DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

ARAVINTHAN .R 211518114304

JAYADHARSHAN .M 211518114309

LOGESH .M 211518114313

SHARMAN .K 211518114316

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

In

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PANIMALR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

CHENNAI 600 123

MAY 2021
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SOLAR

TRACKING SYSTEM”is a bonafide work of ARAVINTHAN.R

(211518114304), JAYADHARSHAN.M (211518114309), LOGESH.M

(211518114313), SHARMAN .K (211518114316) who carried out the project

work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr.N.NITHYANANDAN M.E, PhD MR. S. LOUIESPRAVEEN M.E

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT GUIDE & ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering

Panimalar Institute of Technology Panimalar Institute of Technology

Nazarethpettai, Chennai-600 123. Nazarethpettai, Chennai-600 123.

Submitted for Anna University project viva-voce held on ................... during year
2020-2021.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our sincere thanks to our honourable Founder and Chairman

Thiru.Dr.JEPPIAAR, M.A., B.L., PhD, for his endeavour in educating in his

institution.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our Secretary and Correspondent,

Dr.P.CHINNADURAI, M.A., PhD, for his kind words and enthusiastic

motivation which inspired us a lot in completing this project.

Also express our sincere thanks to our Directors Tmt.C.VIJAYARAJESWARI,

and Thiru.Dr.C.SAKTHI KUMAR M.E.PhD., for providing us with necessary

facilities for completion of the report.

We would like to express our gratitude to our Principal Dr.T.JAYANTHY M.E.,

PhD, for her encouragement and sincere guidance.

We would like to thank Dr.N.NITHYANANDAN M.E., PhD, Professor and

Head of Department of mechanical engineering for his valuable advice and

inspiring words.

We express our hearty thanks to MR. S. LOUIESPRAVEEN M.E., Assistant

Professor and also our guide, for his moral and technical support for the successful

completion of this project. Our thanks to one and all for their support and

encouragement extended to us during our project work.

 ABSTRACT

solar energy is the only energy gained its popularity and importance quickly.

Through the solar tracking system, we can produce an abundant amount of energy

which makes the solar panel’s workability much more efficient. Perpendicular

proportionality of the solar panel with the sun rays is the reason lying behind its

efficiency. its installation charge is high provided cheaper options are also

available. This project is discussed all about the design and construction

mechanism of the prototype for the solar tracking system having a single axis of

freedom. The main control circuit is based upon microcontroller. Programming of

this device is done in the manner that the LDR sensor, in accordance with the

detection of the sun rays, will provide direction to the DC Motor that in which way

the solar panel is going to revolve. Through this, the solar panel is positioned in

such a manner that the maximum amount of sun rays could be received. In

comparison with the other motors, DC motor is the simplest and the one, the torque

of which is high and speed of which is slow enough. 1985, first time ever it was

witnessed for production of the silicon solar cells with an efficiency of 20%.

Though a hike in the efficiency of the solar panel had a handsome increase still

perfection was a far-fetched goal for it. Below 40%, most of the panels still over to

operate. Consequently, peoples are compelled to purchase a number of panels in

order to meet their energy demands or purchase single systems with large outputs.
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT iv

LIST OF TABLE ix

LIST OF FIGURES x

1. INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION 1

SOLAR PANEL 2

LDR SENSOR 4

DC MOTOR 6

Principle of operation 6

Parts of a DC Motor 6

Separately Excited DC Motors 7

Permanent Magnet DC Motors 8

DIODE 9

POTENTIOMETER 11

RESISTOR 14

TRANSISTOR 16
 Types of Transistor 17

Why we use Transistor 17

Applications of Transistors 17

1.9 IC 18

PCB 21

BATTERY 23

2. LITERATURE SURVEY

LITERATURE SURVEY 25

3. DIAGRAM

CAD MODEL 27

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 27

4 DESIGN AND SPECIFICATIONS

SOLAR PANEL 28

LDR 29

DIODE 29

MOTOR 31

RESISTER 32

TRANSISTOR 32

Type number 32
 Polarity 32
Material 33

4.7 IC 34

4.7.1 MAXIMUM RATING 34

BATTERY 35

POTENTIOMETER 35

5. WORKING

WORKING PRINCILE 36

6. ADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES 38

LIMITATIONS 39

7. COST ESTIMATION

SCREW 40

ALUMINIUM ELBOW 40

ALUMININUM BAR 40

MOTOR 40

SOLAR PANEL 40

CIRCUIT 40

8. PHOTOGRAPHS
 PHOTOGRAPHS 41

9. CALCULATION

CALCULATION 43

10. CONLUSION

CONLUSION 44

REFERENCES 45
LIST OF TABLE

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

4.1 Specification 28

4.2 Parameters 29

4.3 Characteristics 30

4.4 Motor 31

4.5 Resistor 32

4.6 Maximum rating 34

9.1 Maximum rating 43

LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

1.1 Solar panel 3

1.2 LDR sensor 4

1.3 Dc brush 7

1.4 Dc motor 8

1.5 Diod 10

1.6 Potentiometer 12

1.7 Symbol 13

1.8 Resistor 15

1.9 Transistor 18

1.10 IC 20

1.11 PCB 22

1.12 BATTERY 23

3.1 Cad model 27

4.1 Solar panel 28

4.2 Transistor 33

4.3 IC 34

4.4 Potentiometer 35
DESIGN AND FABRICATION
OF
SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

In last ten years, many of residentials around the world used electric solar system

