Protection

A T Johns PhD, DSc, CEng, FLEE, SMIEEE, FRSA

University of Bath

Contents
35.1 Overcurrent and earth leakage protection 35/3
35.1.1 Fault conditions 35/3
35.1.2 Protective equipment 35/4
35.1.3 Relays 35/6
35.1.4 Solid-state equipment 35/7
35.1.5 Overcurrent protection 35/7
35.1.6 Fuses 35/9
35.1.7 Earth leakage protection 35/10
35.1.8 Balanced (differential) protection 35/11
35.1.9 Miscellaneous equipment 35/14
35.1.10 Efficacy of protection scheme 35/15
35.1.11 Digital protection 35/15
35.1.12 Artificial intelligence for protection 35/18

35.2 Application of protective systems 35/20

35.2.1 Plant 35/21
35.2.2 Feeders 35/23
35.2.3 Motors and rectifiers 35/24
35.3 Testing and commissioning 35/25
35.3.1 Commissioning tests 35/25
35.3.2 Primary current tests 35/26
35.3.3 Secondary injection tests 35/26
35.3.4 Fault location 35/26
35.4 Overvoltage protection 35/27
35.4.1 Insulation co-ordination 35/27
35.4.2 Protective equipment 35/28
 Overcurrent and earth leakage protection 35/3

35.1 Overcurrent and earth leakage A

protection
" ~
ZA
--.- _
ZA'
The main effects of fault current in a power system are:
(1) disturbance of the connected load; B
2. I ,
(2) overheating at the fault point and in associated plant; Zc - Z ~ - O
(3) electromagnetic forces of abnormal magnitude, with c
consequent mechanical damage; and z~-zE'- o
(4) loss of synchronous stability.
The function of the protective equipment is to isolate the C B
faulty plant from the running system by initiating tripping
signals for appropriate circuit-breakers. It should therefore Figure 35.2 Phase-to-phasefault
discriminate between faulty plant and sound plant carrying
through-fault current. The whole process must be effected relevant phasor diagram. At the fault the voltages to neutral
with the minimum of delay and disturbance. are zero; and if AN, BN, CN are the phase-to-neutral pre-
Exceptionally, some faults may be allowed to persist: an fault voltages, the voltages at some distance from the fault
example is an earth fault on a system earthed through an (e.g. at a relay controlling a circuit-breaker) are A'N, B'N,
arc suppression (Petersen) coil, or one having an isolated C'N. With a symmetrical short-circuit the conditions are
neutral, where the fault may be located and alternative independent of the system earthing arrangements.
feeds provided before the fault is isolated.
Faults are due to insulation breakdown by deterioration,
overvoltage, mechanical damage or short-circuit effects;
35.1.1.2 Phase-to-phase fault
they may be simple or complicated, and involve conductor
breakage or short-circuited turns on transformers or gen- Two phases are faulted clear of earth, an unusual kind of
erators. fault even less likely on cables than on overhead lines.
The incidence of faults on cables and lines depends on Figure 35.2 shows AN, BN and CN as the normal voltages
the installation and the climatic conditions. For a typical at the site of the fault. On occurrence of the fault, the volt-
system in a temperate zone the distribution of faults as per- ages there are XN, XN and CN, and the voltages at some
centages of the total is approximately: overhead lines, 60; specified distance are A'N, B'N and C'N, with the locus of
cables, 15; transformers, 12; switchgear, 13. The causes of A' and B' on the line AB. The voltage to earth of the sound
overhead-line faults, and the number of faults per 100 km of phase is not affected. The conditions are independent of the
line per year, are, typically: lightning, 1.0; gales, 0.15; system earthing, but the fault current will be reflected into
fog and frost, 0.1; snow and ice, 0.06; salt spray, 0.06. the further sides of associated transformers in accordance
The total is 1.37 faults per 100km per year: in tropical with their connections.
countries lightning faults may be markedly more numerous.
In general, the higher the voltage the lower the number
of lightning faults. 35.1.1.3 Single phase-to-earth fault
This type of fault is considered for a system with the
35.1.1 Fault conditions generator or transformer having its neutral earthed (a) solidly,
(b) through a reactor, (c) through a resistor.
Below are given circuit and phasor diagrams relevant to the
behaviour of protective equipment under the simpler fault
Neutral solidly earthed The voltages to earth at the point
conditions.
of fault with phase A earthed are zero, B'E and C'E, as in
Figure 35.3, and at some distance away the voltages are
35.1.1.1 Three-phase fault A'E', B'E' and C'E'. The locus of A' of the line AN,
and the voltages to earth of the sound phases are slightly
A three-phase fault usually develops first as a phase-earth changed to B'E and C'E by reason of the currents in these
fault, and it may be unbalanced. Even when a circuit- phases between the two infeeds. With the system earthed at
breaker closes on to a three-phase fault, one phase may one point only (apart from the fault), the total earth fault
momentarily be faulted before the other two, a matter of current divides between the two infeeds. If there are two
importance in high speed protection. Figure 35.1 shows the (or more) system earth points and the infeeds are IA and I~,

