THE OPEN UNIVEERSITY OF SRI LANKA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SPECIFIC TRAINING
MEW4003 & MEW5003

TRAINING REPORT

LoadStar PVT Ltd. Ekala

NAME - G. S. S. De Silva
REG. NO. - 410009578
TIME PERIOD - 18.09.2013 to 09.04.2014
Specific Training Report G. S. S. De Silva

PERSONAL DETAILS

1. Name : G. S. S. DE SILVA

2. Registration No : 410009578

3. Mailing Address : No. 50, D. M. Colambage Mawatha, Kirulapone, Colombo 05.

4. Contact Tel. No. : 0773909190

5. E-mail : [email protected]

6. Training Establishment : LoadStar (Pvt) Ltd.

7. Address of Establishment : No. 218, Minuwangoda Road, Ekala, Ja Ela.

8. Duration : 30 Weeks
(From 18th September 2013 to 09th April 2014)

9. Field of Study : Mechatronics Engineering

10. Course Code : MEW 4003 & MEW5003

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Specific Training Report G. S. S. De Silva

CERTIFICATION

1. Name of the apprentice : G. S. S. DE SILVA

2. Establishment : LOADSTAR (PVT) LTD.

3. Address : LoadStar (Pvt) Ltd, No. 218,

Minuwangoda Road, Ekala, Ja Ela.

4. Registration No. : LTC/OU/1596

5. Training Period : 30 Weeks

(From 18th September 2013 to 09th April 2014)

………………………. ……………….………..

Date Signature of Apprentice

Comments :

………………………. ...……………….…………

Date Signature

Eng. H. Kaludewa
Training Engineer - JIP
LOADSTAR (Pvt) Ltd.

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Specific Training Report G. S. S. De Silva

PREFACE

This report has been written to express my training experiences during the thirty weeks

training period from 18/09/2013 to 09/04/2014. The industrial training programme was

completed in LOADSTAR (PVT) Ltd, which is one of the famous manufacturing industry

in Sri Lanka. Also a joint venture of Jinasena Group of Companies of Sri Lanka and Solideal

International of Belgium. My basic aim is to try and summarize the extensive training I

received and to highlight the important areas regarding Engineering and Management.

I think the training session I had was in a satisfactory level and I’m happy about the training

period and I hope anyone read the report will get enough knowledge about mechanical,

electrical, electronics and manufacturing engineering concepts.

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Specific Training Report G. S. S. De Silva

ACKNOWLEGDEMENT

Industrial training was an important period to improve the practical knowledge of

undergraduates. The practical knowledge that I gained during the thirty-week period was

very much successful and there were lot of people behind that. Firstly I would like to pay my

sincere thanks should give to Eng. I. M. N. P. Ilangakoon, training engineer of the Faculty

of Engineering technology for the guidance provided throughout the training period. I

express my gratitude to NAITA (National Apprentice and Industrial Training Authority),

without them it wouldn’t be a success.

During the training period, I trained at Jinasena Industrial Park which is currently

known as the Engineering Maintenance Division (EMD) of LOADSTAR (PVT) Ltd. I would

like to thank all the General Managers , Chief Engineers, Engineers, Technical and non-

technical staff related and also I must specially thankful to Eng. H. Kaludewa, Training

Engineer at Jinasena Industrial Park regards scheduling our training in LOADSTAR (PVT)

Ltd.

And also thank for all of my training colleagues who were at Jinasena Industrial Park

for making my training period a successful and enjoyable training period with full of joy.

Thank you.

G. S. S. De Silva
410009578
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The Open University of Sri Lanka.
Nawala.
Nugegoda.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 COMPANY OVERVIEW .......................................................................................................................................... 10

LOADSTAR (PVT) LTD. ..................................................................................................................................... 10
VISION & MISSION ................................................................................................................................................ 11
1.2.1 Vision of LOADSTAR (PVT) Ltd. ..................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.2 Mission of LOADSTAR (PVT) Ltd. ................................................................................................................... 11
PLANTS & OFFICES................................................................................................................................................ 12
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE & HIERARCHAL LEVELS ...................................................................................... 13
2 OVERVIEW OF EXPERIENCE GAINED .............................................................................................................. 14
COVERED AREAS ................................................................................................................................................... 14
LIFE AT LOADSTAR........................................................................................................................................... 14
3 HYDRAULIC & PNEUMATIC WORKSHOP ........................................................................................................ 15
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................... 15
HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS .................................................................................................................................... 15
3.2.1 Hydraulic Pumps .............................................................................................................................................. 15
3.2.2 Hydraulic Valves .............................................................................................................................................. 17
3.2.3 Directional Control Valves .............................................................................................................................. 18
3.2.4 Hydraulic Actuators ......................................................................................................................................... 18
3.2.5 Hydraulic Accumulators .................................................................................................................................. 18
HYDRAULIC OIL .................................................................................................................................................... 19
3.3.1 Caltex Rando HD 68 ........................................................................................................................................ 20
HYDRAULIC POWER UNITS.................................................................................................................................... 20
3.4.1 LHUA2 UNIT for Tire Handling ...................................................................................................................... 21
TROUBLESHOOTING HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS .................................................................................................... 23
3.5.1 Pump Troubleshooting ..................................................................................................................................... 23
3.5.2 Cylinders Troubleshooting ............................................................................................................................... 24
4 FABRICATION WORKSHOP .................................................................................................................................. 25
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................... 25
INDUSTRIAL MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT ................................................................................................................ 25
THREADED FASTENERS, NUTS ............................................................................................................................... 27
4.3.1 Threaded Fasteners .......................................................................................................................................... 27
4.3.2 Nut Types.......................................................................................................................................................... 28
4.3.3 Property Class of a Screw ................................................................................................................................ 28
WELDING ELECTRODES ......................................................................................................................................... 28
4.4.1 Welding Positions............................................................................................................................................. 29
MOTOR MOUNT DESIGN........................................................................................................................................ 29
5 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP .................................................................................................... 31
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................... 31
ELECTRICAL METERING & TEST INSTRUMENTS .................................................................................................... 31
5.2.1 Multimeter ........................................................................................................................................................ 31
5.2.2 Tachometer or Frequency Meter ...................................................................................................................... 31
5.2.3 Megger (Insulation test meter) ......................................................................................................................... 32
5.2.4 Clip-on Ammeter (Clamp meter) ...................................................................................................................... 32
5.2.5 Kelvin Bridge – low resistance meter............................................................................................................... 32
MOTOR WINDING WORKSHOP............................................................................................................................... 33
5.3.1 3 Phase AC Induction Motor ............................................................................................................................ 33
5.3.2 Typical Name plate of an AC Induction Motor ................................................................................................ 35
5.3.3 AC Motor Windings .......................................................................................................................................... 36
5.3.4 Testing a 3 Phase Induction Motor .................................................................................................................. 39
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6 CNC WORKSHOP ..................................................................................................................................................... 40

