals of this model they
marketing proves to cause problems, identify re-imaging localities and the
which are associated with the transformation of previously productive
peculiarities of cities and places generally cities into spectacular cities of (and for)
as marketable assets and with the consumption. The achievement of these
relevance of the elements of the goals is pursued according to the same
traditional marketing mix to city authors through specific policies, which
marketing. Some commentators, for include:
example, adopt for city marketing the
services marketing mix (eg van den Berg — advertising and promotion
et al., 1990); others adopt a wider view. — large-scale physical redevelopment
In the third phase of the city — public art and civic statuary
marketing process, Ashworth and Voogd — mega-events
(1990) suggest what they term a — cultural regeneration
geographical marketing mix, which — public–private partnerships.

‘in contrast to the marketing mix usually found

in traditional business applications, may be The city’s image
defined as a combination of at least the There is a notable agreement in the
following sets of instruments: literature, as shown in the

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Kavaratzis

above-mentioned sets of marketing conflicting messages sent by the city and

variables, that a crucial role within the is formed in the mind of each individual
city marketing mix is played by image receiver of these messages separately. As
formulation and image communication. Bailly (1994) observes, ‘like geography,
In some cases, the importance attributed urban marketing is based on
to the image is expressed as a sole focus representations; this enables us to tackle
on the promotion process (eg Burgess, not the city itself but its meaning in a
1982; Gold and Ward, 1994; Ward, symbolic and ideological context’. It is
1998), in other cases as an emphasis on this line of thinking that makes Hubbard
the conventional promotional measures and Hall (1998: 7) come to the
(eg Kotler et al., 1999) and in other cases conclusion that ‘it is perhaps best to
as discussing the possibility of urban consider the entrepreneurial city as an
promotion through art, festivals and imaginary city, constituted by a plethora
cultural attractions (eg Kearns and Philo, of images and representations’.
1993). Borchert (1994: 417) stresses that Graham (2002) makes a distinction
urban marketing is a relatively between two parallel cities that exist
unexplored new field, whereas simultaneously. The first is the ‘external
promotion of places is a very old activity city’, ‘which can, at least superficially, be
indeed, and he further argues that ‘the encapsulated in one or two signature
relation between the two seems, buildings or landmarks’. As he suggests,
unfortunately, obscure for some ‘urban conservation (. . . in this external
geographers’. But in other cases the level) has always been motivated by the
significance of the image is expressed as desire to enhance distinctive identity at
underlining that a city’s image is the local scale and to distinguish one
communicated not only by promotion, place from another’. The same can be
but also through the rest of the said about city marketing, in the sense
marketing measures (eg Ashworth and that it has so far dealt with this external
Voogd, 1990; Ashworth, 2001; city, trying to conceptualise it as a
Dematteis, 1994). ‘For example, measures commodity. ‘However, the more
operating in spatial design features will conservation is practised, the less locally
contribute towards urban images and distinctive identity is likely to become’
thus reinforce, or contradict, promotional (Graham, 2002: 1009). The argument
measures’ (Ashworth and Voogd, 1990: raised is that since the methodologies
31). used by different cities in different parts
The above idea of the communicative of the world are the same, the outcome
effect of all marketing measures has will inevitably be the same as well,
origins in the repeated emphasis (both in resulting in ‘high streets being ‘‘Laura
general marketing and in city marketing Ashleyised’’ from Dublin to Potsdam’
literatures) on the need to combine and (Ashworth, 2002). Or as Vermeulen
orchestrate the sets of marketing (2002: 12) comments about the practice
measures, as one set has implications for of city marketing in the Netherlands,
the effectiveness of the others. At the ‘under pressure from the market, scenery
same time it stems from the realisation is being erected all over the country
that encounters with the city take place which is in no way rooted in the
through perceptions and images, thus the cultural background of the region’. The
object of city marketing is not the city second parallel city described by Graham
‘itself’, but its image. An image is the (2002: 1011) is the ‘internal city’, the
result of various, different and often city of the mind. ‘This is a much more

