Aim: Study WDN, its types and Cellular Network

Theory:

Wireless network

Wireless network refers to any type of computer network that is not connected by cables of any
kind. It is a method by which telecommunications networks and enterprise (business),
installations avoid the costly process of introducing cables into to a building, or as a connection
between various equipment locations. Wireless telecommunications networks are generally
implemented and administered using a transmission system called radio waves. This
implementation takes place at the physical level, (layer), of the network structure.

Wireless networks continue to develop, usage has grown in 2010. Cellular phones are part of
everyday wireless networks, allowing easy personal communications. Inter-continental network
systems use radio satellites to communicate across the world. Emergency services such as the
police utilize wireless networks to communicate effectively. Individuals and businesses use
wireless networks to send and share data rapidly, whether it be in a small office building or
across the world.

Another use for wireless networks is a cost effective means to connect to the Internet, in regions
where the telecommunications infrastructure is both poor and lacking in resources, typically in
rural areas and developing countries.

Advantages of wireless network

 Increased mobility and collaboration

 Improved responsiveness

 Better access to information

 Easier network expansion

Types of wireless connections

Wireless Pan

Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs) interconnect devices within a relatively small area,
generally within a persons reach. For example, both Bluetooth radio and invisible Infrared light
provides a WPAN for interconnecting a headset to a laptop. ZigBee also supports WPAN
applications. Wi-Fi PANs are becoming commonplace (2010) as equipment designers start to
integrate Wi-Fi into a variety of consumer electronic devices. Intel "My WiFi" and Windows 7
"virtual Wi-Fi" capabilities have made Wi-Fi PANs simpler and easier to set up and configure.

Wireless LAN

A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices using a wireless distribution
method, providing a connection through an access point to the wider internet. The use of spread-
spectrum or OFDM technologies also gives users the mobility to move around within a local
coverage area, and still remain connected to the network.

 Wi-Fi: "Wi-Fi" is a term used to describe 802.11 WLANs, although it is technically a declared
standard of interoperability between 802.11 devices.
 Fixed Wireless Data: This implements point to point links between computers or networks at
two distant locations, often using dedicated microwave or modulated laser light beams over line
of sight paths. It is often used in cities to connect networks in two or more buildings without
installing a wired link.

Wireless MAN

Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks are a type of wireless network that connects several
Wireless LANs.

 WiMAX is a type of Wireless MAN and is described by the IEEE 802.16 standard.

Wireless WAN

wireless wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large outdoor areas. These
networks can be used to connect branch offices of business or as a public internet access system.
They are usually deployed on the 2.4 GHz band. A typical system contains base station
gateways, access points and wireless bridging relays. Other configurations are mesh systems
where each access point acts as a relay also. When combined with renewable energy systems
such as photo-voltaic solar panels or wind systems they can be stand alone systems.

Cellular network

A cellular network is a radio network distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at
least one fixed-location transceiver known as a cell site or base station. When joined together
these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables a large number of
portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other and with
fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of the
transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission.

In a cellular radio system, a land area to be supplied with radio service is divided into regular
shaped cells, which can be hexagonal, square, circular or some other irregular shapes, although
hexagonal cells are conventional. Each of these cells is assigned multiple frequencies (f1 - f6)
which have corresponding radio base stations. The group of frequencies can be reused in other
cells, provided that the same frequencies are not reused in adjacent neighboring cells as that
would cause co-channel interference.

The increased capacity in a cellular network, compared with a network with a single transmitter,
comes from the fact that the same radio frequency can be reused in a different area for a
completely different transmission. If there is a single plain transmitter, only one transmission can
be used on any given frequency. Unfortunately, there is inevitably some level of interference
from the signal from the other cells which use the same frequency. This means that, in a standard
FDMA system, there must be at least a one cell gap between cells which reuse the same
frequency.

Broadcast messages and paging

Practically every cellular system has some kind of broadcast mechanism. This can be used
directly for distributing information to multiple mobiles, commonly, for example in mobile
telephony systems, the most important use of broadcast information is to set up channels for one
to one communication between the mobile transceiver and the base station. This is called paging.