as a sub power at their houses. This is because solar energy is an unlimited energy

resource, set to become increasingly important in the longer term, for providing

electricity and heat energy to the user. Solar energy also has the potential to be the

major energy supply in the future. Solar tracker is an automated solar panel that

actually follows the Sun to increase the power . The sun's position in the sky varies

both with equipment over any fixed position. One well-known type of solar tracker

is the heliostat, a movable mirror that reflects the moving sun to a fixed location,

but many other approaches are used as well. Active trackers use motors and gear

trains to direct the tracker as commanded by a controller responding to the solar

direction. The solar tracker can be used for several application such as solar cells,

solar day-lighting system and solar thermal arrays . The solar tracker is very useful

for device that needs more sunlight for higher efficiency such as solar cell. Many

of the solar panels had been positioned on a fixed surface such as a roof. As sun is

a moving object, this approach is not the best method. One of the solutions is to

actively track the sun using a sun tracking device to move the solar panel to follow

the Sun. With the Sun always facing the panel, the maximum energy can be

absorbed, as the panel is operating at their greatest efficiency . The main reason for
this project is to get the maximum efficiency for the solar cells. Although there are

many solar trackers in the market, the price is expensive and unaffordable because

the market for solar tracker is still new and only certain countries use the solar

tracker.

SOLAR PANEL

Solar panels work via the photoelectric effect. This effect was originally explained

by Albert Einstein and it was for this that he won the Nobel prize. Metallic

elements hold onto their outermost electrons somewhat loosely and when metal

atoms are lined up (as they are in such things as copper wires or solar panels) the

electrons sort of puddle together. That is one reason metals conduct electricity with

relatively little resistance. The outer electrons are loose enough to flow from one

metal atom to the next. The sun emits electromagnetic radiation. This includes

radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, and to a lesser extent,

X-rays. This electromagnetic radiation travels in packets called photons. Radiation

is just energy, so photons are little blobs of energy. The shorter the wavelength, the

more energy a photon carries. So a photon of blue light carries more energy than a

photon of red light. Ultraviolet light carries more energy than infrared light.When a

photon with sufficient energy strikes a metallic surface, it can kick an electron out

of the puddle. Even though they are made of semi-conductors, solar panels have
such a metallic surface. They also have little wires above the metallic surface that

can collect the electrons that get kicked off.

Fig :1.1 solar panel

You can think of a solar panel as a battery that is powered by radiation. (Regular

batteries, such as alkaline or car batteries, run off the energy stored in chemicals.)

The wires above the metallic surface in the solar panel become the negative (- or

minus) terminal of the solar panel battery. The semi-conductor metallic surface

becomes the positive (+ or plus) side. Batteries, whether chemical or solar, produce

direct current (DC). With DC the electrons always flow in one direction.

Some solar panels have a bank of chemical batteries. The DC from the solar panels

is used to recharge these batteries. The electricity from the batteries can be used

when the sun is not shining. The direct current produced by the solar panels (or

stored in the batteries) is usually fed to an inverter. An inverter is an electronic

device that turns direct current into alternating current (AC). With AC the electrons

flow one direction half the time, then they turn around and flow the other direction

half of the time. Power companies supply AC because AC is more efficient to send

long distances than DC is. The outlets in the walls of your house supply AC. Some

solar panel owners sell their AC to the electric company. Other solar panels send

AC to the owner’s home.

LDR SENSOR

Fig :1.2 LDR sensor

A photoresistor (or light-dependent resistor, LDR, or photocell) is a light-

controlled variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with

increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A

photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and dark-

activated switching circuits.

A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a

photoresistor can have a resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the

light, a photoresistor can have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If

incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by

the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction

band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct electricity,

thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor

can substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors

may react substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands.