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................... 40
COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES ..................................................................................................... 40
PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF A CNC MACHINE.......................................................................................................... 41
DRIVING SYSTEM OF A CNC MACHINE ................................................................................................................. 41
LINEAR DRIVING SYSTEM OF A CNC MACHINE .................................................................................................... 43
6.5.1 Lead Screws ..................................................................................................................................................... 43
6.5.2 Ball Screws ....................................................................................................................................................... 44
6.5.3 Rack & Pinion .................................................................................................................................................. 46
6.5.4 Belt Drives ........................................................................................................................................................ 47
FEEDBACK DEVICES OF CNC MACHINES .............................................................................................................. 48
6.6.1 Positional Feedback Devices ........................................................................................................................... 48
6.6.2 Velocity Feedback Devices............................................................................................................................... 49
CNC PART PROGRAMMING ................................................................................................................................... 50
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL FOR CNC MACHINES................................................................................................ 50
7 DESIGN OFFICE ....................................................................................................................................................... 52
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................... 52
SOLIDWORKS ........................................................................................................................................................ 52
DRAWINGS AND MODELS I HAVE DESIGNED ......................................................................................................... 53
7.3.1 Automated System for the final inspection of a wheel using machine vision.................................................... 54
7.3.2 Office layout of Design Office of Central Maintenance Division ..................................................................... 55
7.3.3 3D model of CNC Vertical Lathe Machine ...................................................................................................... 56
8 HEALTH & SAFETY ................................................................................................................................................. 57
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................... 57
SAFETY SIGNS ....................................................................................................................................................... 57
8.2.1 Indicator lights or buttons ................................................................................................................................ 57
8.2.2 Piping System ................................................................................................................................................... 58
8.2.3 Other applications for safety colors ................................................................................................................. 58
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)........................................................................................................... 58
SAFETY RULES AT LOADSTAR (PVT) LTD ............................................................................................................ 60
9 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................................ 61

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 - Logo of Loadstar ................................................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2 - Types of Tires ........................................................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 3 - Tire track............................................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 4 - Wheel .................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 5 - Solideal Logo ........................................................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 6 - Camoplast Logo .................................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 7 - Company Management Hierarchy ........................................................................................................................ 13
Figure 8 - Hydraulic Pumps .................................................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 10 - Rotor of Vane pump ............................................................................................................................................ 16
Figure 9 - Parts of Vane Pump .............................................................................................................................................. 16
Figure 11 - Relief Valves ....................................................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 12 - Sequence valves .................................................................................................................................................. 17
Figure 13 - Pressure reducing valves .................................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 14 - Needle valves ...................................................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 15 - Restrictor valves.................................................................................................................................................. 17
Figure 16 - Check valves ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 17 - Spool type valves ................................................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 18 - Hydraulic Cylinders ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Figure 19 - Bladder type accumulator ................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 20 - Caltex Rando HD 68 label .................................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 21 - Parts of Hydraulic Power Unit ........................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 22 - Hydraulic Circuit of the Unit .............................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 23 - Hydraulic Power Unit [LHUA2] ........................................................................................................................ 22
Figure 24 - Pump testing unit ................................................................................................................................................ 23
Figure 25 - Troubleshooting Cylinders .................................................................................................................................. 24
Figure 26 - Open-end wrench ................................................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 27 - Box-end wrench .................................................................................................................................................. 25
Figure 28 - Adjustable wrench ............................................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 29 - Allen wrench ....................................................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 30 - Vise grips ............................................................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 31 - Combination wrench ........................................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 32 - Pipe wrench ........................................................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 33 - Diagonal cutting plier ......................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 34 - Flat Nose Plier .................................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 35 - End cutting plier ................................................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 36 - Slip-joint plier ..................................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 37 - Side cutting plier ................................................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 38 - Round Nose plier................................................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 39 - Sheet metal screw ................................................................................................................................................ 27
Figure 40 - Machine screw .................................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 41 - Wood screw ......................................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 42 - Hex Bolt .............................................................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 43 - Socket screw ........................................................................................................................................................ 28
Figure 44 - Set screw ............................................................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 45 - Wing Nut ............................................................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 46 - Square Nut .......................................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 47 - Hex Nut ............................................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 48 - Property Class 8.8 .............................................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 49 - Property Class of a Screw ................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 50 - Welding electrodes .............................................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 51 - E7018 Welding Electrode ................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 52 - Motor mount for an Austrian Press machine ...................................................................................................... 30
Figure 53 - Multimeter ........................................................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 54 - Tachometer ......................................................................................................................................................... 31

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Figure 55 - Megger ................................................................................................................................................................ 32

Figure 56 - Clip-on Ammeter ................................................................................................................................................. 32
Figure 57 - Kelvin Bridge – low resistance meter ................................................................................................................. 32
Figure 58 - Parts of 3 phase AC induction motors ................................................................................................................ 33
Figure 59 - Stator core........................................................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 60 - Stator windings ................................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 61 - Rotor ................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 62 - Enclosure ............................................................................................................................................................ 34
Figure 63 - Name plate of an AC Induction Motor ................................................................................................................ 35
Figure 64 - Types of AC Motor Windings .............................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 65 - Name plate .......................................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 66 - Inside of Stator .................................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 67 - Stator after coils inserted .................................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 68 - Finished windings ............................................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 69 - Completed winding ............................................................................................................................................. 38
Figure 70 - Block diagram of CNC Machine ......................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 71 - DC Servo Motor .................................................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 72 - AC servo motor ................................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 73 - Stepper motor ...................................................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 74 - Thread angle of a Lead Screw ............................................................................................................................ 43
Figure 75 - Lead Screw .......................................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 76 - Ball Screw_1 ....................................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 77 - Ball Screw_2 ....................................................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 78 - Rack & Pinion_1 ................................................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 79 - Rack & Pinion_2 ................................................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 80 - Belt drive ............................................................................................................................................................. 47
Figure 81 - Linear position measuring transducer ................................................................................................................ 48
Figure 82 - Angular position measuring transducer.............................................................................................................. 49
Figure 83 - Tachogenerator ................................................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 84 - Logo of SolidWorks ............................................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 85 - SolidWorks Part and Assembly ........................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 86 - SolidWorks Drawings ......................................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 87 - Automated System for the final inspection of a wheel using machine vision ...................................................... 54
Figure 88 - Office layout of Design Office of Central Maintenance Division ....................................................................... 55
Figure 89 - 3D model of CNC Vertical Lathe Machine ......................................................................................................... 56
Figure 90 - Safety Goggles .................................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 91 - Safety Spectacles ................................................................................................................................................. 59
Figure 92 - Safety Overall...................................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 96 - Safety Helmet ...................................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 93 - Safety Shoes ........................................................................................................................................................ 59
Figure 94 - Ear Defender....................................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 95 - Safety Mask ......................................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 97 - Safety Gloves....................................................................................................................................................... 59

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 - Model Number Designation .................................................................................................................................... 16
Table 2 - Action plan .............................................................................................................................................................. 22
Table 3 - Safety color table_1 ................................................................................................................................................ 57
Table 4 - Safety color table_2 ................................................................................................................................................ 58
Table 5 - Safety color table_3 ................................................................................................................................................ 58

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CHAPTER 1
1 COMPANY OVERVIEW

LOADSTAR (PVT) LTD.

LOADSTAR is a manufacturing organization carrying out its operations based on several plants
scattered around Western and Southern parts of Sri Lanka. It was started in 1984 as a joint venture
of Jinasena Group of Companies of Sri Lanka and Solideal International of Belgium. Its production
is mainly based on rubber, one of the three main export crops of Sri Lanka. It was started as a BOI
project and now acts as one of the world’s leading Tire manufacture in Industrial Tires.

Figure 1 - Logo of Loadstar

As an individual entity it contributes to 3% percent of country’s total foreign income and it purchases
over 70% of the total rubber production in Sri Lanka. Currently all of its manufacturing requirements
are fulfilled by its own chain of companies. It has around 8200 employee base contributing at various
stages of its manufacturing effort and they recognized each and every employee as a member of the
company. Its main production is aligned under four main product lines:

 Air Tires
 Solid Tires
 Rubber Tracks
 Rims & Wheels

Figure 2 - Types of Tires

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Figure 4 - Wheel
Figure 3 - Tire track
Their productions are exported to over 90 countries, distributed among Europe, North & South
America and Africa using more than 150 sales centers. The manufacturing is purely handled in Sri
Lanka under the authority of Jinasena Group of Companies and the sales are handled by the
Camoplast Solideal which is a joint venture of Solideal International with Camoplast Inc. through
their sales centers in USA, Canada, Germany, France, Italy, UK, Sweden, Poland, Australia, etc.