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 From city marketing to city branding

inner-directed mnemonic city, one that is the understanding of the nature of the
concerned with social inclusion and place consumer. Furthermore, one would
exclusion, lifestyle, diversity and be necessarily led to the notion that in
multiculturalism. It is a place of complex, reality one is talking about city branding.
overlapping and ambiguous messages.’ Cova (1996: 20) asserts that ‘. . . the job
Extending the above thoughts, it is of post-modern marketing is to identify
possible to describe the ‘internal city’ as the cultural meanings and images that are
the subjective amalgamation of these intended for the product’, and goes on
ambiguous messages, as received by the to confirm that this ‘image marketing
mind according to each individual’s and branding or brand management are
experiences and priorities. The two closely related — branding is of critical
parallel cities exist simultaneously, overlap importance in post-modern marketing’.
and interact. The crucial point for the The cultural meanings and images
management and marketing of the city is intended and desired for the city lie, as
this point of interaction. The point of well, in the heart of city marketing (eg
interaction is the perception of the city, Kearns and Philo, 1993). Branding
as formed by each individual that comes endows a product with a specific and
to encounters with the city. It is the more distinctive identity (Cova, 1996)
city’s image. Indeed, as Kampschulte and that is, in many ways, what city
(1999) comments, ‘the image of the city marketing seeks to do for cities.
is best described as the link between real, Branding is added to the list of
objective space and its perception’. developments that bring marketing
Vermeulen (2002) adds that the image theory and practice closer to the nature
originates only in part from a physical and characteristics of places. It provides a
reality and is based on well-worn base for identifying and uniting a wide
prejudices, desires and memories that range of images intended for the city and
take shape in the collective memory. As meanings attributed to the city in one
the same author asserts ‘it is not the city marketing message, the city’s brand. The
but the image that has to be planned’. It framework to understand a city’s brand is
is, then, the image of the city that is the provided by the recent development,
object of city marketing activities. within the marketing discipline, of
Hubbard and Hall (1998: 8) recognise corporate branding.
that ‘the manipulation of city images,
cultures and experiences has become
probably the most important part of the CORPORATE BRANDS
political armoury of urban governors and Following the criticism against the
their coalition partners in the marketing mix concept and the charge
entrepreneurial era’. that in the new economy and society its
If it is, though, the image of the city utility has largely been surpassed (eg
that city marketing deals with, this Brownlie et al., 1999; O’Malley and
would have serious implications for the Patterson, 1998), there were several
relevance of many marketing suggestions attempts to articulate new approaches to
found in traditional marketing on the marketing that would be more relevant.
one hand, and for the persistent One of these approaches is the notion of
questions that city marketing has so far corporate branding and corporate-level
failed to answer adequately, namely the marketing, which is a development of
definition of the city product, the traditional product branding, necessitated
determination of the city’s market and and, at the same time, enriched by the

