MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

HANDOUT
prepared by asc - academics committee

SYMBOLIC LOGIC
● Logic is a ​science of the necessary laws​ of thought/science of reasoning.
● It gives us rules in determining whether an argument is ​valid or not.
● Symbolic logic ​will give us the rules of correct reasoning by using an ​objective language that
appears in ​the form of symbols.

Propositions and Related Concepts

● Proposition ​is any meaningful statement that is either​ true or false.
● Should be in ​declarative form.

Arguments
● Statements that consists of ​different propositions
● Reasoning used may be​ correct or not.

Propositional Variable
● Represents the ​arbitrary proposition ​with an unspecified truth value.
● Usually use the lowercase or capital letters in the English alphabet.
● Propositional Form - ​propositions written using propositional variables

Compound Propositions
● May be obtained from simpler propositions combined with ​logical connectives/operators.
● Logical operators ​are used to construct new propositions from the old ones.

1. The ​conjunction of p and q, denoted by ​p^q,​ is the proposition, p and q. This propositions defined to
be ​true only when both p and q are true, and ​false otherwise. The truth table of the conjunction of p
and q is given in the following table:

2. The ​disjunction of p or q, denoted by ​p˅q​, is the proposition, p or q. This proposition is defined to be

fals​e only when both p and q are false, and ​true​, otherwise. The truth table of the disjunction of p or q
is given in the following table:
 3. Exclusive-or​ of p or q, denoted by ​p ​⊕ q​, is the proposition that is ​true​ when exactly one of p and q is
true and ​false​ otherwise. The truth ​table of the exclusive or of p or q is given in the following table:

4. The proposition ​p NAND q​, is written ​p​|q is the proposition that is ​true when either p or q, or both are
false and it is ​false​ when both p and q are true. The ​truth ​table of p​|q​ is given in the following table:

5. The proposition ​p NOR q​, written ​p ↓ q is the proposition that is ​true when both p and q are false and it
is ​false​ otherwise. ​The ​truth ​table of ​p ↓ q​ is given in the following table:

Conditional and Biconditional Statements

● The ​conditional statement​, written ​p → q ​is the proposition “if p then q” asserts that q is true on the
condition the p holds. The statement p → q is ​true when both p and q are true and when p is false, no
matter what truth value q has. The truth table of p → q​ ​is given below:

● The ​biconditional statement​, written ​p ↔ q​, (read as p is logically equivalent to q) is the proposition “p
if only if q.” The bi-implication p ↔ q can also be written as p ≡ q. this statement is ​true when p and q
have the same truth values.
Rules of Logic
● Negation ​– change the truth value.
● Conjunction​ – True only if both are true.
● Disjunction​ – False only if both are false or true if at least one is true.
● Conditional​ – False only if true points to false.
● Bi-conditional​ – True if the truth values are the same.

Types of Compound Propositions

● A Compound Proposition can either be a ​Tautology, ​a C ​ ontradiction o​ r an ​Absurdity, ​or a
Contingency.
a. Tautology - ​refers to a compound proposition if it is ​always true for all possible values of its
propositional variables.
Example: ​(​p^q) ​→ (p → q)

p q p^q p→q (​p^q) ​→ (p → q)

T T T T T

T F F F T

F T F T T

F F F T T

b. Contradiction or Absurdity - ​refers to a compound proposition if a propositional form is ​always

false​ for all possible values of its propositional variables.
Example: ​p ^ ~ p

p ~p p^~p

T F F

T F F

F T F

F T F

c. Contingency - ​refers to a compound proposition if a propositional form is ​neither a tautology

nor a contradiction.
Example: ​(​p ​→ ​q) ^​ (q → p)

p q p ​→ q
​ q→p (​p ​→ ​q) ^​ (q → p)

T T T T T

T F F T F

F T T F F

F F T T T
EQUATION AND EXPRESSION
● An ​Expression ​is a group of number or variable ​with or without ​mathematical operation.
● An ​Equations ​is group of number or variable with or without mathematical operation ​separated by an
equal sign.

Characteristics of Math Language

1. Precise - ​able to make ​very fine distinctions
2. Concise​ - able to say things ​briefly
3. Powerful​ - able to ​express complex thoughts with relative ease

Exercise 1: ​Classify if it is an equation or an expression.