Figure 5 - Solideal Logo Figure 6 - Camoplast Logo

VISION & MISSION

1.2.1 Vision of LOADSTAR (PVT) Ltd.

‘To be the premier manufacturer of mobility systems for the productive world by
harnessing and nurturing people’s abilities.’

1.2.2 Mission of LOADSTAR (PVT) Ltd.

‘We will manufacture quality and cost effective tires, tracks and wheel systems effectively

and efficiently for our worldwide customers through empowered and self-driven teams,

working together to improve our people, company, society and environment.’

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PLANTS & OFFICES

The LOADSTAR has following production divisions and offices to increase production capacity

 Ekala Tire Division (ETD-I) / Solid Tire Division 01 (STD-I)

 Ekala Tire Division (ETD-II) / Solid Tire Division 02 (STD-II)

 Kotugoda Tire Division (KTD)

 Ancillary Product Division (APD)

 Jinasena Industrial Park (JIP) / Central Engineering Division (CED)

 Midigama Tire Division (MTD)

 Ekala Metal product Division (EMD)

 Kyoto Metal product Division (KMD) / Camoplast Wheel Division (CWD)

 Central Mixing Plant (CMP)

 Kuruwita Tire Division (KUTD)

 Cinco

 Cyntex (main stores)

 Casting Product Division (CPD)

 Research & Development Division (R&D)

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ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE & HIERARCHAL LEVELS

Figure 7 - Company Management Hierarchy

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CHAPTER 2
2 OVERVIEW OF EXPERIENCE GAINED

COVERED AREAS

During the training period, I trained at Jinasena Industrial Park which is currently known as the
Engineering Maintenance Division (EMD) of LOADSTAR (Pvt) Ltd. There are Different Divisions
Such as Electrical Workshop, CNC Workshop, Hydraulic & Pneumatic Workshop, Fabrication
Workshop, Heavy Machinery Workshop, Machine Workshop, Mold Workshop, and Design Office.
From above sections, I covered following during my training period.

 Hydraulic & Pneumatic Workshop

 Fabrication Workshop
 Electrical Workshop
 CNC Workshop
 Design Office
Apart from those sections in Engineering Maintenance Division, I could get experience in Human
Resource Division and also about Health and Safety Division. In additionally, I could to participate
to a 3-day Outward Bound Training Programme at Midigama Training Centre.

LIFE AT LOADSTAR

Considering the training period at LOADSTAR, I got experience not only in the practical
applications of theoretical lessons but also I had experience the environment of an Industrial Area.
As Industrial trainees, we were given the safety equipment such as Safety shoes, Safety Goggles,
Safety Helmets and other necessary things by the LOADSTAR. During the 10 hours of working at
LOADSTAR we had to work under their safety and labor laws. Apart from training, we have
contributed to other welfare things such as Blood donation and sarwarathrika pirith deshana
conducted by LOADSTAR. And also, they had been introducing 5’S concept to Engineering
Maintenance Division at the first part of my training period, I also got able to get an idea about
applications of 5’S concept into an Industrial Area.

I have visited some of other plants of LOADSTAR during my training period. Although I was trained
at Engineering Maintenance Division, when there was any kind of breakdown or maintenance part
we could visit other plants with the workers. It was a new experience to me the visit to Research and
Development division as well.
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CHAPTER 3
3 HYDRAULIC & PNEUMATIC WORKSHOP

INTRODUCTION

Considering Hydraulics and Pneumatics, there are mostly hydraulic systems in LOADSTAR.
Therefore I could gain experience about hydraulic components, power units, troubleshooting and
hydraulic oils. Apart from that I could work on projects on designing Hydraulic power units for tyre
handling system for STD II and MTD. Following things were experienced and learnt at the Hydraulic
Workshop.

HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS
Hydraulic systems contain following key components. They are pumps, valves, actuators, tank, and
pipe lines. While there are different kind of pumps, actuators, valves basic design is same for all
machinery. In there at LOADSTAR they mainly use hydraulics to heavy machineries.

3.2.1 Hydraulic Pumps

Considering main types of pumps, there are three types of pumps used in LOADSTAR. They are
Vane pumps, Gear pumps, and Piston pumps. During my training period, I was able to learn about
Vane pumps manufactured by Yuken Hydraulics Ltd.

Figure 8 - Hydraulic Pumps

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3.2.1.1 Vane Pumps

These pumps operate with much lower flow pulsation. Therefore vane pumps produce less noise
while maintaining a relative high speed. There are two types of vane pumps; fixed displacement vane
pumps, Variable displacement pumps and Double vane pumps. They comprise a rotor and vanes.
Vanes move radially within the rotor and the centrifugal force of rotor makes the vanes to move
outward.

Figure 9 - Rotor of Vane pump

Figure 10 - Parts of Vane Pump

Model Number designation of Vane pump manufactured by Yuken Hydraulics Ltd.

Table 1 - Model Number Designation

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3.2.2 Hydraulic Valves

There are 3 types of Hydraulic valves in industry. They are categorized as Pressure control valves,
Flow control valves and Direction control valves.

3.2.2.1 Pressure Control Valves

These types of valves are mainly used to limit or regulate pressure, create a required particular
pressure condition, or operate in a specific order. Following types of pressure control valves mainly
used in LOADSTAR.

Figure 11 - Relief Valves

Figure 12 - Sequence valves

Figure 13 - Pressure reducing valves

3.2.2.2 Flow Control Valves

These types of valves are used to control the speed of an actuator by regulating the flow rate. It
manages the flow by decreasing or increasing the opening at throttling point. There are Restrictor
valves, Needle valves and flow dividing valves used in LOADSTAR.

Figure 14 - Needle valves

Figure 15 - Restrictor valves

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3.2.3 Directional Control Valves

These types of valves are mainly used to start, stop & control the direction of the fluid flow. There
are following types of directional control valves are used in LOADSTAR.

Figure 16 - Check valves

Figure 17 - Spool type valves

3.2.4 Hydraulic Actuators

There are two types of Hydraulic actuators; hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors. During the
training period I was able to learn about Hydraulic cylinders. There are two types of cylinders such
as Single acting cylinders and Double acting cylinders.

Figure 18 - Hydraulic Cylinders

3.2.5 Hydraulic Accumulators

Hydraulic accumulator stores fluid under pressure and can serve number of functions within a
hydraulic system. Considering the types of accumulators there are Bladder type, Diaphragm type and
piston type accumulators. During my training period I was able to learn about Bladder type
accumulators.

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3.2.5.1 Bladder Type Accumulators

This type of accumulator consists of non-pleated, flexible rubber bladder housed within a steel shell.
The open end of bladder is attached to the pre charging valve at the gas end of the shell. A poppet
valve is normally held open by spring pressure regulates the fluid flow through the hydraulic port.

Figure 19 - Bladder type accumulator

HYDRAULIC OIL

Hydraulic fluid is a made of many kinds of chemicals. Mainly hydraulic fluids are classified into 3
categories. They are General hydraulic oil, wear resistance hydraulic oil and flame retardant oil.
Usually hydraulic oil has following characteristics.

 Viscosity
 Compressibility
 Wear resistance
 Oxidation stability
 Thermal stability
 Filterability
 Rust & corrosion protection
 Foam resistance
 Hydrolytic Stability
 Seal compatibility

Most of hydraulic components replace due to surface degradation and most of that is due to
mechanical wear. Proper filtration of hydraulic fluids can lengthen component life.

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3.3.1 Caltex Rando HD 68

In LOADSTAR, they use Caltex Rando HD 68 as the hydraulic fluid. It is a type of flame retardant
hydraulic oil. It has a yellowish brown in color and Standardization of viscosity is 68.