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Kavaratzis

rise of other corporate-level concepts, 1997: 355). A strong identity is very

such as corporate image, corporate important for transmitting a consistent
identity and corporate communications. internal and external image among
The goal of branding as it has evolved stakeholders, turning into a valuable asset
during the last 40 years has been to (Simoes and Dibb, 2001).
explore ways to add value to the basic Balmer (2002) suggests that the
product or service and thus create brand elements that constitute a corporate
preference and loyalty (Knox and identity are:
Bickerton, 2003). Currently, there is
general agreement in the marketing — strategy (management vision, corporate
literature that the brand is more than a strategy, product/services as well as
name given to a product; it embodies a corporate performance, corporate
whole set of physical and brand covenant, corporate ownership)
socio-psychological attributes and beliefs — structure (relationships between parent
(Simoes and Dibb, 2001). Brands are not company and subsidiaries, relations
only considered as valuable assets of a with alliance or franchise partners)
company, but furthermore, as some — communication (total corporate
experts believe in post-modern consumer communication, which encompasses
culture, brands play a vital role in the primary, secondary and tertiary
construction of consumer identity (Elliott communication)
and Wattanasuwan, 1998). — culture (the soft and subjective
In the early 1990s several branding elements consisting of the mix of
and communication consultants sub-cultures present within, but not
mentioned and then went on to assess always emanating from, the
what was then called the ‘company organisation).
brand’ (Balmer and Gray, 2003),
reflecting the need to deepen the As Balmer and Greyser (2002) argue,
marketing view of the brand to ‘although prevailing corporate thinking
encompass organisational attributes and to considers identity to be a monolithic
shift focus from the integrity of the phenomenon, this premise is narrow and
product brand to the organisation and inadequate’. For the same authors, an
people behind the brand (Knox and organisation has multiple identities,
Bickerton, 2003). The later half of the which ‘can co-exist comfortably within
1990s witnessed a crescendo of writing the organisation even if they are slightly
on the (more encompassing, more different’. Organisations must manage
strategic-sounding) ‘corporate brand’, their multiple identities to avoid
which has since then ‘seized the potentially harmful misalignments.
imagination of scholars and managers Furthermore, corporate brand
alike and its rise has been inexorable’ management needs to take into account
(Balmer and Gray, 2003: 975). and is inextricably linked to the
A fundamental notion for corporate management of identity (Balmer and
branding is corporate identity. Corporate Greyser, 2002: 16).
identity is a holistic concept that Hatz and Schultz (2001) suggest that
‘articulates the corporate ethos, aims and creating a corporate brand is complicated
values and presents a sense of and they point to the interplay of three
individuality that can help to differentiate variables — vision, culture and image —
the organisation within its competitive that need to be aligned in order to
environment’ (van Riel and Balmer, create a strong corporate brand. In an

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 From city marketing to city branding

attempt to define the corporate brand on small municipalities in Britain

Knox and Bickerton (2003: 1013) state ‘a suggest that branding as a concept was
corporate brand is the visual, verbal and seen as relevant, but not always
behavioural expression of an understood or applied effectively.
organisation’s unique business model’. Trueman et al. (2001) recognise that
The brand is expressed through the there is an urgent need for a robust
company’s mission, core values, beliefs, analysis of the city as a brand that
communication, culture and overall takes into account a wide range of
design (Simoes and Dibb, 2001). Balmer stakeholders. At this point the literature
(2001) argues that at the core of a on corporate identity may be relevant
corporate brand is an explicit covenant since it offers the dimension of culture
(other commentators use the term to underpin corporate values (Trueman
promise) between an organisation and its et al., 2001). Also Rainisto (2003: 50)
key stakeholder groups. states that ‘place brands resemble
Corporate branding draws on the corporate umbrella brands and can
traditions of product branding, in that it benefit the value of a place’s image’.
shares the same objective of creating At the same time, it is one of the
differentiation and preference (Knox and very few occasions in general
Bickerton, 2003). Simoes and Dibb marketing texts that a direct reference
(2001) argue that ‘the entity in corporate is made to the relevance of corporate
branding has a higher level of branding to city marketing and to the
intangibility, complexity and (social) fact that ‘corporate level brands can
responsibility, making it much more also be applied to countries, regions
difficult to build a coherent brand’. and cities’ (Balmer and Gray, 2003).
Brands in general and corporate brands But the important question is: in what
specifically are seen as the base for ways is a city a brand, or if, indeed, a
long-term success of various firms and city can be seen as a brand? The
organisations. According to Aaker (1996), following definition of brands might assist
in contemporary marketing branding is in answering this difficult question: ‘a
central, as it integrates all the strategic brand is a product or service made
elements into one success formula. The distinctive by its positioning relative to
whole marketing programme — the competition and by its personality,
objectives, strategies and tactics — is which comprises a unique combination
derived from brand positioning (Rainisto, of functional attributes and symbolic
2003). values’ (Hankinson and Cowking, 1993:
10). The key to successful branding is to
establish a relationship between the brand
CITY BRANDS and the consumer, such that there is a
Hankinson (2001: 129) comments that close fit between the consumer’s own
‘in contrast to the marketing of physical and psychological needs and the
locations, there are relatively few brand’s functional attributes and symbolic
articles to be found in the academic values (Hankinson and Cowking, 1993).
literature with regard to the promotion This definition of brands and branding
of locations as brands. This is in shows the relation of branding to the
contrast to the increasing evidence in goals of city marketing and managing the
the press that branding, at least as a city’s image as identified in the literature
concept, is increasingly being applied to (eg Ashworth and Voogd, 1990, 1994;
locations.’ The findings of his research Kotler et al., 1999). Like brands, cities