DC MOTOR

A dc motor has two magnetic fields, one produced by the field or stator. It can be a

permanent magnet or an electromagnet. Usually smaller dc motors use permanent

magnets.The second magnetic field is produced by the rotor / armature / many

other names. This is the rotating part. It is always of electromagnet type and

consists of insulated wire around a soft iron core.Now when current is passed

through the armature it behaves like an electromagnet and a force is exerted on the

armature due to the magnetic field by the stator. Now the situation is quite similar

like two magnets brought close together to each other - they will either repel each

other or attract. The armature is constructed in such a way that one of its side is
attracted and the other is repelled and this causes it to rotate.Such an armature can

make only half a rotation cause the sides of the armature gets reversed and so as

the magnetic forces acting on them. To continue the rotation we need to reverse the

direction of current after each half rotation so a split ring is used to flip currrent.

Principle of operation

Electric motors are the interface of electronic boards to almost every mechatronic

and mechanical product including robots, drones, home appliances, etc.A DC

motor is an electrical machine devised to convert electrical energy into mechanical

energy.The main principle behind working a DC motor is the electromagnetic law

according to which a current carrying conductor placed in magnetic field

experiences a force, and the direction of the force is given by Fleming’s left-hand

rule. In order to understand the basic principles, we need to understand the basic

constructional features of a DC motor.

Parts of a DC Motor

Every DC motor has 6 parts. Axle, Rotor, Commutator, Field magnets, and

Brushes.The basic component of a DC motor is a current carrying armature which

is connected to the supply end through the commutator segment and brushes. The

armature is placed between two permanent magnets which produce a magnetic

field.The applied direct current converts the electrical energy into the mechanical
energy because of the interaction of two magnetic fields. One field is produced by

the permanent magnet and the other is produced by the electric current flowing

through the armature winding. Because of the interaction of these two fields, the

armature experiences a force which tends to rotate the rotor. This is how a DC

motor Works.

Fig :1.3 Dc brush

Separately Excited DC Motors (SEDC)

In every DC motors, there is a stator that refers to the static part consisting of the

field winding, and the rotor which is the moving part consisting of the armature

winding.
In a Separately Excited DC Motor, separate power is given to the field and the

armature windings.

Fig :1.4 Dc motor

The field windings are energized by a separate DC source as the armature current

does not flow through the field windings. So these coils are separately isolated

from each other and this is the special feature of this motor.

Permanent Magnet DC Motors (PMDC)

In permanent Magnet DC Motors, the magnetic field is produced by the permanent

magnet. It consists of an armature winding and stator but does not contain the field
winding. In this kind of DC motor, the field flux is produced by a radially

magnetized permanent magnet which is placed on the inner periphery of the stator

core

DIODE

A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only

conducts current in one direction (so long as it is operated within a specified

voltage level). An ideal diode will have zero resistance in one direction, and

infinite resistance in the reverse direction.

Although in the real world, diodes cannot achieve zero or infinite resistance.

Instead, a diode will have negligible resistance in one direction (to allow current

flow), and very high resistance in the reverse direction (to prevent current flow). A

diode is effectively like a valve for an electrical circuit.

Semiconductor diodes are the most common type of diode. These diodes begin

conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage is present in the forward

direction (i.e. the “low resistance” direction). The diode is said to be “forward

biased” when conducting current in this direction. When connected within a circuit

in the reverse direction (i.e. the “high resistance” direction), the diode is said to be

“reverse biased”.
The diode is said to be “forward biased” when conducting current in this direction.

When connected within a circuit in the reverse direction (i.e. the “high resistance”

direction), the diode is said to be “reverse biased”.

A Diode is the simplest two-terminal unilateral semiconductor device. It allows

current to flow only in one direction and blocks the current that flows in the

opposite direction. The two terminals of the diode are called as anode and cathode.

The symbol of diode is as shown in the figure below.

Fig :1.5 Diode

The characteristics of a diode closely match to that of a switch. An ideal switch

when open does not conduct current in either directions and in closed state In

Layman language, it is like a switch. Works in ON state when polarity in forward

biased (positive to anode) and behaves like a switch in OFF state when polarity is

reversed.
 POTENTIOMETER

Resistors provide a fixed value of resistance that blocks or resists the flow of

electrical current around a circuit, as well as producing a voltage drop in

accordance with Ohm’s law. Resistors can be manufactured to have either a fixed

resistive value in Ohms or a variable resistive value adjusted by some external

means.

The potentiometer, commonly referred to as a “pot”, is a three-terminal

mechanically operated rotary analog device which can be found and used in a large

variety of electrical and electronic circuits. They are passive devices, meaning they

do not require a power supply or additional circuitry in order to perform their basic

linear or rotary position function.

Variable potentiometers are available in a variety of different mechanical

variations allowing for easy adjustment to control a voltage, current, or the biasing

and gain control of a circuit to obtain a zero condition.

The name “potentiometer” is a combination of the words Potential

Difference and Metering, which came from the early days of electronics

development. It was thought then that adjusting large wire wound resistive coils

metered or measured out a set amount of potential difference making it a type

of voltage-metering device.
 Fig :1.6 potentiometer

Today, potentiometers are much smaller and much more accurate than those early

large and bulky variable resistances, and as with most electronic components, there

are many different types and names ranging from the variable resistor, preset,

trimmer, rheostat and of course variable potentiometer.