Figure 20 - Caltex Rando HD 68 label

HYDRAULIC POWER UNITS

Hydraulic power unit is an arrangement of interconnected components which controls hydraulic

energy. Modern day applications of hydraulic power units are extremely diverse and are divided into
mobile applications (agriculture machinery, diggers, graders, road maintenance vehicle, fork lift
trucks, excavators etc.), industrial applications (machine tools, food processing machinery, automatic
handling and assembly equipment, steel
works and mining etc.), and other
(automotive, aerospace and marine
industry, civil engineering, theatre and
leisure, medicine etc.). A typical
hydraulic power unit may include the
following components.

 Pump
 Motor
 Chain Coupling
 Cylinders
 Valves Figure 21 - Parts of Hydraulic Power Unit
 Monitoring Instrument
 Filter & Regulators
 Reservoir
 Accumulators
 Hoses, tubes and fittings
 Valve block
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3.4.1 LHUA2 UNIT for Tire Handling

This unit was designed by group of trainees with the guidance of Engineers and workers at Loadstar.
Objectives of this power units were four outputs to control cylinders, Flow rate of 12 liters per minute
and working pressure up to 21MPa.

We were asked to give a progress analysis report during this small mini project. Components used
for this unit were selected with the guidance of engineers & workers.

3.4.1.1 Hydraulic Circuit of the Unit

Figure 22 - Hydraulic Circuit of the Unit

3.4.1.2 Procedure of making of the unit

 Tank was designed and prepared drawing according to the requirements of the unit.
 Decided the materials and other things require making tank and sent order to Fabrication shop.
 Valve block was designed and prepare drawing according to the placements of valves.
 Decided the materials and order via MR and processed the machining and drilling.
 Thread cutting was made according to the standard sizes.
 Assembled the four directional valves, relief valve and needle valve with pressure gauge to
valve block
 Fixed oil level gauge, sealing plate of man hole, and oil filling cup to the tank.
 Motor and Pump with chain coupling was fixed after that.
 Allen key size 8 was used to pump installing.
 Hoses and fitting were fixed to tank and valve block using Allen key size 8.
 Finalized Unit before testing.

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3.4.1.3 Operating Process

When the Hydraulic power unit begins functioning, the gear pump pulls hydraulic fluid out of the
tank and moves it into an accumulator. This process continues until the pressure within the
accumulator reaches a predetermined level, at which point a charging valve switches the pumping
action to begin circulating fluid. This causes the pump to release fluid through a charging valve back
into the tank at minimal pressure. A special one-way valve keeps fluid from flowing out of the
accumulator, but if the pressure drops by a significant amount, the charging valve reactivates and
the accumulator is refilled with fluid. Farther down the line, a reduced-pressure valve regulates the
flow of oil moving to the actuators.

3.4.1.4 Action Plan

Table 2 - Action plan

Days
Task
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Tank Design & Fabrication
Valve block design, machining,
drilling & Finalizing
Assemble parts for tank
Assemble parts for valve block
Fix pump and motor with chain
coupling
Fix valve block & hoses to tank
Finalizing the unit

3.4.1.5 Design Consideration

Above hydraulic power unit [LHUA2] is used for tire

handling system. Some of the important factors that
influence a hydraulic power unit’s performance are
pressure limits, power capacity, and reservoir volume. In
addition, its physical characteristics, including size, power
supply, and pumping strength are also significant
considerations. Volume of the tank depends on the no of
cylinders, valves, hoses and etc. To better understand the
operating principles and design features in a hydraulic
power unit, it may be helpful to look at the basic Figure 23 - Hydraulic Power Unit [LHUA2]

components of a standard model used in industrial hydraulic systems.

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TROUBLESHOOTING HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS

Considering a troubleshooting a STOP system method is usually followed in LOADSTAR.

Study the circuit diagrams.

Test by using a reliable tester.
Organize the knowledge gained from the circuit-test results.
Perform repairs, taking time to do the job well.

3.5.1 Pump Troubleshooting

Pump testing unit is used to test various types of hydraulic pumps at LOADSTAR. This unit is consist
of following components.

 Motor with chain coupling

 Pump to be tested
 Tank
 Single rod double acting cylinder
 High pressure relief valve
 Low pressure relief valve
 Check valve
 Unloading valve
 Direction control valve

Figure 24 - Pump testing unit

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Symptoms of a pump failure may cause following reasons.

 Excessive noise
 Excessive heat
 Incorrect flow
 Incorrect pressure
 Faulty operation

3.5.2 Cylinders Troubleshooting

Hydraulic Cylinders are compact and therefore when troubleshooting shaft, bore and seals are
considered. Usually when repairing cylinders all the seals are replaced with the maintenance.
Symptoms of a cylinder failure are as following.

 External or Internal Leakage

 Creeping Cylinder
 Sluggish Operation
 Loose Mounting
 Misalignment
 Lack of Lubrication
 Abrasives on a Piston Rod
 Burrs on a Piston Rod
 Air Vents Figure 25 - Troubleshooting Cylinders

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CHAPTER 4
4 FABRICATION WORKSHOP

INTRODUCTION

Considering Fabrication workshop, I could gain experience about Industrial mechanical equipment
and tools, Threaded Fasteners and welding rods. Apart from that I could work on designing Motor
mount for an Austrian Press Machine for MTD. Following things were experienced and learnt at the
Fabrication Workshop.

INDUSTRIAL MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT

There are many tools and equipment used in Fabrication workshop at LOADSTAR.

Wrenches

The wrenches are classified as open-end, box-end, socket, adjustable, ratcheting and special
wrenches. The Allen wrench, although seldom used, is required on one special type of recessed screw.
One of the most widely used metals for making wrenches is chrome-vanadium steel. Wrenches made
of this metal are almost unbreakable. Wrenches are used to install and remove nuts and bolts. Wrench
size is determined by measuring across the wrench jaws.

 Open-end wrench  Box-end wrench

An open-end wrench has weak jaws. It It should be used on extremely tight, rusted,
should not be used on extremely tight nuts or partially rounded bolt or nut heads.
or bolts.

Figure 26 - Open-end wrench

Figure 27 - Box-end wrench

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 Combination wrench  Adjustable wrench

A combination wrench provides the It should be used only when other type
advantage of two types of wrenches for wrenches will not fit. An adjustable
the price of one. wrench is a handy tool to carry for
emergencies. It is like having a full set
of open-end wrenches.

Figure 28 - Adjustable wrench

Figure 31 - Combination wrench  Allen wrench

 Pipe wrench
An Allen wrench is a hexagonal (six-
sided) shaft type wrench. It is used to
A pipe wrench is an adjustable wrench turn set screws on pulleys, gears, and
used to grasp cylindrical objects. The knobs.
toothed jaws actually dig into the
object. For this reason, it should not use
on parts that will be ruined by marks or
nicks.

Figure 32 - Pipe wrench

Figure 29 - Allen wrench

 Vice grip wrench

Vise grips, clamp onto and hold a part.
This frees both hands to do other tasks.
Because of their clamping power, vise
grips can sometimes be used to unscrew
Figure 30 - Vise grips
fasteners with stripped or rounded
heads.

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Pliers

Pliers are used to grip, cut, crimp, hold, and bend various parts. Different pliers are helpful for
different situations. Never use pliers when another type tool will work. Pliers can nick and scar a part.

Figure 36 - Slip-joint plier Figure 33 - Diagonal cutting plier

Figure 37 - Side cutting plier Figure 34 - Flat Nose Plier

Figure 35 - End cutting plier

Figure 38 - Round Nose plier

THREADED FASTENERS, NUTS

4.3.1 Threaded Fasteners

Bolts, Screws and Studs are the most common types of threaded fasteners. They are used in both permanent
and removable joints. Bolts are basically threaded fasteners normally used with nuts. Screws engage either
with a preformed or a self-made internal threads. Studs are externally threaded headless fasteners. One end
usually meets a tapped component and the other with a standard nut. There are different forms of bolt and
screw for a different usage.