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Kavaratzis

satisfy functional, symbolic and emotional corporate-level marketing do have a

needs (Rainisto, 2003) and the attributes multitude of suggestions for marketing
that satisfy those needs need to be implementation within cities.
orchestrated into the city’s unique
proposition (Ashworth and Voogd, 1990).
Branding provides a good starting point THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
for city marketing (Kotler et al., 1999) One of the main difficulties for city
and a solid framework by which to marketers is that they are faced with a
manage the city’s image. If it is indeed multitude of target audiences and
the city’s image that needs to be planned stakeholders’ groups. The focus of the
(Vermeulen, 2002), managed and theoretical framework here is clearly on
marketed, then city branding would be the city’s own residents. This does not
the right theoretical and practical imply that other target audiences
approach. (visitors, investors etc) are or should be
There is an interesting, revealing and considered less important. It just stresses
illustrative of the above thoughts similarity the fact that all activities (whether they
between the points made earlier about concern economic, cultural, social, tourist
corporate identities and brands and the or any other development of the city)
following sentence (Florian, 2002: 24) are done in the name of the city’s
taken from a book entitled ‘City residents and their ultimate goal is to
Branding’: ‘. . . urban renewal includes the improve their quality of life.
creation of an identity with its own The theoretical framework that this
experiential value, which is profoundly paper centres around is provided by the
original and uncopyable. This touches combination of all of the above-outlined
upon such points as structure, approaches. City marketing measures that
programming, functions, the sort of make up the city marketing mix as
actions and activities that characterise the suggested by city marketing theory and
image of the city, events and in the last applied in practice (described above) and
resort the chemistry of the people who the components of the city’s brand
operate there.’ management derived from the transfer to
Additionally, there are common the context of cities of the notions of
characteristics of corporate branding, as corporate branding (also described above)
summarised by Balmer and Gray (2003), merge to provide the guidelines for
and city marketing, as described in the developing and managing the city’s
literature, that support the suggestion that brand. The basic elements are
the framework for understanding city represented in the form of a figure
brands is provided by corporate brands which describes the way in which image
and their management. Both corporate communication takes place through the
brands and city brands have choice and appropriate treatment of
multidisciplinary roots (eg Ashworth and variables (Figure 1).
Voogd, 1990), both address multiple The beginning lies in the realisation
groups of stakeholders (eg Kotler et al., that all encounters with the city take
1999; Ashworth, 2001), both have a high place through perceptions and images. It
level of intangibility and complexity, is accepted here that it is indeed the
both need to take into account social image of the city that needs to be
responsibility (eg Ave, 1994), both deal planned (Vermeulen, 2002) and
with multiple identities (eg Dematteis, consequently marketed. It is the
1994). Corporate branding and interaction of the ‘external’ with the

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 From city marketing to city branding

