Origin

of Elements
• Nuclear Reactions
• Big Bang
• Stellar Formation, Evolution and Explosion
Historical Development of an Atom

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Structure of an Atom

Atomic number and mass number

Structure of an Atom
• An atom is composed of two
regions:
• the nucleus, which is in the
center of the atom -
contains protons and neutrons
• the outer region of the atom,
which holds its electrons in
orbit around the nucleus
• Each electron has a negative
charge (-1) equal to the positive
charge of a proton (+1).
• Neutrons are uncharged particles
found within the nucleus.
Atomic Number and Mass
• In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons.
• Therefore, the atomic number also indicates the number
of electrons in neutral atom.

All atomic nuclei contain both neutrons

and protons except H which has 1 proton
but no neutron

Atomic mass = no. of protons + no. of neutrons

= atomic no. + no. of neutrons
 Products of nuclear reactions.
Atoms that have the same atomic
number but different atomic
masses
 Positively charged ion – CATION
Negatively charged ion – ANION
Products of reactions that involve
only the electrons – chemical
reactions The loss or gain of 1 or more
electrons leads to the formation of
During chemical reaction, the no. of an atom with a net positive or
protons remain the same in the negative charge, respectively.
atomic nucleus but the electrons
may be lost by an atom and gained
$ "
by another
# 𝑋
Charge of an ion (q) =
no. of protons – no. of electrons
Atomic Atomic Proton Neutron Electron Atomic
symbol number mass

B 5 6

11 23

30 35

Ca +2 20

P -3 15 31
Atomic Atomic Proton Neutron Electron Atomic
symbol number mass

B 5 5 6 5 11

Na 11 11 12 11 23

Zn 30 30 35 30 65

Ca +2 20 20 20 18 40

P -3 15 15 16 18 31
Electron Distribution & Orbital Diagram

Quantum Numbers

Valence Electrons & Lewis Dot Symbol

Modern Periodic Table

Electron Distribution & Orbital Diagram
 Electron distribution
• Electron Configuration • Orbital Diagram

• Boxes and arrows represents the orbitals and

the electrons
• Noble Gas / Shorthand method • The up and down orientation of arrows
represent the 2 magnetic SPINS of the electrons
How to write electron configuration of an element?

Energy Subshell Max. no. of

Levels electrons
1 s 2
2 p 6
3
d 10
4
f.. 14
5
6
7…
Which between 2p and 3s orbital has higher energy?
Which between 5d and 6p orbital has lower energy?
Rules in Electron Distribution

Aufbau Principle

• Electrons should
occupy first the
orbitals with lower
energy before
those with higher
energy.

Which between 2p and 3s orbital has higher energy?

Which between 5d and 6p orbital has lower energy?
 JK
Example: IJ𝑀𝑔
• How many electrons do Mg have?
• Atomic no. = no. of electrons to be distributed in
the orbitals
• Start with energy level 1 and proceed to fill the
orbitals
• Take note of the maximum number of electrons
in each orbital

ANSWER: 1s22s22p63s2
 How to write orbital diagram of an element?

Subshell No. of Max. no. of

orbitals electrons
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f.. 7 14
Rules in Orbital Diagram
• This means if one is assigned an up-spin ( +1/2),
the other must be down-spin (-1/2).
Pauli’s exclusion
Principle

• No two electrons in
an atom can
possess the same
set of quantum
numbers.
Rules in Orbital Diagram

Hund’s rule of
maximum
multiplicity
• The most stable
arrangement of
electrons in
subshells is the one
with greatest
number of parallel
spins.
Example:

Electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p2 Orbital Letter Designation

letter Max no. of electrons
Orbital diagram:
s 2
p 6
d 10
f 14
Exercise:

Electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 Orbital Letter Designation
letter Max no. of electrons
Orbital diagram:
s 2
p 6
d 10
f 14
Exercise:

Electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 Orbital Letter Designation
letter Max no. of electrons
Orbital diagram:
s 2
p 6
d 10
f 14
Electron distribution
• Noble Gas Electron Configuration = “shorthand
configuration”
• For elements with high atomic number
• Use of Core symbols
• Written as element symbol inside bracket
• Represented by the noble gas that belongs to the row before that of the
element questioned
Example:

Noble gas before Al is: Ne

Atomic no. of Ne: 10
Electron configuration of Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p6

Electron configuration of Al: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

Noble gas electron configuration of Al: [Ne] 3s2 3p1

Exercise:

Noble gas before Fe is: Ar

Atomic no. of Ar: 18
Electron configuration of Ar: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

Electron configuration of Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6

Noble gas electron configuration of Fe: [Ar] 4s2 3d6

ELEMENTS STARTING IN THE ‘D’
BLOCK
SPECIAL RULES
Elements starting from Scandium starts to fill the d-block,
these elements follows the AUFBAU principle in filling the
orbitals BUT…
once you get to scandium, the energy of the 3d orbitals
becomes slightly less than that of the 4s so, the electron
configuration will be arranged differently.