But whatever their name, these devices all function in exactly the same way in that

their output resistance value can be changed or varied by the movement of

mechanical contact or wiper given by some external action.

Variable resistors in whatever format, are generally associated with some form of

control, whether that is adjusting the volume of a radio, the speed of a vehicle, the

frequency of an oscillator or accurately setting the calibration of a circuit, single-

turn and multiple-turn potentiometers, trim-pots and rheostats find many uses in

everyday electrical items.

 Fig :1.7 symbol

When used as a potentiometer, connections are made to both ends as well as the

wiper, as shown. The position of the wiper then provides an appropriate output

signal (pin 2) which will vary between the voltage level applied to one end of the

resistive track (pin 1) and that at the other (pin 3).

The potentiometer is a three-wire resistive device that acts as a voltage divider

producing a continuously variable voltage output signal which is proportional to

the physical position of the wiper along the track.

he potentiometer is an electronic instrument used to determine the electromotive

force. The potentiometer has three terminal resistors which have the resistance that

is used for controlling the flow or the movement of the electric current. The

demand for potentiometer is thus increasing for the determination of the potential

difference between two given points in a circuit.

 RESISTOR

Resistor as the name signifies is something in an electrical circuit which resists the

flow of electrons between two points as opposite to the flow of electrons in actual

situation in that circuit. So basically, current is nothing but is the direction of flow

of charge opposite to the flow of electrons i.e. flow of positive charge. So, does the

positive charge flow. Chemistry says that only electrons in outer orbits have the

tendency to do so. So, if electrons leave one place, what remains is the protons and

neutrons and bound electrons in the atom, overall the atom becomes positive

charge. This is what happens in electrical circuit as well and gives the impression

that from positive end of the battery i.e cathode, the positive charge flows resulting

in current being flowing from positive to negative terminal i.e. anode of the

battery, while it is because electrons from negative anode tend to neutralize by

flowing towards cathode.Also, the electrons from anode cannot flow to cathode

directly due to the electrolyte present in the battery.Now, if we connect two ends of

the battery with a superconducting wire or wire which is a conductor with low

resistance, then charge flows without any restriction from negative terminal to

positive terminal and this charge will be huge since batteries tend to have low

internal resistance themselves leading to very high current flow through the wire

which may melt the wire or the battery may explode even. More the potential

difference between anode and cathode, more will be the charge flow and hence
more the chances of wire to get melt. So, that's why we need something to resist

this thing to happen, otherwise there is no significance of an electrical circuit. This

thing which we will use to prevent it is called resistor. Now, in real world, all

batteries, wires, etc in a circuit provide some restriction to this flow of charge,

that's why the devices are mentioned with the resistance, voltage required and

current required values. In a circuit, if the current is more than what the device

needs after the device is connected to a potential difference i.e voltage source, then

device internal electrical instruments will get destroyed, so if we add a resistor

before the current reaches this device so that the effective potential difference

across the device is reduced because it will be shared by the resistor, the current

requirement of the device will be met due to the new lowered value of potential

difference hence our resistor serves its purpose this way.With the use of the three

colour bands,the value of resistance can be calculated.And the fourth band

indicates the tolerance.The unit of resistance is ohm.

Fig :1.8 resistor

 TRANSISTOR

A transistor is an electronic component that can act as both an amplifier and a

switch. Transistors have been revolutionary in the field of electronics by allowing

engineers to replace bulky vacuum tubes with a tiny and inexpensive component.

As a result, transistors are the basis for all modern-day electronics.

A transistor is made of a semiconductor, such as silicon. A semiconductor can

conduct electricity better than an insulator, but not as well as a conductor. Silicon

can crystallize itself into a very rigid lattice structure. It is difficult for electrons to

move, and thus for silicon to conduct electricity. However, we can "dope" a

semiconductor to conduct electricity better. We can do this by introducing an

element with a different number of valence electrons than the semiconductor. In

the case of silicon, silicon has four valence electrons. One type of doping is called

"n-type doping". This occurs when you introduce an element with more valence

electrons than the semiconductor. For example, you might introduce arsenic, with

five valence electrons to silicon, which only has four valence electrons. As a result,

the introduced arsenic fits into the silicon lattice structure, but also has that one

extra valence electron compared to silicon. That extra valence electron can move

through the silicon crystal lattice structure. The other type of doping is called "p-

type doping". Rather than introducing an element with more valence electrons than
the semiconductor, you introduce an element with fewer valence electrons. In the

case of silicon, you might introduce boron, which only has three valence electrons.

When a p-type dopant, like boron for example, is introduced to silicon, it can fit in

the crystal lattice, but also has a missing space where there would be an electron

compared to the semiconductor. This is called a "hole".