____________ ​1. ​Sum of three numbers
____________ ​2.​ y = 3x + 3 2
____________ ​3. ​4x + 3
____________ ​4. ​The difference of two integers is four
____________ ​5. ​x = 1

Exercise 2: ​Translate the following into an expression/equation

____________ ​1. ​Three more than twice a number
____________ ​2. ​The sum of three distinct numbers is at least 10.
____________ ​3. ​Product of two numbers
____________ ​4. ​The sum of a number and 9
____________ ​5. ​One-third of a number

SETS
● A set is a ​collection of objects, real or imagined.
● It should be possible to determine (in some manner) whether an object belongs to the given collection
or not

Element
● If an object belongs to the set, it is called a member (element) of the set.
● Denoted by the “∈” symbol
● For example, the elements of the set {a, b, c} are the letters a, b, and c.

Not an Element of
● If an object ​does not belong to the set​, we say that the object is not an element of the set.
● Uses the “∉” symbol.
● For example: 4 ∉ {1, 2, 3}

Empty Set
● The set with ​no elements.
● The empty set can be written Ø or {}.

Subset
● Set A is a subset of set B if all of the ​elements​ (if any) of ​set A are
contained in set B.​ This is written A ⊆ B.
● The ​empty set​ is a ​subset of every set.
 ● Denoted by the symbol ⊆
● A ⊆B ​↔​ x ∈ A ​→ ​x ∈ B

Set Equality
● Two sets are equal if they have ​precisely the same numbers.
● Denoted by “=”
● A⊆B^B⊆A
● ​A = B ​↔ x​ ∈ A ​↔ ​x ∈ B

Proper Subset
● A subset which is not the same as the original set itself.
● Denoted by the symbol “⊂”
● A ⊂ B ​↔ A ​ ​⊆ B ^ A ≠ B (Set ​A ​is a ​proper subset ​of set ​B​, denoted by A ⊂ B, if every ​element of ​A ​is
also an element of ​B​, and A ≠ B)
● For example, {a, b} is a proper subset of {a, b, c}, but {a, b, c} is not a proper subset of {a, b, c}.

Cardinality Of
● The ​number of elements​ in a set, whether the set is finite or infinite.
● Note: Not all infinite sets have the same cardinality.
● Denoted by “|A|”
● Examples:
|{a,b,c}| = 3 |{{ }}| = 1
|{ }| = 0 |{a,a,a}| = 1

Superset
● Set A is a superset of set B if set A contains all of the elements (if any) of set B.
This is written A ⊃ B.
● Every set is a ​superset​ of the ​empty set.

Set Operators
1. Union ​(A ∪​ ​B)
- Combining​ the elements of two or more sets.
- Union is indicated by the ​∪​ symbol
- A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

2. Intersection ​(A ∩ B)
- The elements two or more sets ​have in common.
- Intersection is indicated by the ∩ symbol.
- A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
 3. Set Complement
- The elements ​not contained​ in a given set. The complement of set A is indicated by A​C​.
- The complement of a set ​A,​ denoted by ​A’, ​is the set of all elements of the universal set U that
are not elements of A.

4. Set Difference
- A way of modifying a set by ​removing​ the elements belonging to another set.
- Subtraction of sets is indicated by either of the symbols – ​or ​\​.For example, A minus B can be
written either A – B or A \ B.

Additional: Venn Diagrams

● Diagrams makes sets​ easier to visualize
● Discovered by ​John Venn,​ and ​English​ mathematician
● The ​rectangle​ represent the ​universal set,​ denoted by ​U
● The ​circle​ represent the ​subsets of U

Sample Problem: ​True or False

Given: ​U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A = {x : x < 4}
B = {x : x is even}

________ ​1. ​A ∪​ ​ B = {x : x ≤ 4}
________ ​2. ​A ∩ B ≠ Ø
________ ​3. ​3 ∈ A’
________ ​4. ​2 ⊂ A
________ ​5. ​B ∩ A’ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
RELATION
● A relation is simply a set of ordered pairs.
● A relation is a correspondence between two things or quantities. It is a set of ordered pairs such that
the set of all first coordinates of the ordered pairs is called domain and the set of all the second
coordinates of the ordered pairs is called range.