The details of the process of paging vary somewhat from network to network, but normally we
know a limited number of cells where the phone is located (this group of cells is called a
Location Area in the GSM or UMTS system, or Routing Area if a data packet session is
involved). Paging takes place by sending the broadcast message to all of those cells. Paging
messages can be used for information transfer. This happens in pagers, in CDMA systems for
sending SMS messages, and in the UMTS system where it allows for low downlink latency in
packet-based connections.

Movement from cell to cell and handover

In a cellular system, as the distributed mobile transceivers move from cell to cell during an
ongoing continuous communication, switching from one cell frequency to a different cell
frequency is done electronically without interruption and without a base station operator or
manual switching. This is called the handover or handoff. Typically, a new channel is
automatically selected for the mobile unit on the new base station which will serve it. The mobile
unit then automatically switches from the current channel to the new channel and communication
continues.
Aim : Study of Mobile-IP Structure & Implementation.

Theory :

The Mobile IP protocol allows location-independent routing of IP datagrams on the Internet.

Each mobile node is identified by its home address disregarding its current location in the
Internet. While away from its home network, a mobile node is associated with a care-of address
which identifies its current location and its home address is associated with the local endpoint of
a tunnel to its home agent. Mobile IP specifies how a mobile node registers with its home agent
and how the home agent routes datagrams to the mobile node through the tunnel.

Mobile IP provides an efficient, scalable mechanism for roaming within the Internet. Using
Mobile IP, nodes may change their point-of-attachment to the Internet without changing their
home IP address. This allows them to maintain transport and higher-layer connections while
roaming. Node mobility is realized without the need to propagate host-specific routes throughout
the Internet routing fabric. Mobile IP is a protocol/technology which provides IP mobility to
future devices.

Mobile IP (or IP mobility) is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard

communications protocol that is designed to allow mobile device users to move from one
network to another while maintaining a permanent IP address.

Important terms
 Home network
The home network of a mobile device is the network within which the device receives its
identifying IP address (home address).
 Home address
The home address of a mobile device is the IP address assigned to the device within its
home network.
 Foreign network
A foreign network is the network in which a mobile node is operating when away from
its home network.
 Care-of address
The care-of address of a mobile device is the network-native IP address of the device
when operating in a foreign network.
 Home agent
A home agent is a router on a mobile node’s home network which tunnels datagrams for
delivery to the mobile node when it is away from home. It maintains current location (IP
address) information for the mobile node. It is used with one or more foreign agents.
 Foreign agent
A foreign agent is a router that stores information about mobile nodes visiting its
network. Foreign agents also advertise care-of-addresses which are used by Mobile IP.
  Binding
A binding is the association of the home address with a care-of address.

Structure

A mobile node can have two addresses - a permanent home address and a care-of address (CoA),
which is associated with the network the mobile node is visiting. Two kinds of entities comprise
a Mobile IP implementation:

 A home agent stores information about mobile nodes whose permanent home address is
in the home agent's network.
 A foreign agent stores information about mobile nodes visiting its network. Foreign
agents also advertise care-of addresses, which are used by Mobile IP.

A node wanting to communicate with the mobile node uses the permanent home address of the
mobile node as the destination address to send packets to. Because the home address logically
belongs to the network associated with the home agent, normal IP routing mechanisms forward
these packets to the home agent. Instead of forwarding these packets to a destination that is
physically in the same network as the home agent, the home agent redirects these packets
towards the foreign agent through an IP tunnel by encapsulating the datagram with a new IP
header using the care of address of the mobile node.

When acting as transmitter, a mobile node sends packets directly to the other communicating
node through the foreign agent, without sending the packets through the home agent, using its
permanent home address as the source address for the IP packets. This is known as triangular
routing. If needed, the foreign agent could employ reverse tunneling by tunneling the mobile
node's packets to the home agent, which in turn forwards them to the communicating node. This
is needed in networks whose gateway routers have ingress filtering enabled and hence the source
IP address of the mobile host would need to belong to the subnet of the foreign network or else
the packets will be discarded by the router.

The Mobile IP protocol defines the following:

 an authenticated registration procedure by which a mobile node informs its home agent(s)
of its care-of-address(es);
 an extension to ICMP Router Discovery, which allows mobile nodes to discover
prospective home agents and foreign agents; and
 the rules for routing packets to and from mobile nodes, including the specification of one
mandatory tunneling mechanism and several optional tunneling mechanisms.