Types of Transistor

Transistors are basically classified into two types; they are Bipolar Junction

Transistors (BJT) and Field Effect Transistors (FET). The BJTs are again classified

into NPN and PNP transistors. The FET transistors are classified into JFET and

MOSFET.

Why we use Tranistor

transistor is a semiconductor with a solid and non-moving part to pass a charge. It

can amplify and switch electrical power and electronic signals. Transistorsare

made of semiconductor material with three or more terminals used to connect to an

external circuit.

Applications of TransistorsThey are used as amplifiers and switching apparatus.

As the amplifiers, they are used in high and low level, frequency stages,

oscillators, modulators, detectors and in any circuit need a function to perform.

 Fig :1.9 Transistor

magine that the input is connected to a source of DC power - a battery perhaps.

The voltage Vout will be some proportion of Vin according to the ratio of the two

resistors R1 and R2. If they’re equal, Vout will be half of Vin. If R2 is 0, Vout will

be 0. If R2 is extremely high compared with R1, Vout will be about the same as

Vin.
 IC

A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit. In modern

terminology, it is similar to, but less sophisticated than, a system on a chip or SoC;

an SoC may include a micro controller as one of its components. A micro

controller contains one or more CPUs (processor cores) along with memory and

programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form

of Hydroelectric RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as

well as a small amount of RAM. Micro controllers are designed

for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal

computers or other general purpose applications consisting of various discrete

chips.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as

automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls,

office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By

reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a

separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make

it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed

signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to

control non-digital electronic systems.

Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at frequencies as low as

4 kHz, for low power consumption (single-digit milliliters or micro watts). They

will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event

such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU

clock and most peripherals off) may be just nano watts, making many of them well

suited for long lasting battery applications. Other micro controllers may serve

performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a digital signal

processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption.

Fig :1.10 IC

Variety of microcontrollers are available in the market AtMega8, AtMega16,

AtMega 32, AtMega328p, PIC, varying according to their internal memory, ram

and other factors mentioned above. Arduino is often misregarded as a

microcontroller rather its' a development board whose software for writing

commands is written in user friendly language. But in the microcontrollers u have

to work on each of the pins, activating , deactivating them individually.

 PCB

A printed circuit board is an electrical circuit whose components and conductors

are contained within a mechanical structure. Conductive features include copper

traces, pads, heat sinks, or conductive planes. The mechanical structure is made

with insulating material laminated between layers of conductive material. The

overall structure is plated and covered with a nonconductive solder mask and

silkscreen to legend electronic component location.

The printed circuit board is built by alternating layers of conductive copper with

layers of nonconductive insulation material. During manufacture, the inner copper

layers are etched leaving intended traces of copper to connect circuit components.

Once etched insulation material is laminated to the copper layers and so on until

the printed circuit board is complete.

Electronic components are added to the outer layers of the printed circuit board

when all the layers have been etched and laminated together. Surface mount parts

are automatically applied with robots and through-hole parts are manually placed.

All the pieces are then soldered onto the board using techniques such as reflow or

wave soldering. The final assembly is plated after which solder mask and

silkscreen legend is applied.

PCB design expert can assist you in assembling a top-quality PCB catered to your

specific technological needs. A PCB designer will provide an in-depth analysis of

your device’s requirements to ensure your product has the support necessary to

excel in the competitive tech market. They’ll have access to all of the latest

software and are well-versed in the best design strategies.

Once you have a PCB designer and you’ve gotten them up to speed on your project

requirements, there are a few steps they’ll go through. Here’s a quick overview of

the process.

Fig :1.11 PCB

 BATTERY

The battery can be regarded as a container of dissolved agent (acid, base or salt)

wherein two plates of different metals are partly immersed [footnote 1]. Instead of

one metal plate, a graphite rod can also serve. Just as there is an exception to every

rule, so it is in the electromagnetism. Coal is a special and unique case of a non-

metal that is conductor of electricity. Consequently, it is also a good electrode in a

battery.

Fig :1.12 BATTERY

According to the etymological meaning of the words, what we describe here

should not be called a battery, but a cell (an electrochemical cell). A battery is a

multi-cell set. For example, the car battery is exactly that - a multi-cell set.

Just as the electricity can be produced by rubbing a woolen or other cloth against

amber, vinyl, glass, PVC etc., so it arises here also through friction between the

agent and the metal surface. The difference is that in the first case there is a

mechanical, whereas here it is a chemical friction (so I call the chemical reaction).
But since two dry substances cannot rub chemically, the battery jar must contain

water. In the case of the mechanical friction everything has to be well dry, here

everything has to be well wet (don’t be confused by the expression “dry cell”; it is

also wet).