Figure 40 - Machine screw Figure 39 - Sheet metal screw

Figure 41 - Wood screw

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Figure 43 - Socket screw Figure 44 - Set screw

Figure 42 - Hex Bolt

4.3.2 Nut Types

Figure 46 - Square Nut Figure 45 - Wing Nut

Figure 47 - Hex Nut

4.3.3 Property Class of a Screw

This indicates the Ultimate tensile strength and the Yield Strength of the screw material.
[Examples – 8.8, 10.9, 12.9]

Figure 48 - Property Class 8.8

Figure 49 - Property Class of a Screw

WELDING ELECTRODES

In Arc Welding, the term electrode refers to the component that conducts the current from the
electrode holder to the metal being welded.

E7018
Type of
Electric
Coating &
Welding
Current
Tensile Welding
Strength Position
[70x103 psi]

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4.4.1 Welding Positions

1 – All positions
2 – All positions except vertical down
3 – Flat
4 – Flat, butt, fillet
5 – Vertical down

Figure 50 - Welding electrodes

Welding Electrodes mostly used in Loadstar are,

 E7018 - For mild steel (thickness greater than 18mm)
 E6013 - For mild steel (thickness smaller than 18mm)
 680 - For Stainless steel
 N6006
 6450 Hard facing Electrodes
 B-L Electrode
 Castcraft 55/10 - For cast iron

Figure 51 - E7018 Welding Electrode

MOTOR MOUNT DESIGN

Motor mount for an Austrian Press machine was designed. Mild steel was selected as the material
and 20mm and 16mm thickness plates used. Following mechanical drawings were designed by Solid
works Software and simulated to check the force made by the motor.

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Figure 52 - Motor mount for an Austrian Press machine

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CHAPTER 5
5 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP

INTRODUCTION

Considering Electrical & Electronics there are Motor Winding workshop, Electronic workshop &
CNC workshop at Central Maintenance Division in LOADSTAR. Therefore I could gain experience
about Motor Winding and CNC Retrofitting. Following things were experienced and learnt at the
Electrical & Electronics Workshop.

ELECTRICAL METERING & TEST INSTRUMENTS

5.2.1 Multimeter

Multimeter is a comprehensive test instrument for measuring voltage, current and resistance. It
should be capable of measuring the following things.

Voltage DC – 0 – 25 – 100 – 250 volts

Voltage AC – 0 – 250 – 500 – 1000 volts
Amperes DC – 0 – 10 Amp
DC Resistance – 0 – 10K or 0 – 2K
0 – 100K or 0 – 20K
0 – 1M or 0 – 200K
Figure 53 - Multimeter
5.2.2 Tachometer or Frequency Meter

This instrument is for measuring the shaft speed of the alternator and should be capable of measuring
speeds between 0 – 500 rpm. An alternative to the tachometer is the frequency meter. However the
alternative must be generating its normal output voltage for this instrument to be accurate.

Figure 54 - Tachometer

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5.2.3 Megger (Insulation test meter)

This instrument generates a voltage of 500v or 1000v and is used to measure the resistance value of
the insulation to earth (ground). It may be an electronic push button type or a hand cranked generator
type.

Figure 55 - Megger

5.2.4 Clip-on Ammeter (Clamp meter)

This instrument is used to measure AC current. It consist of a pair of calipers which are clamped
around the conductor and by means of a transformer action gives an indication of the amperes
flowing in the conductor. Useful ranges to have on this meter are AC amp – 0 – 10 – 50 – 100 – 250
– 500 – 1000.

Figure 56 - Clip-on Ammeter

5.2.5 Kelvin Bridge – low resistance meter

This instrument is used to measure resistance values below 1Ω. They are bulky and expensive but
are the only means of accurately measuring very low resistance such as main stator and exciter rotor
windings. However there are other methods of testing low resistance winding and these are included
in various procedures.

Figure 57 - Kelvin Bridge – low

resistance meter

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MOTOR WINDING WORKSHOP

During my training period I was able to train in motor winding workshop of Central Maintenance
division at Loadstar. In there I learnt and experienced 3 phase AC Induction motor rewinding, Motor
winding types, Testing methods and etc.

5.3.1 3 Phase AC Induction Motor

AC motors are used worldwide in many applications to transform electrical energy into mechanical
energy. Among many types, 3 phase AC induction motors, the most common type used in industrial
applications. This type has main three parts. They are Rotor, Stator and enclosure.

Figure 58 - Parts of 3 phase AC induction motors

Stator Core

Stator is the stationary part of the motor’s electromagnetic circuit. The stator core is made from thin
metal sheets called laminations. They are used to reduce energy losses that may cause if a solid core
used.

Figure 59 - Stator core

Stator Windings

Coils of insulated wire are inserted into slots of the stator core. Stator windings connect directly to
this power source.
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Figure 60 - Stator windings

Rotor

Rotor is the rotating part of the motor’s electromagnetic circuit. Squirrel cage type is the most
common type of rotor used in three phase induction motor. The rotor is made from thin steel
laminations. Most rotors are made by die casting aluminum to form the conductor bars.

Figure 61 - Rotor

Enclosure

The enclosure consists of a frame and two end brackets. The stator is mounted inside the frame. The
rotor fits inside the stator with a slight air gap. Bearings are mounted on the shaft. They support the
rotor and allow it to turn.

Figure 62 - Enclosure

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These motors are self-starting and no use of capacitors, start winding, centrifugal switch or other
starting device. They produce medium to high degrees of starting torque. Power and efficiency is
higher than single phase type. Popular applications includes grinders, lathes, drill presses, pumps,
compressors, conveyors and etc.

5.3.2 Typical Name plate of an AC Induction Motor

Figure 63 - Name plate of an AC Induction Motor

Volts : Rated terminal supply voltage

Amps : Rated full-load supply current
H.P. : Rated motor O/P
R.P.M : Rated full-load speed of the motor
Hertz : Rated supply frequency
Frame : External physical dimension of the motor based on the NEMA standards
Duty : Motor load condition (continuous load, short time, periodic)
Date : Manufacturing date

Class Insulation : Insulation class used for the motor construction. This specifies max limit of the
motor winding temperature
NEMA Design : This specifies to which NEMA design class the belongs to
Service Factor : Factor by which the motor can be beyond the full load
NEMA Nom. Eff. : Motor operating efficiency at full load
PH : Specifies numbers of stator phases of the motor
Pole : Specifies the poles of the motor
Y or ∆ : Specifies whether the motor windings are star (Y) connected or delta connected

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5.3.3 AC Motor Windings

Winding classification can be based on the supply of single phase or 3 phase, placing type of
concentrated or distributed, No of layers with single or double, end connection such as Lap, Wave
or concentric and based on the pitch such as full pitch or short pitch.

5.3.3.1 Motor Winding Terminology

Synchronous Speed (Ns)

The speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator. The difference between synchronous speed
and actual speed is called slip.

120 𝐹 Where, F – frequency in Hz

𝑁𝑠 =
𝑃 P – Number of motor poles

Coil span or Pitch

The number of slots separating the sides of a coil including the slots in which the coil sides lie.
(Ex. 1 and 11, 1 and 13)

5.3.3.2 Types of AC Motor Windings

There are basic two types such as single layer and double layer winding. And also there are lap
winding and wave winding. Following figures shows two types of winding I have experienced.

Slots – 24 / Pitch - 1 -11 Slots – 36 / Pitch - 1 -18, 2-16, 3-14

Figure 64 - Types of AC Motor Windings

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5.3.3.3 3 Phase Induction Motor rewinding procedure

 Read Name plate and write down details

Figure 65 - Name plate

 Detached motor into parts

 Clean inside the stator

 Find the span or pitch of the winding

 Remove windings without harming stator laminations

Figure 66 - Inside of Stator

 Count and note down the amount of wires per coil and the type of winding (Single layer or

double)

 Check end connection of a phase and find the number of wires in a turn.