City’s image

Image communication

Secondary communication Primary communication

Landscape Structure

Infrastructure Behaviour

Tertiary
communication

Figure 1: City image communication

‘internal’ city that Graham (2002) ‘Landscape strategies’ refer to fields of

describes which becomes the focal point actions and decisions that are relevant to
for city branding. Everything a city urban design, architecture, green spaces
consists of, everything that takes place in and generally public spaces in the city.
the city and is done by the city, The increasingly popular use of public
communicates messages about the city’s art is also included in this category,
image. All the interventions or action together with heritage planning. This
areas that are included in the framework component is in reality similar to the
have, in the context of city branding, product component of the traditional 4Ps
both functional as well as symbolic of marketing and has been suggested in
meaning, which is the main idea that city marketing theory as design (place as
differentiates marketing measures from character) (Kotler et al., 1999) and as the
branding decisions. The image is first part of the ‘spatial-functional
communicated through three distinct measures’ of Ashworth and Voogd
types of communication, namely primary, (1990). At the same time it is borrowed
secondary and tertiary. from the reality of city marketing as
practised so far — the same as urban
design and place marking (Griffiths,
Primary communication 1998) or the sum of large-scale physical
Primary communication relates to the redevelopment and public art (Hubbard
communicative effects of a city’s actions, and Hall, 1998).
when communication is not the main ‘Infrastructure projects’ refer to
goal of these actions. It is divided into projects developed to create, improve or
four broad areas of intervention. give a distinctive character to the various

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Kavaratzis

types of infrastructure that are needed in significance are the type of services
a city. On the one hand this element of provided by the city, together with the
the framework has to do with improving effectiveness of their provision and the
the city’s accessibility to the various number and type of events (like festivals
audiences, whether it is accessibility of and other cultural, sports or leisure
the high street to the residents, events) organised in the city. The city’s
accessibility of major monuments to behaviour borrows from the practice of
visitors or the existence of an adequately city marketing, the event-based strategies
large airport. On the other hand it refers that Griffiths (1998) identifies and the
to the existence and sufficiency of sum of mega-events and cultural
various facilities like cultural centres, regeneration of Hubbard and Hall
conference facilities etc. Infrastructure (1998). It also includes the basic services
projects as a component of the city’s of Kotler et al. (1999) and the financial
brand have the same meaning as measures of Ashworth and Voogd (1990).
infrastructure (place as fixed Mostly, though, it is a suggestion in the
environment) suggested by Kotler et al. spirit of corporate branding. It is what
(1999) and are the second part of the Balmer (2002) refers to as strategy, or the
spatial-functional measures of Ashworth sum of vision and culture that Hatz and
and Voogd (1990). Schultz (2001) identify as two of the
‘Organisational and administrative three elements that need to be aligned.
structure’ refers to the effectiveness and It has to be stressed that this list is not
improvement of the city’s governing and cannot be exhaustive. It relies on the
structure. Organisational structure is in skills, the innovativeness and the
the same spirit (but wider) as the imagination of every city marketer and
organisational measures of Ashworth and city administrator to enrich it with new
Voogd (1990), it is the natural extension ideas, practices and techniques. It does,
of the public–private partnerships that however, provide a basis from which to
Hubbard and Hall (1998) include in their understand the multifaceted process of
description of city marketing practice. At building city images and managing city
the same time the organisational structure brands.
is one of the main suggestions of
corporate branding, it is the structure
that Balmer (2002) describes as one of Secondary communication
the components of corporate identity. Secondary communication is the formal,
The most important elements of this intentional communication that most
category would be community commonly takes place through
development networks and citizens’ well-known marketing practices like
participation in the decision making, indoor and outdoor advertising, public
along with the establishment of relations, graphic design, the use of a
public–private partnerships. The logo etc. It is largely the same as what is
organisation of the marketing and meant by the promotion component of
branding effort itself falls into this the traditional marketing mix and it has
category. been so far the one marketing variable
Finally, the city’s ‘behaviour’ refers to that cities have adopted with great ease.
such issues as the city leaders’ vision for Secondary communication here is in
the city, the strategy adopted or the accordance with what is meant by the
financial incentives provided by the city promotional measures of Ashworth and
to various stakeholders. Two elements of Voogd (1990) and by the advertising and