When two metal plates (say copper and zinc) are partly immersed in a dissolved

agent, then the part of the copper plate outside the liquid is polarized in one sense

(plus +), the immersed part in the opposite sense (minus -). For the zinc plate

applies the opposite. Plus means blowing, Minus means suctioning (in relation to

this, please see Is positive and negative electricity nomenclature

arbitrary? and What is an electric wind?). The two metal plates of the battery can

be imagined as two fans. The one that is blowing outside the liquid (positive

electrode = copper), it is suctioning inside the liquid; the one that is suctioning

outside the liquid (negative electrode = zinc), it is blowing inside it. When the

electrodes are connected with a metal wire, a closed flux is created. The Plus is the

strongest near the positive pole and, as we move away from it through the wire, its

strength continuously decreases. The same applies to the Minus, but starting from

the other pole. Figuratively, we can represent it this way:

 CHAPTER- 2

2.1 LITERATURE SURVEY

Studies show that a solar panel converts 30-40% of energy incident on it to

electrical energy. A Maximum Power Point Tracking algorithm is necessary to

increase the efficiency of the solar panel. There are different techniques for MPPT

such as Perturb and Observe (hill climbing method),Incremental conductance,

Fractional Short Circuit Current, Fractional Open Circuit Voltage, Fuzzy Control,

Neural Network Control etc. Among all the methods Perturb and observe (P&O)

and Incremental conductance are most commonly used because of their simple

implementation, lesser time to track the MPP and several other economic reasons.

Under abruptly changing weather conditions (irradiance level) as MPP changes

continuously, P&O takes it as a change in MPP due to perturbation rather than that

of irradiance and sometimes ends up in calculating wrong MPP. However this

problem gets avoided in Incremental Conductance method as the algorithm takes

two samples of voltage and current to calculate MPP. However, instead of higher

efficiency the complexity of the algorithm is very high compared to the previous

one and hence the cost of implementation increases. So we have to mitigate with a

tradeoff between complexity and efficiency. Daniel. A. Pritchard had given the

design, development, and evaluation of a microcomputer- based solar tracking

system in 1983. Then many studies for solar tracking appeared using the
microprocessor, Saxena and Dutta in 1990, A. Konar and A.K. Mandal in 1991,

and A. Zeroual in 1997 using electro-optical sensors for sun finding. The

microcontroller is used as base for automatic sun tracker to control a dc motor in

1998 by F. Huang, and used as base for maximum power point tracking controller

by Eftichios Koutroulis in 2001. Hasan A.Yousef had given the PC-based fuzzy

logic controller design and Implementation to control a sun tracking system in

1999, the tracking system was driven by two permanent magnet DC motors to

provide motion of the PV panels in two axes. Chee-Yee Chong, in 2000 had given

the process architectures for track fusion, they presented different approaches for

fusing track state estimates, and compared their performance through theoretical

analysis and simulations, they used the concept of multiple targets tracking

because it had shown that tracking with multiple sensors can provide better

performance than using a single sensor.

S. Armstrong et al. had proposed a quantitative measure of the effectiveness MPPT

efficiency in 2005, a vector methodology was used to track the direction and path

of the sun throughout the day. And Rong-Jong Waihad had given grid connected

photovoltaic (PV) generation system with an adaptive step-perturbation method

and an active sun tracking scheme in 2006.

 CHAPTER- 3

DIAGRAM

CAD MODEL

Fig :3.1 Cad model

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig :3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

 CHAPTER-4

DESIGN AND SPECIFICATIONS

SOLAR PANEL

➢ Product Dimensions : 28.5 x 35 x 2.2 cm; 1.24 Kilograms

➢ Item model number : Loom Solar 10 watt\12 volt Panel

➢ Item Weight : 1 kg 240 g

Table:4.1 specification

Fig :4.1 Solar panel

 LDR

Table:4.2 parameters

PARAMETER EXAMPLE FIGURES

Max power dissipation 200mW

Max voltage @ 0 lux 200V

Peak wavelength 600nm

Min. resistance @ 10lux 1.8kΩ

Max. resistance @ 10lux 4.5kΩ

Typ. resistance @ 100lux 0.7kΩ

Dark resistance after 1 sec 0.03MΩ

Dark resistance after 5 sec 0.25MΩ

DIODE

• Semiconductor material: The semiconductor material used in the PN junction

diode is of paramount importance because the material used affects many of the

major diode characteristics and properties. Silicon and germanium are two

widelyusedmaterials:
 • Silicon: Silicon is the most widely used material as if offers high levels of

performance for most applications and it offers low manufacturing costs. The

technology for silicon is well established and silicon diodes can be made

cheaply. The forward turn on voltage is around 0.6V, which is high for some

applications, although for Schottky diodes it is less.

• Germanium: Germanium is less widely used and but offers a low turn on

voltage of around 0.2 to 0.3 V.

Other materials are generally reserved for more specialist diodes. For example

LEDs use compound materials to provide the different colours.