 Count the slots

 Clean the stator

 Prepare insulating strips with cuffs ended.

 Insert them in the stator

 Check the diameter of copper wires with micrometer and write down the details.

 Prepare coils according to the number of slots.

 Insert them according to the winding type

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 Insert covering insulating strips

Figure 67 - Stator after coils inserted

 Finish winding with separating phases and tie coils with threads.

 Insert fiber sleeves to the end of coils.

 After finishing, put the stator in to an oven.

Figure 68 - Finished windings

 Insulate the stator with S50 varnish about 3 hours.

 Clean unwanted varnish in the frame of stator.

Figure 69 - Completed winding

 Check the stator with insulation test with Megger.

 Connect wires to terminal box.

 Check the bearings of the rotor and replace if unwanted.

 Fix the rotor.

 Check the motor with power supply.

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5.3.4 Testing a 3 Phase Induction Motor

Visual Tests
 Check that motor frame is mechanically sound.
 Check for signs of overheating, arcing
 Check ventilation is clear
Electrical Test
 Identify windings using a continuity tester
 Measure the resistance of the windings
 Measure the insulation resistance between each winding and between windings and frame
Mechanical Test
 Check the rotor is free to rotate and does so smoothly
 Check that motor interior is free of dirt, dust water and oil
 Check for play in bearings

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CHAPTER 6
6 CNC WORKSHOP

INTRODUCTION

During my training period I was able to work on a CNC retrofitting project at CNC workshop of
Central Maintenance division. In there I learnt and experienced types of CNC machines, Principle
Operation, Driving systems, Feedback systems, and etc.

COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES

Computer Numerical Machines are automated milling devices that makes industrial components
without human assistance directly. They use coded instructions that are sent to internal computer
which allows factories to fabricate parts accurately and quickly.

Types of CNC machines

o Drilling Machine
o Lathe/Turning Machine
o Milling/ Machining Center
o Turret Press And Punching Machine
o Wire Cut Electro Discharge Machine (EDM)
o Grinding Machine
o Laser Cutting Machine
o Water Jet Cutting Machine
o Electro Discharge Machine
o Coordinate Measuring Machine
o Industrial Robot

Advantages of CNC machines

o Increased productivity
o High accuracy and repeatability
o Reduced production cost
o Reduced indirect operating cost
o Facilitation of complex machining operations
o Greater flexibility
o Improved production planning and control
o Lower operator skill requirement
o Facilitation of flexible automation

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Disadvantages of CNC machines

o High initial investment

o High maintenance requirement
o Not cost effective for low production cost

PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF A CNC MACHINE

Considering the working principle, the part programme data is input to the control system through a
suitable input medium such as manual data input keyboard. The data is stored in the data storage
area, compared in the computation area, commands are generated and distributed to the respective
axis servo drives.

The servo drives get activated and the slides. The position feedback transducer at each slide monitors
the instantaneous position of the slides and gives a feedback to the comparator and further commands
are given to the axes servo-drives and hence the slide stops. The velocity feedback loop monitors
the recommended velocity of the slide.

Part programme
data

Data Storage Command Servo Unit Drive Slide

Generator motor

Velocity feedback

Positional
feedback element
Positional feedback signal

Figure 70 - Block diagram of CNC Machine

DRIVING SYSTEM OF A CNC MACHINE

Accuracy and repeatability of a CNC machine depend on the characteristics and performance of the
driving system. The requirement is to response accurately to the programmed instructions. This
system usually uses electric motors although hydraulic motors are sometimes used. Motor is coupled
either directly or through s gear box to the machine lead screw to moves the machine slide or the
spindle. Three types of electrical motors are commonly used.

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DC Servo motor

This is the most common type of feed motors used in CNC machines. The principle of operation is
based on the rotation of an armature winding in a permanently energized magnetic field. In order to
achieve the necessary dynamic behavior it is operated in a closed loop system equipped with sensors
to obtain the velocity and position feedback signals.

Figure 71 - DC Servo Motor

AC Servo motor

In AC servo motors, rotor is a permanent magnet while the stator is equipped with 3 phase windings.
The speed of rotor is equal to the rotational frequency of the magnetic field of the stator. AC servo
motors don’t have brushes so maintenance is virtually not required. Further, AC servo motor have a
smaller power-to-weight ratio and faster response.

Figure 72 - AC servo motor

Stepping Motor

Stepper motor converts the electrical pulses into discrete mechanical rotational motion of the shaft.
This is the simplest device that can be applied to CNC machines since it can convert digital data into
actual mechanical displacements. These are ideally suited to open loop systems. However, stepper
motors are not commonly used in CNC machines due to following reasons. They are slow speed,
low torque, low resolution and easy to slip in case of overload.

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Figure 73 - Stepper motor

LINEAR DRIVING SYSTEM OF A CNC MACHINE

CNC machines require a way to transmit the power made from the actuators to drive linear axes.
The most popular linear drives used in CNC machines are Lead screw, Ball screw, Rack & Pinion
and Belt drives.

6.5.1 Lead Screws

Lead screws are the most common linear drive on most CNC machines. Lead screws come in an
imperial flavor called Acme, and a metric flavor called Trapezoidal. Acme and trapezoidal lead
screws are very much the same thing, just different measurements. The only real difference to speak
of is the angle between the threads (the thread angle), acme is 29 degrees and trapezoidal is 30. Lead
screws are just essentially a very high quality threaded rod.

Figure 74 - Thread angle of a Lead Screw

Lead screws are available in both right and left hand threads. Lead screws will most commonly
be seen in right hand threads. Lead refers to the distance the nut on the lead screw will travel when
the lead screw is turned one complete 360 revolution. The lead is calculated by multiplying the pitch
by the starts. If a lead screw is just a single start screw then the lead is the same as the pitch.

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Figure 75 - Lead Screw

Lead screws provide strength more so than speed or anything else. With CNC router strength is
needed because a spindle tool or router going through wood or light metal at speed, can produce
significant resistance. Lead screws will produce a fair amount of speed, good strength and power
transmission to overcome the forces involved in cutting wood and light metals.

Advantages

o Good power transfer

o Good speed, better with multiple start screws
o Relatively inexpensive

Disadvantages

o Friction and wear of the nut introducing backlash

o Over long lengths the screw can whip and resonate

6.5.2 Ball Screws

Ball screws are very similar to lead screws in the way that they resemble a threaded rod. Ball screws
however, instead of having threads have ball races. These ball races are like a channel that spirals
down the length of the screw. These ball races fit ball bearings, which are a very close fit to the size
of the ball race channels.

Figure 76 - Ball Screw_1

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The ball bearings fit inside something called a ball nut. This ball nut allows the bearings to ride
inside the ball screws ball race and after a number of turns around the ball screw, recycles them to
start the journey all over again.

Figure 77 - Ball Screw_2

As opposed to a lead screws nut which rides on the threads directly causing friction and wear, the
ball bearings roll along the ball race, separating the nut from the screw – hugely reducing friction
and wear. The ball nut is packed with grease which allows for even smoother movement. The ball
nut has so little friction with the ball screw that the nut will sometimes fall under gravity. Despite
this lack of friction, the ball screw still maintains great anti-backlash properties and will provide
great precision.

Advantages

o Very little friction and wear

o Great anti-backlash properties
o Offer incredible speed while maintaining good power transfer

Disadvantages

o Expensive
o Ball nuts must always be greased and seals replaced when worn (minor problem)
o friction free that counter weight systems may need to be integrated to keep heavy axes
from failing when machine is powered off
o Over extreme lengths screw can whip and resonate.

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6.5.3 Rack & Pinion

Rack and Pinion is another great linear drive system for CNC machines. A CNC router, unlike a
milling machine won’t require huge amounts of strength and sturdiness to operate. CNC routers can
do away with some of that strength and power and trade it in for speed, especially if it is cutting
primarily wood, plastics and other light materials.