A
g zA

E:___z~- : E' - 0 ,
z= z~'
C B

Figure 35.1 Three-phasefault Figure 35.3 Singlephase-to-phaseearth fault (solid earthing)

35/4 Protection
there may be currents in the sound phases of direction
3 " 0 ~ 0 r ]
decided by the preponderance of zero-over positive- and
negative-sequence impedance of one infeed compared with
the other. In this case the residual or earth current on each
'~ //
side wil be IA + IB + IC= IE; the residual voltage will be
0 + B ' E + C ' E at the fault, and A ' E ' + BtE ' + C r E ' some ,~" I ~'/ Residual.voltage for .. /
distance away.
o 2.0
Earthed through reactor With a low-valued phasor (small
compared with an arc suppression coil), the earth point 15
potential on the occurrence of a fault will be E (Figure
1.5
35.4(a)), and the drop in the reactor will be E'N. The fault
position voltages are zero; voltages to earth of the sound
phases are increased. If the reactor is an arc suppression
coil, point E is raised to A, the sound phase voltages to ~1.01 ~ Residuolvoltage for
earth become ~/3 times normal, and the residual voltage at
the fault will be 3 times the normal phase-to-neutral value.
o

Earthed through resistor The conditions (Figure 35.4(b))

are essentially similar to those for reactor earthing except
that there is unbalance in the voltages to earth of the
sound phases. The volt drop across the resistor is E"N.
0 1 2 3 4 5

35.1.1.4 Double phase-to-earth fault

With solid earthing at one point only, the voltages to earth at Figure 35.6 Variationof residualquantitiesat fault point
a double phase-to-earth fault will, as shown in Figure 35.5,
be zero, zero and C'E, and at some distance away will be
A'E', B'E' and C'E'. The voltage to earth of the sound phase point isolated it becomes 180 ~. The residual current
may be increased at the point of fault. The angle c~ between (i.e. the earth current) is the vector sum of the currents in
the phase currents IA and IB (or IA and I~) may be less than the faulted phases and that (if any) in the sound phase.
60 ~, depending on the ratio of balanced to zero-sequence The residual voltage at the point of fault is the normal
impedance; the angle varies considerably, according to the phase-to-neutral voltage, and it decreases with distance
earthing arrangements, and in the limit with the neutral from the fault position.
With the system neutral earthed through a low-valued
reactor, the drop across the latter is NE' and the voltage to
A A
A'
earth of the sound phase is CE, increasing to a possible
maximum of 1.5 times normal value if the reactor is an arc
suppression coil.
With system earthing through a resistor, the point E in
Figure 35.5 is no longer on the line CX.
The system Zo/Z1 ratio is defined as the ratio of zero
sequence and positive sequence impedances viewed from
the fault. It is a variable ratio dependent on the method of
earthing, fault position and system operating arrangement.
When assessing the distribution of residual quantities
c,c' O,B' c.c' 8,0' through a system, it is convenient to use the fault point as
(o) (b) the reference, as it is the point of injection of unbalanced
quantities into the system. The residual voltage is measured
Figure 35.4 Singlephase-to-earthfault: (a) throughreactor; in relation to the normal phase-neutral system voltage, and
(b) through resistor the residual current is compared with the three-phase fault
current at the fault point. It can be shown that the character
A
of these quantities can be expressed in terms of the ratio
ZA &' Zo/Z1 of the system; see Figure 35.6. The residual current
in any part of the system can be obtained by multiplying
T the current from the curve by the appropriate zero sequence
distribution factor. Similarly, the residual voltage is calcu-
lated by subtracting from the voltage curve three times the

_ it zero sequence drop between the measuring point in the sys-

tem and the fault.

