CHAPTER TWO: INSTRUMENT TYPES AND

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
2.1. Instrument types
2.2. Static characteristics of instrument
2.3. Dynamic characteristics of instruments
2.1. INSTRUMENT TYPES
2.1.1. Active and passive instruments

2.1.2. Null-type and deflection-type instruments

2.1.3. Analogue and digital instruments

2.1.4. Indicating instruments & instruments with a signal

out put

2
 1 Active and passive instruments
2.1.1.
Passive instruments: The instrument output is entirely produced
by the quantity being measured

Example : The pressure measuring device

The pressure of the fluid is translated into a movement of a
pointer against a scale.
The energy expended in moving the
pointer is derived entirely from the
change in pressure measured
There are no other energy inputs to
the system.
3
 2.1.1. Active and passive instruments
Active instruments: The quantity being measured simply modulates
the magnitude of some external power source.
Example : Float-type petrol tank level indicator

The change in petrol level moves a potentiometer (three-terminal

resistor with a sliding or rotating contact) arm, and the output
signal consists of a proportion of the external voltage source applied
across the two ends of the potentiometer.

The energy in the output signal comes from the external power source:

The primary transducer (converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another) float
system is merely modulating the value of the voltage from this external power
source.
4
• The external power source is usually in electrical form, in some
cases, it can be a pneumatic or hydraulic one.

5
2.1.1. Active and passive instruments
• Difference between active and passive instruments are the level
of measurement resolution that can be obtained, cost, and
their energy sources.

• The simple pressure gauge shown, the amount of movement made

by the pointer for a particular pressure change is closely defined
by the nature of the instrument.

 It is possible to increase measurement resolution by making

the pointer longer, such that the pointer tip moves through a
longer arc, the scope for such improvement is clearly
restricted by the practical limit
 In an active instrument, however, adjustment of the
magnitude of the external energy input allows much
greater control over Measurement resolution.
 In terms of cost, passive instruments are more simple
construction than active ones and are cheaper to
manufacture.
 The choice between active and passive instruments for a
particular application involves carefully balancing the
measurement resolution requirements against cost.
6
2.1.2.Null-Type and Deflection-Type Instruments
Deflection Type
 The pressure gauge just mentioned is a good example of a deflection type
of instrument.
7
2.1.2.Null-Type and Deflection-Type Instruments

Null-type instrument
 An alternative type of pressure gauge is the deadweight gauge
shown below, which is a null-type instrument.
 Here, weights are put on top of the piston until the downward
force balances the fluid pressure.
 Weights are added until the piston reaches a datum level,
known as the null point.
 Pressure measurement is made in terms of the value of the
weights needed to reach this null position.
 The accuracy of these two instruments depends on different
things.
• Deflection type depends on the linearity and calibration of the spring
• Null type depends on the calibration of the weights.
Calibration of weights is much easier than careful choice and calibration of a
linear-characteristic spring, this mean Null type instrument is more accurate.

In terms of usage, the deflection type instrument is clearly more convenient : it
is simpler to read the position of a pointer than to add and subtract weights
until a null point is reached.
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2.1.3. Analogue and Digital Instruments
An analogue instrument
Gives an output that varies continuously as the quantity being measured changes.
The output can have an infinite number of values within the range that the
instrument is designed to measure.
The deflection-type of pressure gauge described earlier is a good example of an
analogue instrument.
As the input value changes, the pointer moves with a smooth continuous motion.
Whilst the pointer can therefore be in an infinite number of positions within its
range of movement.
A digital instrument
It has an output that varies in discrete steps and so can only have a finite number
of values.
Example: rev counter.
A cam is attached to the revolving body whose motion is being measured, and on
each revolution the cam opens and closes a switch.
The switching operations are counted by an electronic counter
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 This system can only count whole revolutions and cannot discriminate any
motion that is less than a full revolution.

