V. Hublau1 and A.

Barillier2

The Equations of the Rolling Resistance of

a Tire Rolling on a Drum

REFERENCE: Hublau, V. and Barillier, A., ‘‘The Equations of the Rolling Resistance of a
Tire Rolling on a Drum,’’ Tire Science and Technology, TSTCA, Vol. 36, No. 2, April – June
2008, pp. 146-155.

ABSTRACT: This article attempts to write a mechanical justification of the ISO 18164 norm
from a mathematical point of view. There are only minor differences between the final equa-
tions and the ones used in the norm. Indeed, this work is a formal derivation of what is already
known.
The main point of this article is a proper writing of the first law of thermodynamics.
The main difference between physical equations and the ones used in the ISO 18164
standard is that the norm neglects the variations of the bearing friction of the tire and of the
drum between the skim test and the loaded one. The order of magnitude of the bearing friction
term is approximately 0.1 kg/ t at 80 km/ h.

KEY WORDS: rolling resistance, drum, measurement, ISO 18164, thermodynamics, kinetic
moment

Introduction

Due to constant rise in the price of energy and to a greater awareness of

environmental matters, the reduction of fuel consumption is a key problem for
road transport. The rolling resistance of tires is one of the main contributors to
the overall fuel consumption of a vehicle. Indeed, it represents 20% of the fuel
consumption for a passenger car and 30% for a truck.
The rolling resistance is measured on drums, and this measurement method
is specified in several different standards 共ISO 18164, SAE J1269, SAE J2452兲.
We focus here on the 18164 ISO standard 关1兴, which is a synthesis of two
previous ones 关2,3兴.
This article aims at writing the mechanical justification of the norm from a
mathematical point of view. There are only minor differences between the final
equations and the ones used in the norm. This work is a formal derivation of
what is already known, the main point being a proper writing of the first law of
thermodynamics.
This article is divided into two parts. We first write the equations of the
rolling resistance of a tire rolling on a drum. Then we compare those equations
to the ones used in the standard.

1
Corresponding author. Michelin, 63040 Clermont-Ferrand Cedex 9, France. Electronic mail:
[email protected]
2
Michelin, 63040 Clermont-Ferrand Cedex 9, France. Electronic mail:
[email protected]

146
 HUBLAU AND BARILLIER ON EQUATIONS OF RESISTANCE 147

FIG. 1 — A diagram to introduce the problem.

Equations of the Rolling Resistance on a Drum

We write the equations of a tire rolling on a drum 共cf. Refs. 关4–6兴兲.

Diagrams and Notations

You will find in Fig. 1 a diagram to introduce the problem and a compre-
hensive list of definitions and notations. We introduce the following notations:
PX is the sum of all the energetic losses 共except the aerodynamic losses兲 of the
tire. PX has the units of power 共in watts兲, and is the sum of PH, hysteretic losses
due to the viscoelasticity of rubber, PTR, tire/rim friction losses, PTG, tire/ground
共micro兲 friction losses, and PUNIF, nonuniformity losses. Likewise, PTOTAL is
the total power lost, including aerodynamic losses. We also note VT is the linear
speed 共in m/s兲 of the contact patch, and ␻t is the tire’s rotational speed. FR is the
rolling resistance force 共Newton兲, and Rr is the rolling radius of the tire. We
assume that Rr = RT the loaded radius of the tire. The two values usually differ
by 5%. The difference may appear significant. We did the calculations without
this hypothesis, and we find that considering Rr ⫽ RT only implies a difference
of 0.3% in the value of rolling resistance. That is why we consider Rr = RT.
Concerning torques, TFT is the bearing friction of the tire, TAT is the aero-
dynamic friction of the tire, TFD is the bearing friction of the drum, TAD the
aerodynamic friction of the drum, and TD is the positive torque applied by the
engine of the drum.
With regard to the forces applied to the tire, X is the horizontal force
created in the contact patch 共Newton兲, and Z is the load applied to the tire
共Newton兲. Caution: contrary to the diagram, we obviously have Z Ⰷ X.
Finally, we have geometric data: RT is the radius of the tire, and IT is the
inertia of the tire plus the rim. We usually use the inflated tire to measure the
inertia of the tire instead of the loaded one. By calculation, we find that the two
values 共inertia of the inflated tire, inertia of the loaded tire兲 differ by only 1%.
148 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

RD is the radius of the drum, ID the inertia of the drum, and ␦X the decentering
of the applied load 共m兲. We get an expression of ␦X by writing a barycentric
form of the moment generated by the load:

Z␦x = 冕Contact patch

f zx共d⌫兲.