Table:4.3 characteristics

CHARACTERISTIC TYPICAL UNIT DETAILS

VALUE
Max DC Blocking Voltage, Vr 70 V
Max forward continuous current, 15 mA
Ifm
Reverse breakdown voltage, 70 V @ reverse current of
V(BR)R 10µA

Reverse leakage current, IR 200 µA At VR=50V

Forward voltage drop, VF 0.41 V at IF = 1.0 mA

1.00 IF=15mA
Junction capacitance, Cj 2.0 pF VR = 0V, f=1MHz
Reverse recovery time, trr 1 nS
 MOTOR

Table:4.4 motor

Operating Voltage (VDC) 3~9

Shaft Length (mm) 8.5

(Double D-type)
Shaft Diameter (mm)
5.5

No Load Current (mA) 40-180mA.

Rated Speed After

100
Reduction (RPM)

Rated Torque (Kg-Cm) 1

Weight (gm) 30

Dimensions in mm
64 x 22 x 18
(LxWxH)

Shipment Dimensions 8 × 4 × 4 cm

• Voltage 3V - 9V.

• Current 100mA at 9V @ no load.

• Speed 100 RPM.

 RESISTER

Table:4.5 resistor

Resistance (Ohms) 10K

Power (Watts) 1W

Tolerance ±5%

Packaging Bulk

Composition Metal Oxide Film

Temperature Coefficient ±300ppm/°C

Lead Free Status

Lead Free

RoHS Status RoHS Compliant

TRANSISTOR

Type number: The type number of the device is a unique identifier given to

each type of transistor. This enables the full data on its specifications to be

checked on the manufacturers transistor datasheet to investigate its

performance.

Polarity: There are two types of transistor: NPN transistors and PNP

transistors. It is important to choose the correct type otherwise all the

circuit polarities will be wrong.

 Fig :4.2 transistor

Material: One key transistor specification which will be given for any

transistor is the material from which t is manufactured. The main type of

material used for semiconductor devices is silicon.

VCBO: This parameter is the collector to base breakdown voltage of a bipolar

transistor. It is the maximum collector base voltage - again it is generally

measured with the emitter left open circuit. This value should not be exceeded

in the operation of the circuit.

IC

Fig :4.3 IC

4.7.1 MAXIMUM RATING

Table:4.6 maximum rating

Characteristics Symbol Va l u e

Supply Voltage Vcc 15

Output Peak Current Ipk 1

Total Power Dissipation(at Tamb=50°C) PD 1

Total Power Dissipation(atTcase=50°C) PD 1.4

Operating Ambient Temperature Range Ta -20~70

Storage Temperature Range Tstg 40~150

 BATTERY

Classification: Alkaline

Chemical System: Zinc-Manganese Dioxide (Zn/MnO2 )

Designation: IEC-6LF22 ANSI-1604A

Nominal Voltage: 9.0 volts

Operating Temp: -18°C to 55°C Typical Weight: 45.0 grams (1.58 oz.)

T Shelf Life: 5 years at 21°C Terminal: Miniature Snap

ypical Volume: 21.1 cubic centimeters

POTENTIOMETER

Fig :4.4 potentiometer

 CHAPTER-5

WORKING

5.1 WORKING PRINCILE

Solar tracker works by using a 555IC which compares light intensity illuminated

onto the LDRs. The logic that works on the LDR to detect the signal is based on a

resistance capacitor timing circuit, (RC constant), . Once the signal is fed into the

input for RB2 and RB3, the program compares the two inputs and then the

differences are detected and send an output signal from port RB0 and RB1 to let

the motor move clockwise and counter clock wise respectively. The signal that is

sent from output port RB0 and RB1 is logic level of 1 and 0, logic 1 is high level

and 0 is for low level, when logic high is sent to the base of the transistor, it

energizes and makes a closed circuit, thus a current flows through the motor, only

two transistors can be switched on and off at a time The materials used in the

construction of this prototype include Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), one and a half

inch pipes, wooden base of Medium-density fiberboard (MDF), stool which can

rotate 360 degrees, automotive motor and bicycle gear mechanism. The description

on how each section of the prototype is built is as follows: Five pieces of PVC pipe

with equal length are connected back to back onto a T-junction and each junction

is connected to L-shaped PVC making a stable base onto which the motor can be

mounted. The length of each PVC pipe is approximately 0.5 meter. A wooden base
is placed on top of the square shaped design, the motor is then mounted below the

wooden board, this way the motor is upside down thus its gear is facing downward

as well. The hydraulics portion of the revolving office chair is used which can

rotate 360 degrees. A gear is then welded onto the hydraulics part using an electric

welding machine. The chair is mounted onto the wooden base; this base has

dimensions of one meter by 0.8 meter in length and width respectively. Once the

hydraulic portion is mounted, the PVC base is placed in a position so that the small