An instrument whose output is in digital form can be interfaced directly to the
control computer.
Analogue instruments must be interfaced to the microcomputer by an
analogue-to-digital (A/D) converter, which converts the analogue output signal
from the instrument into an equivalent digital quantity that can be read into the
computer. 10
This conversion has disadvantages.
 A/D converter adds a significant cost to the system

 A finite time is involved in the process of converting an analogue signal

to a digital quantity, and this time can be critical in the control of fast
Processes (delay for fast controlling process)

11
 2.1.4. Indicating Instruments &
Instruments with a Signal out Put
Indicating instrument

That give an audio or visual indication of the magnitude of the

physical quantity measured
The indicating instruments includes all null-type instruments and most passive
ones.

Indicators can also divided into those that have an analogue output and those
that have a digital display.

A common analogue indicator is the liquid-in-glass thermometer.

Another common indicating device, which exists in both analogue and digital
forms, is the bathroom scale (weighing machine). 12
2.1.4. Indicating Instruments &
Instruments with a Signal out Put
Signal output Instruments
Those that give an output in the form of a measurement signal whose
magnitude is proportional to the measured quantity.

Instruments that have a signal-type output are commonly used as part of

automatic control systems.

They can also be found in measurement systems where the output

measurement signal is recorded in some way for later use

 Usually, the measurement signal involved is an electrical voltage, but it can

take other forms in some systems such as an electrical current, an optical signal
or a pneumatic signal. 13
2.3. Static Characteristics of Instruments
Static characteristics refer to the characteristics of the
system when the input is either held constant or varying
very slowly
If the instrument is made to measure constant or
slowly varying quantities, its performance can be
evaluated with only the static characteristics
The items that can be classified under static
characteristics are mainly:
E.g.. Room temperature reading 20 or 19.5 or 20.5
2.2.1. Accuracy & inaccuracy
Accuracy
 The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the
output reading of the instrument is to the correct value.

Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might be wrong, and

is often quoted as a percentage of the full-scale (f.s.) reading of
an instrument. Max. error = (measured value – true value) as a
percentage of full scale reading.

For example, a pressure gauge of range 0–10 bar has a quoted

inaccuracy of ±1.0% f.s, then the maximum error to be expected
in any reading is 0.1 bar. 15
• This means that when the instrument is reading 1.0 bar, the possible
error is 10% of this value. (1.1 bar-1 bar)=0.1 bar=10%
• For this reason, it is an important system design rule that
instruments are chosen such that their range is appropriate to the
spread of values being measured, in order that the best possible
accuracy is maintained in instrument readings.
• If we were measuring pressures with expected values between 0
and 1 bar, we would not use an instrument with a range of 0 – 10
bar.
2.2.2. Precision/ Repeatability/ Reproducibility
Precision indicates the repeatability or reproducibility of an
instrument (but does not indicate accuracy).
 A precision instrument indicates that the successive reading would
be very close
Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when the same
input is applied repetitively over a short period of time, with the same
measurement conditions, same instrument and observer, same location
and same conditions of use maintained throughout.

Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the same

input when there are changes in the method of measurement, observer,
measuring instrument, location, conditions of use and time of
measurement
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2.2.2. Precision/ Repeatability/Reproducibility

The degree of repeatability or reproducibility in measurements from an

instrument is an alternative way of expressing its precision

The figure below shows the results of tests on three industrial robots that were
programmed to place components at center of the concentric circles

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2.2.3. Tolerance

• Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and

defines the maximum error that is to be expected in some value.

• For instance, crankshafts are machined with a diameter

tolerance quoted as so many microns (±10-6 m)

• One resistor chosen at random from a batch having a nominal

value 1000 W and tolerance 5% might have an actual value
anywhere between 950 W and1050 W.
2.2.4. Range or Span
The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values of a
quantity that the instrument is designed to measure. Eg (0-10 bar)

2.2.5. Linearity
 It is normally desirable that the output reading of an instrument is linearly
proportional to the quantity being measured.
 Linearity is actually a measure of nonlinearity of the instrument.

The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the linear characteristics as a
percentage of the full scale output

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2.2.5. Linearity
2.2.6. Sensitivity of measurement
 The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in
instrument output that occurs when the quantity being
measured changes by a given amount.
 It also defined as the ratio of the incremental output and the
incremental input.
 The sensitivity of measurement is therefore the slope of the
straight line drawn above.

Example: a pressure of 2 bar produces a deflection of 10

degrees in a pressure transducer.