Figure 78 - Rack & Pinion_1

R&P fits to a CNC router by running a rack of teeth down the length of an axis. Now a R&P drive
comes in, this drive will have the pinion attached and will pull or push that pinion into the rack so
the two mesh together tightly. It will do this push or pulling usually with a spring under tension from
a turn buckle. The drive will also usually gear down the pinion from the drive actuator (Stepper or
Servo) to trade some speed for additional torque.

Advantages

o Can provide great speed

o Easy to maintain
o More productivity

Disadvantages

o Trade-off some strength and sturdiness for speed

o For axes with two contact points like the Y axis on a CNC router, two racks, two R&P
drives and two actuators will be required.

Figure 79 - Rack & Pinion_2

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6.5.4 Belt Drives

Belt drive shares the same speed advantages as Rack and Pinion, and the same negatives. CNC
machines such as plasma cutters, laser cutters, pick and place machines and 3D printers all require
much less torque and power than a router or mill. This is because they won’t have the same forces
at play as a CNC router cutting wood, or milling machine cutting metal.

Figure 80 - Belt drive

A plasma torch fly’s over the material, force isn’t transferred from the plasma beam to the machine.
Same with laser cutters, pick and place machines and 3D printers. Speed in these CNC machines is
more important than torque, the faster they can go the better because they don’t need to worry about
increased forces and resistance at higher speeds.

A belt drive system common in CNC machines will use a special type of belt, called a timing belt.
This belt has teeth, which are all precisely and equally spaced. The teeth on the belt mesh with a
pulley that has the same teeth, with the same spacing embedded into it. The timing belts are usually
made from flexible rubber with lengths of tensioning materials running through the length of the belt
such as Kevlar.

Advantages

o Offer extreme speed capabilities

o Relatively low maintenance, other than occasional tightening of belts
o Precision movement
o Fairly inexpensive

Disadvantages

o Trade off strength and sturdiness for speed

o Over long lengths belt can whip and cause resonance

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FEEDBACK DEVICES OF CNC MACHINES

In order to have a CNC machine operating accurately the positional values and speed of the axis
need to be constantly updated. Two types of feedback devices are normally used. They are positional
feedback devices and velocity feedback devices.

6.6.1 Positional Feedback Devices

The ideal method of measuring the displacement or position of the cutting tool is to continuously
measure the position of the cutting tool edge relative to the datum point. The positional feedback is
provided by measuring the slide movements with measuring devices. The position measuring
devices used are either rotary or linear transducers.

Linear position measuring transducer

Linear position measuring transducer operates on the photoelectric principle. The linear measuring
system measures the displacement of the machines lies from a fixed datum. A linear measuring
system consists of a precision linear scale engraved with close spaced alternate transparent and
opaque parallel lines as one unit and a photocell and light source as the second unit. One of the units
is fixed on the stationary element of the machine tool and the other unit is fixed to the moving
worktable.

A pulse is generated by the photocell as it is exposed to light source through the transparent areas of
the linear scale. From the known number of the engraved lines per unit length on the linear scale and
by counting the pulses, the displacement of the worktable can be established. The linear system may
have either a glass scale in which light passes through the transparent area or a stainless steel scale
in which the light is reflected from the transparent areas.

Figure 81 - Linear position measuring transducer

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Rotary or angular position measuring transducers

Angular position measuring transducers operates by measuring the angular speed of a rotating
element, normally of a lead screw, from the known value of lead screw, movement of worktable or
machine slide is calculated by control system. Most commonly used angular position measuring
transducers operate on the photoelectric principle. The transducer consists of a disc fitted on the axis
of lead screw. The disc made up of uniform alternate transparent and opaque areas. A light source is
fitted on one side of the disc and photocell on the other side. When the disc rotates with rotation of
the lead screw, the photocell and light source.

Figure 82 - Angular position measuring transducer

The photocell gives output voltage based on the intensity of light falling on it and the output from
photocell resembles a sine-wave, which is converted into square shaped pulses to make it useful for
control purposes. The rotary speed of the lead screw is calculated from the known number of lines
engraved on the rotating disc. The displacement of the slide is then calculated from the lead of the
lead screw. The direction of the rotation of lead screw is sensed by putting a second photocell in the
circuit. Position measurement by angular position measuring transducer is indirect as the output of
the transducer has tube converted into table displacement.

6.6.2 Velocity Feedback Devices

A device called tachogenerator normally provides velocity feedback. It generates voltage output,
which is proportional to its speed. The tachogenerator is normally built in the servomotor case and
is directly fitted on the servomotor shaft. The output voltage from the tachogenerator is used as
feedback to monitor the motor speed. Rotary encoders are also used to provide feedback for velocity
control.

Figure 83 - Tachogenerator

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CNC PART PROGRAMMING

Machining involves an important aspects of relative movement between cutting tool and work piece.
In machine tools this is done by either moving the tool with respect to work piece or vice versa. A
program defining motion of tool or work piece in coordinate system is known as a part program.
Mainly there are two types of CNC codes.

Preparatory Codes

Preparatory in NC machines means that it ‘prepare ‘the control system to be ready for implement
information that follows in instructions. A preparatory function is designated in a programme by the
addresses ‘G’ followed by two digits. These codes are also called G-codes and they specify the control
mode of the operation.
Ex: G02 - Clockwise move
G90 - Absolute mode
G91 - Incremental mode

Miscellaneous Codes

These functions use the address ‘M’ followed by two digits. They perform a group of instructions
such as coolant on/off, tool change, program stop or program end. They are often referred to as
machine function or M-functions.
Ex: M01 - Program stop
M06 - Tool change
M08 - Coolant ON

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL FOR CNC MACHINES

There are various factors, which are very much important to maintain proper environmental
conditions. CNC machines are very costly and complex in design, so great care is necessary for these
machines in handling as well as up keeping. For proper working of these machines, following
environmental conditions are needed.

 Well air circulation

 Working temperature should be within control limits
 Space should not be congested but should be quite open.

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 Electrical power supply should be regulated.

 There should be proper disposal point for scarp
 There should not be presence of noisy source near to the machine.
 There should not be presence of harmful chemicals near to the machine.
 Proper lighting to the system.
 The machine should be protected from the moisture.
 There should not be presence of vibrating source near to machine.
 Power supply should be regulated.
 Floor should be cleaned free from oily and greased
 Trained person should be operate the machine
 Dust free floor space and environment
 Sufficient supply of coolant required during machining.

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CHAPTER 7
7 DESIGN OFFICE

INTRODUCTION

During my training period I was able to work in Design Office of Central Maintenance division
where all the machine designing, modelling and simulating are done. In there I learnt and
experienced AutoCAD Software for 2D drawings and SolidWorks Software for 3D modelling and
contributed some designs as well.

SOLIDWORKS

SolidWorks CAD software is a 3D mechanical CAD program which provides a full range of
integrated modelling, simulation, visualization, communication and validation tools that product
designers need to develop better products faster and at low cost.

Figure 84 - Logo of SolidWorks

Parts are the basic building blocks in the SolidWorks software. Assemblies contain parts or other
assemblies, called subassemblies.

Features refer to the building blocks of the part. They are the shapes and operations that construct
the part. Shape-based features typically begin with a 2D or 3D sketch of shapes such as bosses, holes,
slots, etc. This shape is then extruded or cut to add or remove material from the part. Operation-
based features are not sketch-based, and include features such as fillets, chamfers, shells, applying
draft to the faces of a part, etc.