We can write the following equations:

PX = PH + PTR + PTG + PUNIF ,

PTOTAL = PX + TAT␻t ,

V T = ␻ TR r ,

PTOTAL TAT
FR = = FX + .
VT Rr

Theorem of Kinetic Moment

We apply the theorem of kinetic moment to the tire, Eq 共1兲, and to the
drum, Eq 共2兲:
I T␻
˙ T = XRT − Z␦x − TFT − TAT , 共1兲

I D␻
˙ D = − XRD − Z␦x − TFD − TAD + TD . 共2兲

First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to the Tire

Figure 2 is a diagram to introduce the first law of thermodynamics, where
O⬘ is the drum center, O is the tire center, n the normal vector at the contact
point, t the tangential vector at the contact point, ␣ the angle 共−n , O⬘O兲, and ␻T
the tire rotation speed. We write the first law of thermodynamics,

K̇ + Ė = Pe + Q, 共3兲
with K = 共1 / 2兲IT␻T2
the kinetic energy of the tire, E the internal energy of the
tire, Pe the power of external forces applied to the tire, and Q the heat received
by the tire. We define E as

E= 冕 ⍀
␳e共xគ ,t兲d⍀.

We have to consider two cases: whether we are in a steady-state regime 共for

example, in the force method of the standard兲, Ė = 0, and whether we are in a
transient regime 共for example, in the deceleration method of the standard兲, and
 HUBLAU AND BARILLIER ON EQUATIONS OF RESISTANCE 149

FIG. 2 — A diagram to introduce the first law of thermodynamics.

the temperature is evolving. We did some calculations to check the value of Ė.
We did thermomechanical calculations to simulate a deceleration between 85
and 75 kph. Then we used the temperature calculated to predict the evolution of
internal energy and have ␦e = c p␦T. We get Ė = 5 W. We conclude that Ė is
negligible, given that the order of magnitude of the rolling resistance is 1000 W
at 80 kph. Thus, Ė = 0. We define Pe as

Pe = 冕
⍀
គf · vគ d⍀ + 冕 ⳵⍀
Tគ · vគ d⌫,

with f the volume forces applied to the tire, T the surface forces applied to the
tire, and f the force of gravity,
គf = − ␳gez .
This force is conservative so it did not work on a closed curve. Consequently,

冕
⍀
គf · vគ d⍀ = 0,

and we get

Pe = − TAT␻T − TFT␻T + 冕 Contact patch

Tគ · vគ d⌫. 共4兲

In order to solve this equation, we need to develop the term 兰Contact គ · vគ d⌫:
patchT
150 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

冕Contact patch
Tគ · vគ d⌫ = 冕 Contact patch
共␴= · nគ 兲 · vគ d⌫ = 冕 Contact patch
共tគ · ␴= · nគ 兲 · 储vគ 储d⌫.

With a first-order development in ␣,

冕 Contact patch
Tគ · vគ d⌫ = 储vគ 储 冋冕 Contact patch
− ex · ␴= · nគ d⌫

+ 冕 Contact patch
␣ · ez · ␴= · nគ d⌫ ,册
and we have

储Xគ Drum/Tire储 = 储Xគ 储 = 冕 Contact patch

− ex · ␴= · nគ d⌫.

Moreover,

TZ/O⬘ = 冕 Contact patch

O⬘M ∧ f ZeZd⌫ = 冕 Contact patch
− r · f Z · sin ␣ · eyd⌫,

with
储vគ 储
r= ,
␻D

f Z = eZ · ␴= · nគ .
Moreover,
TZ/O = TZ/O⬘ + OO⬘ ∧ Zគ = TZ/O⬘ .