The sensitivity of the instrument is 5 degrees/bar

2.2.6. Sensitivity of measurement
Example 2.1: The following resistance values of a platinum resistance
thermometer were measured at a range of temperatures. Determine the
measurement sensitivity of the instrument in ohms/oC.

Resistance (Ω) Temperature (oC)

Solution: For a change in temperature of 30oC, the change in resistance is 7Ω.

Hence the measurement sensitivity =7/30 =0.233 Ω /oC.
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2.2.7. Threshold

 If the input to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, the input

will have to reach a certain minimum level before the change in
the instrument output reading is of a large enough magnitude to be
detectable.

 This minimum level of input is known as the threshold of the

instrument.

Example: a car speedometer typically has a threshold of about 15 km/h.

This means that, if the vehicle starts from rest and accelerates, no output
reading is observed on the speedometer until the speed reaches 15 km/h.
2.2.8. Resolution
• It is the minimum amount of input the instrument is able to measure.

• There is a lower limit on the magnitude of the change in the

input measured quantity that produces an observable change in the
instrument output.

• One of the major factors influencing the resolution of an instrument is

how finely its output scale is divided into subdivisions.

• Example: car speedometer has subdivisions of typically 20 km/h.

This means that when the needle is between the scale markings, we
cannot estimate speed more accurately than to the nearest 5 km/h. This
figure of 5 km/h thus represents the resolution of the instrument.

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Resolution is also defined in terms of percentage as:
2.2.9. Sensitivity to Disturbance
• All calibrations and specifications of an instrument
are only valid under controlled conditions of
temperature, pressure etc.

• These standard ambient conditions are usually defined in

the instrument specification.

• As variations occur in the ambient temperature etc.,

certain static instrument characteristics change, and the
sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the magnitude
of this change.
• Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main
ways, known as zero drift (bias) and sensitivity drift.
Zero drift
Zero drift or bias describes the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is
modified by a change in ambient conditions.

This causes a constant error that exists over the full range of measurement of the
instrument

Example :The mechanical form of bathroom scale :It is quite usual to find that there is
a reading of perhaps 1 kg with no one stood on the scale. If someone of known weight
70 kg were to get on the scale, the reading would be 71 kg,

Zero drift is normally removable by calibration

Sensitivity drift
Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor drift) defines the amount by which an
instrument’s sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient conditions change

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Example 2.2
A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20oC and has
the following deflection/load characteristic.

It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30oC and the following

deflection/load characteristic is measured.

Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per oC change in ambient temperature

29
Solution
At 20oC, Sensitivity =deflection/load = 20 mm/kg.
At 30oC, Sensitivity = deflection/load = 22 mm/kg.

Bias (zero drift)= 5 mm (the no-load deflection)

Sensitivity drift = Sensitivity @30oC - Sensitivity @20oC = 2 mm per kg

Sensitivity drift coefficients = Sensitivity drift /change in T

= 2/10 = 0.2 (mm per kg)/oC
Zero drift/oC = 5/10 = 0.5 mm/oC
 Exercise
A load cell is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 200C
and has the following deflection/load characteristic:

When used in an environment at 350C its characteristic changes to

the following:

Determine the sensitivity at 200C and 350C.

Calculate the total zero drift and sensitivity drift at 350C.
Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift coefficients (in units of
µm/ 0C and (µm per kg)/( 0C)).
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2.2.10. Hysteresis Effects
 If the input variable to the instrument is steadily increased
from a negative value, the output reading varies in the manner
shown in curve (A)
 If the input variable is then steadily decreased, the output varies in
the manner shown in curve (B)
 The non-coincidence between these loading and unloading curves
is known as hysteresis (the magnitude of the error)
 Two quantities are defined, maximum input hysteresis and
maximum output hysteresis, as shown in Figure below

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 Hysteresis is most commonly found in instruments that
contain springs, such as the passive pressure gauge and the
Prony brake (used for measuring torque).
 Causes are backlash, elastic deformations, magnetic
characteristics, frictional effects (mainly).
 Hysteresis can be eliminated by taking readings in both
direction and then taking its arithmetic mean.
2.2.10. Hysteresis Effects

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The hysteresis is expressed as the maximum hysteresis as a full scale reading
2.2.11. Dead Space
Dead space is defined as the range of different input values over
which there is no change in output value.
Backlash in gears is a typical cause of dead space
Backlash is commonly experienced in gear-sets used to convert
between translational and rotational motion (used to measure
translational velocity).