Building a model in SOLIDWORKS usually starts with a 2D sketch. The sketch consists of geometry
such as points, lines, arcs, conics and splines. Dimensions are added to the sketch to define the size
and location of the geometry. Relations are used to define attributes such as tangency, parallelism,
perpendicularity, and concentricity. The parametric nature of SOLIDWORKS means that the
dimensions and relations drive the geometry, not the other way around. The dimensions in the sketch
can be controlled independently, or by relationships to other parameters inside or outside of the

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sketch. In an assembly, the analog to sketch relations are mates. Just as sketch relations define
conditions such as tangency, parallelism, and concentricity with respect to sketch
geometry, assembly mates define equivalent relations with respect to the individual parts or
components, allowing the easy construction of assemblies. SOLIDWORKS also includes additional
advanced mating features such as gear and cam follower mates, which allow modeled gear
assemblies to accurately reproduce the rotational movement of an actual gear train.

Figure 85 - SolidWorks Part and Assembly

Finally, drawings can be created either from parts or assemblies. Views are automatically generated
from the solid model, and notes, dimensions and tolerances can then be easily added to the drawing
as needed. The drawing module includes most paper sizes and standards.

Figure 86 - SolidWorks Drawings

DRAWINGS AND MODELS I HAVE DESIGNED

During my training at Loadstar (PVT) Ltd. I was able to draw and assembled following systems, parts
and assemblies using SolidWorks Software.

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7.3.1 Automated System for the final inspection of a wheel using machine vision

Figure 87 - Automated System for the final inspection of a wheel using machine vision

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7.3.2 Office layout of Design Office of Central Maintenance Division

Figure 88 - Office layout of Design Office of Central Maintenance Division

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7.3.3 3D model of CNC Vertical Lathe Machine

Figure 89 - 3D model of CNC Vertical Lathe Machine

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CHAPTER 8
8 HEALTH & SAFETY

INTRODUCTION

During my training period I was able to learn about introduction to Industrial Health & Safety. Safety
is an important factor in the workshop. If we learned work, it means we must be able to do work in
safe way. In the training to work we should learn how to work without hearting ourselves or our
fellow workers. Health & Safety is all about preventing people from being harmed by work or
becoming ill by taking right precautions and providing a satisfactory working environment. The
words hazard and risk are commonly used when considering safety.

Hazard means anything that can cause harm. (Ex: chemicals, electricity, working from ladders and etc.)
Risk is the chance high or low that someone will be harmed by the hazard.

SAFETY SIGNS

Safety signs and color are useful tools to help protect the health and safety of employees and
workplace visitors. While there is no legislation requiring the use of color in the workplace, color
can be used to indicate hazards or point out safety equipment. For example, color can be applied on:

o indicator lights or buttons

o pipes
o separate work areas
o machinery
o vehicles
o floors and stairs

8.2.1 Indicator lights or buttons

Table 3 - Safety color table_1

Color Indictor light Button/Control

Red Danger or Alarm Stop/Off
Yellow Caution Caution/ intervention needed
Green Safe condition Start/on

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8.2.2 Piping System

Table 4 - Safety color table_2

Color Classification Example

Fire quenching materials
Red *never paint sprinkler Water, foam, carbon Dioxide and etc.
heads
Materials that are flammable or explosive;
Materials that are
Yellow chemically active or toxic; radioactive; or
hazardous by nature
under extreme temperatures or pressures
Liquids that are not
Green Liquids, liquid admixtures
hazardous by nature
Gases that are not
Blue Gas
hazardous by nature

8.2.3 Other applications for safety colors

Table 5 - Safety color table_3

Color Meaning Example

Containers of flammable liquids;
Red Danger or stop emergency stop bars; stop buttons; fire
protection equipment
Physical hazards which might result in
falling, tripping or being caught in-
Yellow Caution between; storage cabinets for flammable
materials; containers for corrosive or
unstable materials
First aid kits, stations; stretchers;
First aid/safety equipment/
Green emergency showers; emergency
Emergency egress
exit routes
Signs requiring use of personal
Blue Safety information
protective equipment (PPE)
Hazardous parts of machines which may
cut, crush, or otherwise injure a worker;
Orange Warning inside of movable guards or the inside
of transmission guards for gears,
pulleys, chains and etc.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)

PPE is equipment that will protect the user against health or safety risks at work. It can include items
such as safety helmets and hard hats, gloves, eye protection, high-visibility clothing, safety footwear
and safety harnesses.

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Figure 90 - Safety Goggles

Figure 91 - Safety Spectacles

Figure 92 - Safety Overall

Figure 94 - Safety Shoes Figure 95 - Ear Defender

Figure 96 - Safety Mask

Figure 93 - Safety Helmet

Figure 97 - Safety Gloves

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SAFETY RULES AT LOADSTAR (PVT) LTD

 All accident and occupational illness must be reported immediately to the safety department.
 Where specified, personal protection gear (PPE) must be worn.
 Smoke is strictly prohibited in the factory premises.
 Riding on forklifts, running or horseplay on company properly is strictly prohibited.
 When operating machines and equipment, the relevant safety instructions must be followed
at all times.
 Before commencing maintenance work on any plant or machinery, the power supply must
be switch off at the isolator.
 Do not use defective tools for any type of work. Report the failure to your supervisor
immediately.
 No one is permitted to report for work in possession of or under the influence of alcohol or
drugs.
 All waste must be placed in the receptacles provided. Everyone is responsible for maintaining
safety standards in factory.
 Ensure that all guards and fences are in place in all rotating and moving machines and
equipment.
 Safety shoes or boots must be worn at all times where described in safety procedure or
operation manual of the machine.
 All employees must be fully charged properly serviced and tagged at all time and records
maintain.
 All employees must be trained in the use of all fire extinguishers and fully understand the
proper use of them.
 All employees must be known the emergency action at the fire drill.
 The speed limit of the all vehicles 5Km/h at factory premises including forklift.
 The unauthorized driving of company vehicles including forklift is strictly prohibited.
 All flammable liquids must be stored in approved containers within the correct compounds
and away from any source of ignition.
 All compressed gas cylinders of acetylene welding gases must be stored with protection caps
over the value. All oxygen acetylene tanks must be securely held in a cart or against the wall
to prevent them from falling.
 Unauthorized persons must not enter restricted area.
 Gangways and fire gaps must be kept free from the obstructions.
 Air hose must not be used for cleaning cloths or human body.
 Warning of watches, rings, dangling jewelry or loose clothing is strictly prohibited in
production areas.
 Long hair should be suitable confined, when working, in all production areas.

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CHAPTER 9
9 CONCLUSION

I believe the industrial training is the best opportunity to reinforce the technical knowledge gained
during the lectures in the university as an undergraduate student. Even though Engineering
undergraduate are having theoretical knowledge in a vast area, they should have the ability of
relating the theoretical knowledge with the practical scenario to become a skilled engineer.

LOADSTAR (PVT) Ltd is one of the famous manufacturing industry in Sri Lanka and doubtlessly
leading industry in the context of the tire manufacturing. It consists about 15 product divisions
with Central Maintenance Division (CMD) at Jinasena Industrial Park (JIP), Central Mixing Plant
(CMP), Casting Product Division (CPD) and Research & Development Division (R&D) which
helps to production process.

So LOADSTAR (PVT) Ltd is one of best place to gain the training experience related to
mechanical engineering as well as electrical and electronic engineering. Although, JIP has a
particular training schedule with lectures, OBT programme for trainees, gathering training
experiences depend on the effort of the trainee.

When it is considered as a whole, I completed a successful industrial training at LOADSTAR

(PVT) Ltd. Generally I practiced about the operational and maintenance tasks in the organization
and observed how the Engineers are engaging in their works. Also I learnt how the top
management is come to a decision, how they control major issues and how they promote favorable
human relations and teamwork. During my training period, I learnt the way we should adopt in
working environment. As a whole I gain lot of practices, knowledge, conceptual ideas of managers,
engineers and technical employees regarding their subordinates, superiors and daily routine of the
industry and hands on experiences about the mechanical engineering principles, electrical and
electronic engineering principles and the working environment of the organization.

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