35.1.2 Protective equipment

C,r The satisfactory operation of protective equipment (which
rZ I extends from simple domestic subcircuit fuses to sophisti-
cated electronic system devices) depends largely on co-ordi-
Figure 35.5 Doublephase-to-earthfault nation. The influencing factors include the network layout
 Overcurrent and earth leakage protection 35/5

and characteristics, fault megavolt-ampere levels, earthing, It is possible to obtain high-speed feeder protective
the availability of pilot cables and the physical extent of the schemes using voice frequencies of 600-3000 Hz, which are
system. Generally, the higher the voltage and fault levels the suitable for pilot-wire channels, or pilot-line carrier or radio
more necessary is quick-acting discriminative protection channels.
covering lines and plant. The overall fault clearance time is made up of the signal-
Protective equipment may be broadly classified into: ling time, and the operating times of the protection relay, trip
(a) restricted zone, giving full discrimination; (b) semi- relay and circuit-breaker opening. This total time must be
restricted zone; and (c) unrestricted zone, with no discrimi- less than the maximum for which the fault can remain on
nation. Type (a) can be considered as applying to a network the system for minimum plant damage, loss of stability, etc.
of such magnitude that the disconnection of each item of In recent years practical minimum times have been achieved
plant is necessary if an internal fault develops. Types in reducing protection times from 60 to 20ms, trip relay
(b) and (c) apply to less important installations and also as times from 10 to 3 ms, circuit-breaker times from 60 to
'back-up' in restricted-zone schemes. 40ms, leaving protection signalling times to be reduced
from 70-180 ms down to 15-40 ms in the UK, and to 5 ms
in certain parts of the world where system stability is critical.
35.1.2.1 Modes of operation Protection current transformers may have to maintain
accuracy up to 30 per unit overcurrent, although often the
An alternative classification based on the operating mode is
error is less important than that c.t. characteristics should
as follows.
match.
Overcurrent equipment operates if the current exceeds a
pre-set value. Restrictions regarding the direction of the Current transformers The errors are due to the exciting
overcurrent are often included to improve discrimination. current, and they vary with the phase angle of the secondary
Balanced (differential) equipment operates if an out-of- burden. An increased burden demands a corresponding
balance occurs between currents or voltages which under increase in core flux, and as the exciting current is a non-
normal conditions are balanced. linear function of the flux, it is subject to a more than pro-
Distance (impedance) equipment operates if the imped- portional rise accompanied by a greater harmonic content,
ance (proportional to distance), as viewed at a circuit- so that the composite error is increased.
breaker supplying a feeder, falls below a specified value. Protective equipment is intended to respond to fault con-
Miscellaneous equipment is designed for special purposes. ditions, and is for this reason required to function at current
values above the normal current rating. Current transfor-
mers for this application must retain a reasonable accuracy
35.1.2.2 Equipment elements up to the largest relevant current, known as the 'accuracy
The chief items of plant making up a complete protective limit current', expressed in primary or equivalent secondary
installation are as follows. terms. The ratio between the accuracy limit current and the
normal rated current is known as the 'accuracy limit factor'.
Standard values are 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30. Protective c.t.
Current and voltage transformers These provide convenient ratings are expressed in terms of rated burden, class and
levels of current or voltage proportional to the system values. accuracy limit factor (e.g. 10 V-A class 10P 10). Classes 5P
Rated secondary values are normally 1 or 5 A (current trans- and 10P are useful only for overcurrent protection; for earth
former (c.t.)), and 110 V (voltage transformer (v.t.)). fault protection, in particular, it is better to refer directly to
the maximum useful e.m.f, which can be obtained from
Relays These, operating from c.t. and v.t. detect the the c.t. In this context the 'knee point' of the excitation
presence of faults and energise the trip circuits of the appro- curve is defined as that point at which a further increase of
priate circuit-breakers. Electronic (solid state) devices are now 10% secondary e.m.f, would require an increment of excit-
generally available as alternatives to the electromagnetic ing current of 50%. Such current transformers are desig-
types, and give improved performance. nated class X.
Current transformers may have primaries wound or of
Pilot circuits These carry signals between points in the bar ('single-turn') form for mounting on bushings. For
system for comparison, for feeder protection and other high-voltage systems the c.t.s may be separately mounted
purposes. The circuits may be provided in a variety of ways: with oil or SF6 insulation.
(1) conductors specially installed for the purpose;
Voltage transformers The main requirement in protection
(2) rented telecommunication lines; the current and voltage
is that the secondary voltage should be a true reflection of
limitations are 60mA and 130 V peak, and the pilots
the primary voltage under all conditions of fault. It is usual
must be insulated from all power system equipment for
with electromagnetic v.t.s to apply additional delta-
15kV;
connected windings (Figure 35.7) to give a measure of the
(3) power transmission lines, using carrier signals at fre-
residual voltage at the point of connection. The three voltages
quencies between 70 and 700 kHz;
of a balanced system summate to zero, but this is not so
(4) radio links using microwave transmission between line-
when the system is subject to a single-phase earth fault.
of-sight terminals; and
The residual voltage in this case is of great value for protec-
(5) optical links, usually embedded in the earth wire.
tive gear practice as a means of detecting or discriminating
The choice requires very careful consideration, particularly between earth fault conditions. The residual voltage of a
for long distances. Even apparently simple conductors, for system is measured by connecting the primary windings of
which the resistance and capacitance between ends can be a three-phase v.t. between the three phases and earth, and
measured, often act as a transmission line operating in connecting the secondary windings in series or 'open delta'.
conjunction with relay equipment. The performance of the The residual voltage is three times the zero sequence volt-
pilot circuit may be complex, and in operation is made even age. To measure this component it is necessary for a zero
more so by inductive interference effects. sequence flux to be set up in the v.t., and for this to be
3,5/6 Protection