34
Cont…
It is defined as the maximum distance or angle through which any part of
mechanical system may be moved in one direction without causing motion of
next part.

 Can be minimized if components are made to very close tolerances.

35
2.4. Dynamic characteristics of instruments
2.3.1. Zero order instrument
2.3.2. First order instrument
2.3.3. Second order instrument
2.3.Dynamic characteristics of instruments
 Describe instruments behavior between the time a measured quantity
changes value and the time when the instrument output attains a
steady value.

 The relationship between the system input and output when the
measured quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly with time

 In any linear, time-invariant measuring system, the following general

relation can be written between input and output for time t > 0:

 Where qi is the input , q0 is the output and a0 .. . an, b0 . . . bm are

constants.
37
2.3.Dynamic characteristics of instruments
 If we limit consideration to that of step changes in the measured quantity
only, then the above equation reduces to:

 Commonly available instruments characteristics can usually be approximated

as either zero-th order, first order or second order dynamics.

38
2.3.1. Zero order instrument

 If all the coefficients a1 . . . an. other than a0 in the above

equation are assumed zero, then

where K is a constant known as the instrument sensitivity

Any instrument that behaves according to the above equation is
said to be of zero order.
 Potentiometer: Displacement sensors using potentiometric principle have no
energy storing elements. The output voltage eo can be related with the input
displacement xi by an algebraic equation:

where xt is the total length of the

potentiometer and E is the
excitation voltage.
2.3.2. First order instrument
 If all the coefficients a2 . . . an except for a0 and a1 are assumed zero

 Any instrument that behaves according to the above equation is known as a first
order instrument.

 If d/dt is replaced by the D operator in equation we get:

 Defining K = b0/a0 as the static sensitivity and τ = a1/a0 as the time constant
of the system.

40
2.3.2. First order instrument
 Thermocouple: A bare thermocouple has a mass (m) of the junction. If it is
immersed in a fluid at a temperature Tf , then its dynamic performance relating
the output voltage eo and the input temperature Tf , can be expressed by the
transfer function:

where, Kv = steady state voltage sensitivity of the

thermocouple in V/ oC. τ = time constant of the
thermocouple = hA/mC, m = mass of the
junction, C = specific heat, h = heat transfer co-
efficient and A = surface area of the hot junction.
2.3.3. Second order instrument
If all coefficients a3 . . . an other than a0, a1 and a2 in the above equation are

Applying the D operator and rearranging

standard equation for a second order instrument

K (static sensitivity), ω (undamped natural frequency) and ξ (damping ratio)

 If the standard second order equation is solved analytically, the

shape of the step response obtained depends on the value of the
damping ratio parameter.
45
 Seismic sensors are commonly used for vibration or
acceleration measurement of foundations. The transfer
function between the input displacement xi and output
displacement xo can be expressed as:
Example
A balloon is equipped with temperature and altitude measuring instruments and has radio
equipment that can transmit the output readings of these instruments back to ground. The
balloon is initially anchored to the ground with the instrument output readings in steady state.
The altitude-measuring instrument is approximately zero order and the temperature
transducer first order with a time constant of 15 seconds.
The temperature on the ground, T0, is 10 and the temperature Tx at an altitude of x
meters is given by the relation: Tx =T0 - 0.01x. If the balloon is released at time zero, and
thereafter rises upwards at a velocity of 5 m/s

• Draw a table showing the temperature and altitude measurements reported at

intervals of 10 seconds over the first 50 seconds of travel.
• Show also in the table the error in each temperature reading.
• What temperature does the balloon report at an altitude of 5000 meters?
Given that
• The transient /complementary function part of the solution: Tc=Cexp(t / )

• The particular integral part of the solution is given by: Tp  10 - 0.05(t -15)
ASSIGNMENT 46
2.8

47
ASSIGNMENT