A performance evaluation of Mobile IPv6 can be found in [1]. Additionally, a performance

comparison between Mobile IPv6 and some of its proposed enhancements (Hierarchical Mobile
IPv6, Fast Handovers for Mobile IPv6 and their Combination) is available at [2].
Implementation

Mobile IP is most often found in wired and wireless environments where users need to carry
their mobile devices across multiple LAN subnets. Examples of use are in roaming between
overlapping wireless systems, e.g., IP over DVB, WLAN, WiMAX and BWA. Currently, Mobile
IP is not required within cellular systems such as 3G, to provide transparency when Internet
users migrate between cellular towers, since these systems provide their own data link layer
handover and roaming mechanisms. However, it is often used in 3G systems to allow seamless
IP mobility between different packet data serving node (PDSN) domains.

In many applications (e.g., VPN, VoIP), sudden changes in network connectivity and IP address
can cause problems. mobile ip protocol was designed to support seamless & continuous Internet
connectivity.

Enhancements to the Mobile IP technique, such as Mobile IPv6 and Hierarchical Mobile IPv6
(HMIPv6), are being developed to improve mobile communications in certain circumstances by
making the processes more secure and more efficient.

Researchers create support for mobile networking without requiring any pre-deployed
infrastructure as it currently is required by MIP. One such example is Interactive Protocol for
Mobile Networking (IPMN) which promises supporting mobility on a regular IP network just
from the network edges by intelligent signalling between IP at end-points and application layer
module with improved quality of service.

Researchers are also working to create support for mobile networking between entire subnets
with support from Mobile IPv6. One such example is Network Mobility (NEMO) Network
Mobility Basic Support Protocol by the IETF Network Mobility Working Group which supports
mobility for entire Mobile Networks that move and to attach to different points in the Internet.
The protocol is an extension of Mobile IPv6 and allows session continuity for every node in the
Mobile Network as the network moves.
Aim : Study Bluetooth Architecture and its Types.

Theory :
Bluetooth:

• Bluetooth is a short-range wireless network originally intended to replace the cable(s)

connecting portable and/or fixed electronic devices. Such a network is also sometimes
called a PAN (Personal Area Network)
• Bluetooth is supposed to got its name from Harald “Bluetooth” II, King of Denmark
940-981
• The concept was first patented by Ericsson. Currently the Bluetooth trade mark is owned
by the Bluetooth SIG, a consortium of companies having stake in Bluetooth
• Key features are robustness, low power, and low cost.

Bluetooth Architecture:

 Operates on the 2.4 GHZ ISM Band

 Uses Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying Modulation scheme
 Data is transmitted in packets during time slots which are of fixed duration
 Uses Quick Frequency Hoping Packet Switched Protocol to achieve noise immunity
 Connections can be made up to 10 meters or extended up to 100 meters
 Maximum speed supported in Version 1 is 1 Mbps
 Each Transceiver has a unique 48 Bit Address
 Full Duplex communication is supported through Time Division Duplex (TDD)

The Bluetooth stack has the following components:

_ RF portion for reception and transmission

_ Baseband portion with microcontroller
_ Link control unit
_ Link manager to support lower-layer protocols
_ Interface to the host device
_ Host processor to support upper-layer protocols
_ L2CAP to support upper-layer protocols
The radio frequency (RF) portion provides the digital signal processing component of the
system, and the baseband processes these signals. The link controller handles all the baseband
functions and supports the link manager. It sends and receives data, identifies the sending device,
performs authentication, and determines the type of frame to use for sending transmissions. The
link controller also directs how devices listen for transmissions from other devices and can move
devices into power-saving modes.

The link manager, located on top of the link controller, controls setup, authentication, link
configuration, and other low-level protocols. Together, the baseband and the link manager
establish connections for the network.

The host controller interface (HCI) communicates the lower-layer protocols to the host device
(mobile computer or mobile phone, for example). The host contains a processor, the L2CAP,
which supports the upper-layer protocols and communicates between upper and lower layers.
The upper-layer protocols consist of service-specific applications that must be integrated into the
host application.

Another element in the Bluetooth stack that relates to radio communications is the RFCOMM
protocol, which allows for the emulation of serial ports over the L2CAP.

The Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) provides the means for Bluetooth applications to discover
the services and the characteristics of the available services that are unique to Bluetooth.