gear on the motor is in perfect alignment with the big gear which is mounted on the

hydraulics. Once the two gears are aligned they are connected by a steel chain. The

gear that is mounted on the motor has 14 teeth and that which is mounted on

hydraulics portion has 30 teeth. These specific teeth are chosen because this

combination produces more torque on less speed thus less current has to be applied

to the motor, this concept is used for both the axes of movement. The horizontal

axis is constructed by using two PVC pipes of size three inches in diameter, which

are cut to length of 0.3 meters in height, the (MDF) wood is then later cut, 0.4

meter by 0.3 meter in length and width respectively. The PVC pipes are mounted

into the shape of T-junctions. These junctions are then mounted on the MDF base,

a hole is drilled on the PVC pipe at approximately 0.6 meters from the bottom, and

another one inch PVC pipe is cut to a length of 0.5 meters, this pipe is inserted

inside the three inch pipe, and the solar panel is mounted on it.
 CHAPTER-6

ADVANTAGES

• The process of attaining solar energy is unsoiled.

• It is a renewable source of energy.

• The investment is done only during the installation of solar panels, the expenses

of acquired solar energy after installation is little.

• Solar energy is a perennial source of energy.

• There is no adulteration is the process of acquiring solar energy.

• The yield rate is very high, using solar panels.

• It requires the least maintenance, once the setup is installed.

• Solar energy is very useful and can be easily drawn into applications in rural

areas where the extraction of electricity is difficult.

• Solar energy does not create noises compared to the noises created by the

machinery in the extraction of other natural resources.

 LIMITATIONS

• The installations of the solar panel could be pretty expensive, which would

require huge investments and years of saving.

• Production of electricity is directly dependent on the energy captivated which is

interlinked with the path sun covers. This factor could bring many countries to

disadvantage.

• The power station of solar energy lags in the production of the latter as compared

to the traditional power stations. Moreover, the costs of building such solar power

stations could be exorbitant.

• The consumption of solar energy during the night requires the energy to be stored

in large batteries, which would hence occupy a huge section.

 CHAPTER-7

COST ESTIMATION

SCREW

4mm*10mm screw - 1 - 2rps

4mm*10mm screw – 100 - 200rps

ALUMINIUM ELBOW

90 degree elbow - 1 - 5rps

90 degree elbow – 20 - 100rps

ALUMININUM BAR

23.5*3*5cm -1 -40rps

23.5*3*5cm -2 - 80rps

15*3*5cm -1 -30rps

15*3*5cm -2 -60rps

MOTOR

100 RPM -1 -100rps

100 RPM -2 -200rps

SOLAR PANEL

Panel -1 -1500rps

CIRCUIT

Ldr -2 -20rps

Ic -1 -10rps

Resistor -2 -10rps
Transistor -2 -20rps
 CHAPTER -8

PHOTOGRAPHS
8.1 PHOTOGRAPHS
 CHAPTER-9

CALCULATION

➢ Torque: =F*r

=1.24*9.81*0.3

=3.64 N-M

➢ Hour angle:

360/24=15 degrees of hour angle.

Table:9.1 maximum rating

System (kWh) Yield (%)

3 kW Fixed PV Panels 16.008 -

3 kW Tracking PV Panels 21.392 33.63 %

 CHAPTER-10

CONLUSION

Today in the world of rampant productivity, energy is the fundamental source upon

which the whole civilization is based upon. As it is said that energy can neither be

created nor be destroyed and, in that response, it can be signified that it can

somehow be stored. The attempt towards making such goal substantiated, this

project has been endeavoured towards unravelling the path of such objectivity. It is

quite natural that constant utilisation of energies somehow opens the door of

scarcity as per as earthly sources are concerned. Sun, in the stand of which, the

tallest source, spiked over for age’s right from the origin of the whole universe,

through which life has been conceived, is the basic and the mother source of all the

energies. Considering the very fundamental from the viewpoint of storing such

energy, the project has been unravelled. Energies other than from the Sun, are the

process from which such are been produced through the burning of various

materials, involving emission of a large amount of pollution, causing the

environment and the atmosphere sick day by day. Fastness and smartness of the

world’s current behavioural visibility, where easy access of every sphere of life is

in need of the acute comfortability, every day is a new challenge of hatching

something new and unique which makes an energy to be the ultimatum source

behind all the hard work exists.

REFERENCES

➢ Mayank Kumar Lokhande, “Automatic Solar Tracking System,”

International Journel of Core Engineering & Management, October,

2014.

➢ https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/solar-tracking-

system

➢ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_tracker.

➢ Renewable Energy Source by D.P.KOTHARI,K.C.SINGAL.[chapter

6.11,pg:133]

➢ https://www.solarpowerworldonline.com/2013/04/how-does-a-solar-

tracker-work/