Seeing that OO⬘ is collinear to Z, finally, we get

冕 Contact patch
Tគ · vគ d⌫ = 储Xគ Drum/Tire储 · 储vគ 储 + 储TZ/O储 · ␻D = Xv + Z共␦x兲␻D

by noting

␦x =
RD
Z
冕 Contact patch
共eZ · ␴= · nគ 兲␣共d⌫兲.

Thus, we can rewrite Eq 共4兲

Pe = Xv + Z共␦x兲␻D − 共TAT + TFT兲␻T ,
and we can rewrite Eq 共3兲 as
 HUBLAU AND BARILLIER ON EQUATIONS OF RESISTANCE 151

I T␻ T␻
˙ T = Xv + Z共␦x兲␻D − 共TAT + TFT兲␻T − PX , 共5兲
which includes the hysteretic loss term Px.

First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to the Drum

We repeat exactly the same calculations for the drum,

K̇ + Ė = Pe + Q,
with K = 共1 / 2兲ID␻D
2
the kinetic energy of the drum, E the internal energy of the
drum, Pe the power of external forces applied to the drum, and Q the heat
received by the drum. Here we have Q = 0 and we have to consider the torque
generated by the engine of the drum TD. Seeing that the calculations are the
same, we only indicate the final result:

I D␻ D␻
˙ D = − Xv − Z共␦x兲␻D + 共TD − TAD − TFD兲␻D . 共6兲

Nonslipping Condition

␻ TR T = ␻ DR D = V T . 共7兲

Summary of the Equations

I T␻
˙ T = XRT − Z␦x − TFT − TAT , 共1⬘兲

I D␻
˙ D = − XRD − Z␦x − TFD − TAD + TD , 共2⬘兲

I T␻ T␻
˙ T = Xv + Z共␦x兲␻D − 共TAT + TFT兲␻T − PX , 共5⬘兲

I D␻ D␻
˙ D = − Xv − Z共␦x兲␻D + 共TD − TAD − TFD兲␻D , 共6⬘兲

␻ TR T = ␻ DR D = V T . 共7⬘兲

Application: ISO 18164 Standard

ISO 18164 is a standard about methods of measuring rolling resistance 共for

passenger car, truck, bus, and motorcycle tires兲. The standard proposes four
methods for measuring rolling resistance. We present the equations of the four
methods, but we focus on the two most popular: the force method and the
deceleration method.
152 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Force Method at Tire Spindle

We combine Eqs 共1兲 and 共5兲,

共1兲/RD + 共5兲/共␻DRD兲,
and we get

Fx = X 1 + 冉 RT
RD
冊冉
−
1
+
1
RT RD
共IT␻ 冊
˙ T + TFT + TAT兲.

We are in constant speed regime, so ␻ ˙ T = 0. We get the following equation for

the hysteretic part of the rolling resistance:

Fx = X 1 + 冉 RT
RD
− 冊冉
1
+
1
RT RD
共TFT + TAT兲. 冊
Application in the ISO 18164 Standard

In the standard, it is said to do the first measurement with the nominal

loading as follows:

冉
Fx = X 1 +
RT
RD
− 冊冉
1
+
1
RT RD
冊
关TFT共Ziso兲 + TAT共Ziso兲兴.

Then we do a skim test. Theoretically, in this measurement hysteretic losses of

the tire are negligible. We obtain

冉
0 = X0 1 +
RT
RD
− 冊冉
1
+
1
RT RD
冊
关TFT共Zskim兲 + TAT共Zskim兲兴.

We assume that aerodynamic friction does not depend on load, as follows:

TAT共Ziso兲 = TAT共skim兲 = TAT .

We note

␦共TFT兲 = TFT共Ziso兲 − TFT共skim兲,

and we get

Fx = 共X − X0兲 1 + 冉 RT
RD
冊
− ␦共TFT兲
1
+
1
RT RD
. 冉 冊
Normally, we neglect the variation of the bearing friction of the tire between the
skim test and the loaded one,
 HUBLAU AND BARILLIER ON EQUATIONS OF RESISTANCE 153

冉
Fx ⬇ 共X − X0兲 1 +
RT
RD
.冊
The order of magnitude of the bearing friction term is approximately 0.1 kg/ t at
80 km/ h 共1% of FX兲.