35.1.3.2 Double-input relays

i C In the amplitude comparator one input, I~, tends to operate
!- the relay, while the other,/2, tends to restrain it. Operation
takes place when I~/I2 is less than the specified value. When
drawn on a complex plane R-X, the characteristic is a circle
(Figure 35.8(a)). Operation is independent of the phase
angle between the currents and occurs within the shaded
area.

! i i In the phase comparator operation takes place when the

phase angle between the currents lies within specified limits
(Figure 35.8(b)).
"~oRESIDUALVOLTAGE . . . . . o

Figure 35.7 Voltage transformers with residual-voltage windings 35.1.3.3 Multiple-input relays
By using more than two inputs, various forms of operat-
ing zone can be obtained, as required for distance feeder
protection.
possible there must be a return path for the resultant
summated flux: the v.t. core must have unwound limbs
linking the yokes (Figure 35.7). If three single-phase units are 35.1.3.4 Types of relay
used (as is common for e.h.v, systems), each phase unit has a
core with a closed magnetic circuit, so that the above con- Attracted armature This single-input relay comprises a
sideration does not arise. small coil carrying the signal current: it attracts a magnetic
An alternative, avoiding the cost of a HV voltage trans- armature with one or more pairs of contacts which control
former, is to use the secondary voltages from a.v.t, on the the secondary circuits, and is suitable for both d.c. and a.c.
LV side of a power transformer, the voltage drops in which operation. The setting may be based on minimum pick-up or
are compensated by the addition or subtraction of voltages maximum drop-out current, with ranges usually selected by
developed by c.t.s in the delta of the power transformer. tappings to secure a constant value of operating m.m.f.
The v.t.s and c.t.s must be provided with tappings if the Tapping changes the impedance and, therefore, the burden
power transformer is equipped with tap-changing gear, and on associated c.t.s. The speed of operation is a function of
arranged for automatic selection with the main tappings. the m.m.f., the length of armature travel and the inertia of
For high-voltage systems the capacitor voltage divider the moving parts. The latter may be partly offset by counter-
gives a cheaper (but less accurate) device than its electro- weighting. When the relay coil is intermittently energised,
magnetic counterpart. A typical divider for 400 kV has a it may be uprated to increase the operating speed: a set of
total capacitance of 1500-2000pF, with about 34000pF contacts may be provided which, when energised by the
between the tapping point and earth, to give about 13.5 kV operation of the initiating relay contact, gives a holding effect.
across the primary of the intermediate transformer, the sec- The current in the coils of tripping relays is then usually broken
ondary of which gives 63.5 V (phase to neutral). by an auxiliary switch on the circuit-breaker. Magnetic sticking
of the armature in attracted-armature relays is prevented by
stops of non-magnetic inserts on the working face.
35.1.3 Relays
Relays may be classified according to the number of current Rotary This is a rotary version of the foregoing. The
inputs and their operating function. Types and construc- armature is usually mounted on a vertical spindle, the rotat-
tional forms are available as follows: ing parts are light and well-balanced, and the relay is sensi-
tive at a relatively low burden. Adjustment and accurate
(1) attracted armature (7) magnetic amplifier setting is by torsion head and helical spring control. In
(2) moving coil (8) thermionic some types the armature carries a light silver contact, the
(3) induction (9) semiconductor coil operated contacts being energised when the silver con-
(4) thermal (10) photoelectric tacts close. The relay can be made to operate with a few
(5) motor-operated (11) digital milliamperes, and both linear and rotary forms of the
(6) mechanical attracted-armature relay can be arranged for double-input
Of these main group types, (7)-(11) are commonly known working.
as 'static' relays.
Induction The time-dependent induction protective relay is
probably the most widely used of all. It employs essentially
35.1.3.1 Single-input relays
In the simple repeater type a small signal can be multiplied
by 103 or more to operate one or more secondary devices,
e.g. the trip coil of a circuit-breaker. Operation is rapid
(within 20 ms), although a time delay can be incorporated. The
magnitude indicator type operates instantaneously (or after [ ~'it , %,;,'/,
a fixed time delay) when the magnitude of the signal exceeds
or falls below a specified value. In the time-dependent relay
(a) (b)
the operating time depends on the magnitude of the signal;
the most usual characteristic gives an operating time Figure 35.8 Comparator relay characteristics: (a) amplitude;
inversely proportional to the magnitude. (b) phase
 Overcurrent and earth leakage protection 35/7