Ex: Fe
Aufbau – 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
- [Ar] 4s23d6
In periodic table - [Ar] 3d64s2
Quantum Numbers
Quantum Numbers
Schrödinger’s atom model allowed electron to occupy 3D-space.

Quantum numbers
• describe the orbitals in which the electrons can be found.
• “address of electrons”

1. Principal quantum number (n) – describes size and energy of the

orbital.
High n – high energy of an orbital, larger the orbital, further it is from
the nucleus
Lower n – low energy of an orbital, smaller the orbital, closer to
nucleus.
 n=1 n=2 n=3

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ….
distance of e- from the nucleus
2. Angular quantum
number (l)
– describes the
shape of the
orbital; has integral
numbers from 0 to
n – 1

l = 0 s orbital
l = 1 p orbital
l = 2 d orbital
l = 3 f orbital
3. Magnetic quantum number (ml) – describes the orientation of the
orbital in space; has integral values between –l and l, including zero.

l = 0 s orbital
l = 1 p orbital if l = 1 (p orbital), ml = -1, 0, or 1
l = 2 d orbital if l = 2 (d orbital), ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2
l = 3 f orbital
4. Electron spin quantum number (ms) – spinning motion of an electron
when placed in an external magnetic field

An orbital can hold only two

electrons, and they must
have opposite spins.

REMEMBER: Pauli exclusion principle

In a given atom no two electrons can have the same set
of four quantum numbers.
ms = +½ ms = -½
Valence Electrons and Lewis Dot
Symbol
Valence electrons
-the number of electrons in the outermost principal quantum
level of an atom.

Oxygen: 1s22s22p6 (valence electrons = 8)

Carbon: 1s22s22p2(valence electrons = 4)

The elements in the same group on the periodic table have the
same valence electron configuration.
• No. of electrons in each atom is
the same as the group no. of
the element
• Except for He and transition
elements
 Lewis dot symbol
• Named after Gilbert Newton Lewis
• Lewis dot symbol or Lewis structure
• Consists of the symbol of an element surrounded by 1 or more dots
• Each dot corresponds to every valence electron in an atom

Valence electrons
• Electrons found in the outer most shell of an orbital
• Those that occupy the shell with the highest value of n
Writing Lewis dot symbol
• Electrons are placed up to two on each side of the elemental symbol
for a maximum of eight, which is the number of electrons in a filled s
and p shell.
• We place a single electron on each side before pairing them up (this is
related to Hund's rule).

• Ex: Carbon - 1s22s22p2 - four valence electrons

Lewis dot symbol of Carbon
 JK
Example: IJ𝑀𝑔
• Valence electron: 2
• Determine the set of quantum numbers of the last electron to fill the
orbital.
1s22s22p63s2 n l ml ms
3 S=0 0 -1/2

1s 2s 2p 3s (3,0,0,-1/2)
 IU
Example: U𝐹
• Valence electron: 7
• Determine the set of quantum numbers of the last electron to fill the
orbital.
1s22s22p5 n l ml ms
-1 0 1 2 P=1 0 -1/2

1s 2s 2p (2,1,0,-1/2)
Element Valence Electron Orbital diagram Set of quantum
electrons configuration numbers
(n,l,ml,ms) for the
last electron to fill
the orbital
K 1 [Ar] 4s1 4, 0, 0, +1/2

Fe

Sn

Br
Element Valence Electron Orbital diagram Set of quantum
electrons Configuration numbers
(n,l,ml,ms) for the
last electron to fill
the orbital
K 1 [Ar] 4s1 4, 0, 0, +1/2

Fe 2 [Ar] 4s23d6 3, 2, -2, -1/2

Sn 4 [Kr] 5s24d105p2 5, 1, 0, +1/2

Br 7 [Ar] 4s23d104p5 4, 1, 0, -1/2