Torque Method at Drum Axis

We measure the torque TDM at the drum axis
TDM = TD − TFD .
We do one measurement with the nominal load 共TDM兲 and one with the skim
load 共TDM0兲. In constant speed regime, if we use Eqs 共5兲 and 共6兲 thus,
关共5兲 + 共6兲兴/共␻TRT兲,
we obtain
1 1
FX = 共TDM − TDM0兲 − ␦共TFT兲.
RD RT
Normally, we neglect the variation of the bearing friction of the tire between the
skim test and the loaded one,
1
FX = 共TDM − TDM0兲.
RD

Power Method at Drum Axis

We use the previous equations, except that we measure the power con-
sumed by the drum:
PD = ␻DTD = ␻D共TDM + TFD兲.
Considering PD0, the power consumed during the skim test, we get
1 1 1
FX = 共PD − PD0兲 − ␦共TFD兲 − ␦共TFT兲.
v RD RT
We note
␦共TFD兲 = TFD共Ziso兲 − TFD共skim兲.
Likewise, we normally neglect the variation of the bearing friction of the tire
共and of the drum兲 between the skim test and the loaded one:
1
FX = 共PD − PD0兲.
v
The order of magnitude of the neglected terms is 1.2% of FX at 80 km/ h.
154 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Deceleration Method
We have TD = 0. We use Eqs 共5兲 and 共6兲 in the following manner:

共5兲/共␻TRT兲 + 共6兲/共␻TRD兲,

再
␻˙ D ID +
2
RD
RT2
IT 冎 = − 共TFT + TAT兲
RD
RT
− 共TFD + TAD兲 − RDFx .

We note
2
RD
Ieq = ID + IT .
RT2
We do a measurement with the unloaded tire while it is decelerating:

TFT0 + TAT = − IT␻

˙ T0 .
We do a measurement with the unloaded drum while it is decelerating:

TFD0 + TAD = − ID␻

˙ D0 .
By combining the above three equations, we get

Ieq IT ID 1 1
Fx = − ␻˙ D + ␻˙ T0 + ␻˙ D0 − ␦共TFD兲 − ␦共TFT兲.
RD RT RD RD RT
Again, we neglect the variation of the bearing friction of the tire 共and of the
drum兲 between the skim test and the loaded one:

Ieq IT ID
Fx = − ␻˙ D + ␻˙ T0 + ␻˙ D0 .
RD RT RD
The order of magnitude of the bearing friction term is approximately 1.2% of
FX at 80 km/ h.

Conclusion

By writing the theorem of kinetic moment and the first law of thermody-
namics, we have introduced the equations of rolling resistance. The main point
of this article is a proper writing of the first law of thermodynamics, which we
think was previously not released in this form.
We provide evidence that confirms that the equations written in the ISO
18164 standard are physically valid. The main difference between physical
equations and the ones used in the ISO 18164 standard is that the norm neglects
 HUBLAU AND BARILLIER ON EQUATIONS OF RESISTANCE 155

the variation of the bearing friction of the tire and of the drum between the skim
test and the loaded one: the order of magnitude of this bearing friction term is
approximately 0.1 kg/ t at 80 km/ h.
We emphasize that there is a need for taking into account a lot of param-
eters when comparing different test methods 共which can use different drum
diameters, different drum surfaces, etc.兲.
This article may be a basis for further standard evolutions.

References

关1兴 ISO 18164:2005: “Methods of measuring rolling resistance—Passenger car, truck and B, and
motorcycle tires.”
关2兴 ISO 8767:1992: “Passenger car tires—Methods of measuring rolling resistance.”
关3兴 ISO 9948:1992: “Truck and bus tires—Methods of measuring rolling resistance.”
关4兴 The Pneumatic Tire, edited by Gent, A. N., and Walter, J. D., National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration, U. S. Department of Transportation, August 2005.
关5兴 Schuring, D. J., “The Rolling Loss of Pneumatic Tires,” Rubber Chemistry and Technology,
Vol. 53, No. 3, July-August 1980, pp. 600–727.
关6兴 Bandyopadhyay, S., Chandra, A. K., and Mukhopadhyay, R., “An Overview of Tire Rolling
Loss,” Progress in Rubber and Plastics Technology, Vol. 10, No. 2, 1994.