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 From city marketing to city branding

promotion of Hubbard and Hall (1998) communication — especially so in the

and Griffiths (1998); it is part of what case of the city’s own residents, who are
Balmer (2002) describes as the at the same time the most important
communication component of corporate target audience of city branding and the
identity. It is what in the practice of city most important city marketers.
marketing is regularly confused with the
whole branding effort, so it is useful to
stress once more that secondary WHY CITY BRANDING?
communication needs to be in complete Helbrecht (1994: 528) discusses the
accordance with the rest of the relevance of city marketing philosophy
components and also in total harmony and methods to city governance and
with the reality of the city as local development:
encountered by the various city
audiences. At least as close to it as ‘city marketing enables a new level of quality
possible, as the well-known rule of within the local development policy in terms
marketing applies: ‘if you want to kill a of comprehensiveness, creativity and flexibility.
bad product, advertise it!’ New resources in the form of ideas, capital
Starting points for secondary and local knowledge are mobilised for local
communication are two elements. The policy. In this way city marketing enables a
strategic approach to public planning in
content of this communication is the most
collaboration with the private sector.’
significant factor, stressing the self-evident,
but often forgotten, fact that there simply
needs to be something to communicate In the beginning, local authorities eagerly
about; to put it simply, promotion comes embraced marketing in order to attract
only after one has something to promote. inward investment (Ashworth and Voogd,
At the same time it builds upon the 1990), and this might be one of the
communicative competence of the city. reasons why critical voices have raised
As Grabow (1998: 4) concludes, the most the argument that city marketing
important factor of city marketing is a exacerbates social conflicts (Griffiths,
functional communication and ‘the 1998). According to Paddison (1993)
communicative competence of a city is a ‘within the ‘90s reducing the social
key factor and vital requirement for all divisiveness of the city’s marketing
phases of successful urban marketing’. impetus constitutes as much a challenge
This communicative competence of the as maintaining its momentum’. But
city is both a goal, as well as a result of things have changed, as the realisation
the city branding process. came that for most urban authorities
external markets are likely to be, in
reality, of minimal importance compared
Tertiary communication to internal. In fact:
Finally, tertiary communication refers to
word of mouth, reinforced by media and ‘. . . it may be as much about communication
between citizens as clients and public
competitors’ communication. It is linked
authorities as service providers as about
with the rest by an interrupted line attractive exogenous investment, employment
(Figure 1), as it is not controllable by or customers. Equally, promotion is both
marketers. The whole branding process easiest and most effective when it is
and the other two controllable types of self-promotion. A place is sending messages to
image communication have as a goal to itself. The purpose is the fostering of a civic
evoke and reinforce positive tertiary consciousness and self-confidence. This is both

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Kavaratzis

an end in itself and a necessary precondition is raised that marketing implementation

for external marketing.’ (Ashworth, 2001) in cities has resulted in a tendency
towards ‘sameness’, diminishing local
City branding implies a significant identity (Griffiths, 1998; Ashworth, 2002;
change of perspective on the whole Vermeulen, 2002). City branding can
marketing effort. Marketing is a process assist in an attempt to reverse this
that can be used to accomplish various tendency, since it is largely based upon
goals set by the city, because ‘to discuss the distinctive characteristics of the city.
city marketing solely in economic terms Especially useful at this point is the
is to oversimplify its meaning’ (Paddison, examination of the organisational
1993: 348). City branding is understood structure of the city, which underlines
as the means both for achieving subjects such as community participation.
competitive advantage in order to The second is the notion of the ‘linking
increase inward investment and tourism, value’ of products, services and especially
and also for achieving community brands, a notion developed within the
development, reinforcing local identity influence of post-modernity on
and identification of the citizens with marketing thought. As Cova (1997)
their city and activating all social forces remarks, post-modern individuals seek
to avoid social exclusion and unrest. The products and services less for their use
perspective adopted for this paper and value and more for their linking value,
the study that will follow are in in order to satisfy their desire for
complete accord with the plea made by communities; in this sense brands have to
Ave (1994) for city marketing that can serve at the same time the person in
be called social marketing: their individuality and the group
‘togetherness’. This is the case for city
‘because it evaluates the benefits and costs of a brands, especially since the city has
specific project for the whole urban always served and still serves as the place
community, not just for the direct beneficiaries of this group togetherness.
or the users of the action carried out. This It is not the main purpose of this
requires a government action directed at
paper to outline in detail the practical
discovering the needs of citizens and groups
who cannot speak for themselves. It also
techniques used by cities to brand
requires flexibility to change, an ability to themselves, especially since field research
gather new possibilities along the way, and an will follow. Suffice it to recall here that
evaluation of the finished service’s effect on the three main techniques currently
the whole city with a view to successive fashionable among urban planners have
improvement.’ (Ave, 1994) been listed (Kavaratzis and Ashworth,
2004) as ‘personality branding’ (or ‘the
Such a perspective guides the process of Gaudi gambit’ after the success of its
developing and managing city brands. Barcelona application), ‘flagship
The study of city brands and branding construction’ (or ‘the Pompidou ploy’
is strongly connected to two other after the grands projets on the Paris
concepts with significant relevance to Beaubourg) and ‘events branding’
city residents and urban communities. (perhaps Edinburgh and its festival being
The first is the matter of the city’s the best-known example). All are
distinctive identity. Although there is designed not only to attract attention and
wide agreement that one of the most city recognition but also to raise
important assets cities possess is their associations between the city and
local character and identity, the argument attributes regarded as being beneficial to