The Bluetooth device manager provides for device inquiry and connection management services.
Bluetooth defines two types of networks: piconet and scatternet.

Piconets

A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net. A piconet can have up to eight
stations, one of which is called the primary;† the rest are called secondaries. All the
secondary stations synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with the primary.
Note that a piconet can have only one primary station. The communication between the
primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Figure 14.19 shows a
piconet.

Although a piconet can have a maximum of seven secondaries, an additional eight

secondaries can be in the parked state. A secondary in a parked state is synchronized
with the primary, but cannot take part in communication until it is moved from the
parked state. Because only eight stations can be active in a piconet, activating a station
from the parked state means that an active station must go to the parked state.

Scatternet

Piconets can be combined to form what is called a scatternet. A secondary station in

one piconet can be the primary in another piconet. This station can receive messages
from the primary in the first piconet (as a secondary) and, acting as a primary, deliver
them to secondaries in the second piconet. A station can be a member of two piconets.
Figure 14.20 illustrates a scatternet.
Aim : Study Wireless Protocols & their Implementation.

Theory :

Wireless Protocols

A protocol is a set of rules or agreed upon guidelines for communication. When communicating
it is important to agree on how to do so. If one party speaks French and one German the
communications will most likely fail. If they both agree on a single language communications
will work.

There are a variety of protocols currently in use for wireless networking:

IEEE 802.11 The original 2.4 GHz wireless LAN protocol, but also includes infrared
communication too. Data rates available are 1 and 2 Mbps. The protocol uses the 2.4 to 2.5 GHz
ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) band.

IEEE 802.11a The standard specifies WLAN in the 5 GHz UNII (Unlicensed National
Information Infrastructure) and supports maximum a data rate of 54 Mbps and uses OFDM
(orthogonal frequency division modulation). The protocol also supports data rates of 6, 9, 12, 18,
24, 36, and 48 Mbps.

IEEE 802.11b This standard uses DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) and uses the 2.4 GHz
ISM band and provides for maximum data rate of 11 Mbps and with fall-back to 5.5 Mbps. The
standard is also backward compatible to IEEE 802.11 standard operating at 1 or 2 Mbps.

IEEE 802.11g The standard uses the same 2.4 GHz frequency band as 802.11b. OFDM
(Orthogonal Frequency Division Modulation) is used with a maximum data rate of 54 Mbps with
lower rates of 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, and 48 Mbps. The standard is backward compatible with
802.11b.

IEEE 802.11af The standard is more correctly known as 802.3af and defines PoE or power over
ethernet. This feature is very useful for the powering of VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)
phones and WLAN access points with the same cable that is used for the ethernet connection.

IEEE 802.11e The standard will define the standard for QoS or Quality of Service. QoS is
important for VoIP (Voice over Internet protocol) and video data streams and the standard will
give priority to this data. Standard approval is expected by September 2005.
IEEE 802.11h The standard defines the use of DFS (dynamic frequency selection) in the 802.11a
5 GHz WLAN band. DFS detects possible interference from other devices in the area using the
same frequency and switches to another frequency channel in order to avoid interference.

IEEE 802.11i This standard is the new WLAN security standard approved June 2004. The
standard uses WPA2 (WI-Fi Protected Access) that corrects the problems associated with WEP
(Wired Equivalent Privacy).

IEEE 802.11k This the proposed standard that will allow more efficient use of WLAN access
points with dynamic control of channel frequency and or power level. Approval is expected by
June 2006

IEEE 802.11n This standard is only in the approval process at this time. This proposed standard
uses MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) and should allow data rates up to 200 Mbps.

IEEE 802.11r The standard will allow for fast roaming, particularly for mobile and wireless VoIP
(Voice over Internet Protocol) phones.

IEEE 802.1X This standard defines port access control and is used for both the wired network and
WLAN. The standard is typically used with a RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial-In User
Service) application.

IEEE 802.15.4 This is the wireless standard describing a wireless personal area network or
WPAN. IEEE 802.15.4 defines the PHY (physical or frequency definition) and MAC (media
access control) layer.

IEEE 802.16e This is the new wireless standard that is designed to provide the last mile or
backhaul connection to the client. Most use will probably be in the rural areas where DSL or
cable modem connections are not available. Frequency range will be between 10 and 60 GHz for
line-of-sight configurations and below 11 GHz for non line-of-sight.