Types of Relations
1. One – to – one relation
2. One – to – many relation
3. Many – to – one relation

Function
● A function is a ​relation such that ​each element of the domain is paired with exactly one element of
the range.
● The notation f: AB is used to denote a function with domain A and range B; f(x) = y means that f
transform x (which must be an element of A) into y (which must be an element of B).
● Injective ​- Let f : A ​→ B be a function from A to B. the function f is said to be ​injective ​(one to one), if
whenever x​1 ​ ≠ x​2​, then f(x​1​) ≠ f(x​2​)

● Surjective ​- ​Let f : A ​→ B be a function from A to B. The function f is said to be ​surjective ​(onto), if

f(A) = B. That is, R(f) = B (Range of f is B).

● Bijective ​- ​Let f : A ​→ B be a function from A to B. If the function f is said to be ​injective ​and

surjective ​ then, f is said to be ​bijective​ (1-1 correspondence).
BINARY OPERATIONS
● A binary operation on a set A is a function that takes pairs of elements of A and produces elements of
A from them.
● Definition A binary operation * on a set A is said to be ​commutative ​if
x*y = y*x for all x,y ∈ A.
● Definition A binary operation * on a set A is said to ​associative​ if
(x*y)* = x*(y*z) for all x,y ∈ A.

PROBLEM SOLVING
● Problem-solving refers to mathematical tasks that have the potential to provide intellectual challenges
for enhancing your mathematical understanding and development.

Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving

● Understand the problem - ​Understand the given information and what is being asked for.
● Devise a plan​ - Make models or decide which formulas/formulae to use in solving the problem.
● Carry out the plan ​- Solve the problem.
● Look back​ - Check if the answer is correct by looking back at the problem.

Problem-Solving Strategies
● Clarify the problem.
● Identify the key elements.
● Visualize the problem using diagrams or pictures.
● Create a model.
● Look for a pattern.
● Separate the problem into small parts.

Two Types of Reasoning in Problem-Solving

● Inductive Reasoning - ​The process of making a conclusion based on the observations, but the
conclusion may not necessarily be accurate or precise
○ Example: Two-thirds of the students at AMV are scholars. Ergo, two-thirds of all Thomasians
are scholars.
○ Example: Mary is a fashion model. Mary’s brother is a fashion designer. Ergo, everyone in
Mary’s family is in the field of fashion.
○ Example: There is a sequence 5, 7, 4, 6, 3, 5, 2, … Inigo observed the sequence and
conjectured that the next element of the sequence is 4.
● Deductive Reasoning - ​The process of making a conclusion by applying the correct hypothesis,
procedure, or principles
○ Example: If A = B and B = C, then A = C
 ○ Example: All accounting students are diligent. Marco is an accounting student. Ergo, Marco is a
diligent student.
○ Example: Richard solved the quadratic equation x​2​ + 12x + 6 = 0 using the quadratic formula.

Determine whether the following exhibits inductive or deductive reasoning.

___1. My father has straight hair. I have straight hair. Everyone in my family has straight hair.
___2. All even numbers are divisible by 2. 26 is an even number. Ergo, 26 is divisible by 2.
___3. Theo obtained the area of a rectangle by multiplying its length and width.
___4. The first two quizzes in Managerial Economics are difficult. Therefore, all quizzes in Managerial
Economics will be difficult.
___5. I have a 20 carrots, and there are 5 members in my family, myself included, so I divided all the carrots I
have by 5 to ensure an equal distribution of carrots.

STATISTICS
● A discipline concerned with the ​analysis of data ​and ​decision making based upon data
● Involves ​collecting, organizing, summarizing, and presenting data
● A ​solid edifice​ of mathematical theorems proven through unassailable laws of logic

● Population​ refers to all the members of the subject of interest

Result: PARAMETER
● Sample ​refers to selected the members of the subject of interest
Result: STATISTICS
 ANSWER KEY TO PROBLEMS

EXPRESSION OR RELATION: PART 1

1. Expression
2. Equation
3. Expression
4. Equation
5. Equation

TRANSLATING TO EQUATIONS/EXPRESSIONS ​(Note: Any variable can be used.)

1. 2x + 3
2. x + y + z ≥ 10
3. ab / AxB
4. n + 9
1
5. 3
n

SETS
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. False
5. False

PROBLEM SOLVING (Inductive or Deductive)

1. Inductive
2. Deductive
3. Deductive
4. Inductive
5. Deductive