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 From city marketing to city branding

its economic or social development. It is point where all efforts come together,
worth noticing that none of the above and therefore the point of more possible
was originally planned and intended to conflict or satisfaction (Helbrecht, 1994).
brand the city, but reality showed that In this sense the framework described
this could be one of the main functions. earlier is focusing on the most crucial
The question one has to answer, though, point of citizens’ experience with the
is if the city’s brand (or even only city’s marketing effort — on the actual
examining and thinking about the city as way in which they see, hear and feel
a brand) can operate as an umbrella that what marketing is doing for them. By
can cover a multitude of stakeholders doing so, it can serve as the centre of a
and audiences. Can city branding create circle that can be expanded to include
in the minds of all people who the rest of the city’s key objectives, such
encounter the city the feeling that they as increasing foreign direct investment,
are dealing with an entity, with one promoting tourism and preserving its
thing, which they could have a heritage. All these are goals of city
relationship with? Applying corporate branding and, at the same time, effects of
branding to places demands a treatment its successful implementation.
of the place brand as the whole entity Despite the appearance of a small
comprised of the place products, in order number of publications on the topic of
to achieve consistency of the messages city branding in the last few years
sent. At the same time it demands (Ashworth, 2001; Hankinson, 2001;
associating the place with ‘stories’ about Trueman et al., 2001; Hauben et al.,
the place not by simply adding them 2002; Rainisto, 2003), there is a
next to the name or trying to imply recognised gap in the literature with
them by isolating beautiful images of the regard to the branding process of cities
place. The ‘stories’ need to be built in in general (Hankinson, 2001) and real
the place and afterwards communicated case studies in particular (Anholt, 2002;
to all audiences. Rainisto, 2003). ‘This is in contrast to
This study begins with the belief that the increasing evidence in the press that
the single, ultimate goal of city branding, at least as a concept, is
marketing is to increase living standards increasingly being applied to locations’
for city residents. Within the city (Hankinson, 2001: 129). Moreover, the
marketing context and with this final concept of corporate branding (itself a
objective in mind, it is the development relatively young concept) has not
of the city’s brand and the correct received adequate attention by
understanding and treatment of its commentators interested in place and city
components that carry the most marketing, with the exception of the
importance for the actual and tangible research undertaken by Rainisto (2003)
results of the whole marketing strategy and the working paper of Trueman et al.
and planning, and in this sense carry the (2001). There is also a ‘remarkable
most importance for how city marketing paucity of real case histories, and
affects the lives of city residents. The surprisingly little work that is of direct
selection, use and combination of practical application’ (Anholt, 2002).
branding variables, as outlined in the Theory development would need more
theoretical framework, is the point of theoretical modelling and field studies to
contact between theory and practice, get feedback regarding real needs of the
between strategy and implementation, places for sophisticated developments
between planners and final users; it is the (Rainisto, 2003). The study that will

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Kavaratzis

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