More usually, however, induction relays are used because

c.,. I TRIP,_, l /'
of the long periods of inactivity in service.
o F
35.1.4 Solid-state equipment
Thermionic valve equipment has been in use for a half-
century in carrier current protective signalling. The advent

rrrr .....
(a)
(b)
of solid-state devices (transistors and thyristors) has made
possible alternatives to electromagnetic relays.
The exploitation of integrated circuits and microproces-
sors has made a major impact on protection in recent years.
Figure 35.9 (a) Induction and (b) beam relays Solid-state equipment differs markedly from conventional
electromagnetic equipment in several ways, particularly in
the reduction in overall size.
The flexibility and characteristics enable schemes to be
the same construction as an integrating a.c. energy meter. devised that are difficult to achieve conventionally, such as
For a single-input relay (Figure 35.9(a)) torque is produced the distance relay with a quadrilateral characteristic (Figure
by a phase difference between the flux of the main coil on 35.15(f)). For most applications the transistor has the
the central limb of the upper magnet and that in the lower advantage of high speed, high sensitivity and simple ampli-
(secondary) magnet, an effect secured by impedance com- fying and switching properties. Where heavier currents are
pensation in the secondary. The torque is proportional to necessary, e.g. in a tripping circuit, the thyristor is required.
the square of the exciting current and is unidirectional. The Solid-state devices can, if desired, readily be associated with
speed of the disc may be governed by a control spring and a electromagnetic relays if the time delays (10-20ms) asso-
permanent-magnet brake. Slots are cut in the disc to modify ciated with the latter can be accepted; however, the lighter
the operating time-current characteristic, and the shape of and faster (1-2 ms) reed relay is applicable in many cases.
this curve at higher currents can be made almost flat if the Components are subject to damage by moisture, but
magnetic circuit is arranged to saturate at two or three times encapsulation can obviate the trouble.
the setting. Static components have some resilience and very low
The driving disc usually has a vertical spindle, but one mass; they can withstand mechanical shock and vibration,
make of relay has a horizontal drum driven about its axis, significantly reducing risk of damage during transport and
the time--current characteristic being similar to that of the erection.
disc type. All components, are sensitive to transient voltages, even of
The single-input relay is widely used for overcurrent only a few microseconds duration. Such transients arise
protection. By feeding a separate signal to the secondary from switching, and can be injected into the protective equip-
coil the relay becomes a double-input device with a torque ment directly through current and voltage transformers, or
proportional to Ili2 sin c~, where c~ is the phase angle by electric or magnetic field induction. Equipment must be
between the currents. In this form it can be given directional impulse tested, e.g. by a 5kV 1/50~ts impulse wave.
properties, and is also applicable to certain forms of dis- The burden imposed by static relay equipment on c.t.s is
tance protection. much less than that of comparable electromagnetic equip-
ment. As the cost of instrument transformers is 20-40% of
Directional Directional relays operate in a manner similar that of the complete protective scheme, smaller and
to that of an electrodynamic wattmeter or, more commonly, improved types are being developed which may offset the
an induction energy meter. In the latter the torque on the higher cost of the static relay itself.
disc is proportional to VI cos/3, where 13 is the phase angle Even with conventional equipment, the use of 1 A sec-
between the voltage and current inputs. ondary currents (instead of 5 A) is sometimes desirable,
The maximum-torque angle is the angle by which the cur- especially where long interconnecting leads are necessary.
rent applied to the relay must be displaced from the applied With static equipment even smaller currents can be used.
voltage to produce maximum torque. Although the relay The ultimate in this respect is a very small line mounted
may be inherently wattmetric, its characteristic can be var- high-voltage current transformer feeding a laser system;
ied by the addition of phase shifting components to give the electromagnetic power (about 2 W) is converted to light
maximum torque at the required phase angle. Several dif- power and transmitted to earth potential equipment by
ferent connections have been used, and examination of light-guides, the resulting power (a few microwatts) then
the suitability of each involves determining the limiting con- being amplified and fed to static relay equipment.
ditions of the voltage and current applied to each phase The range of solid-state relays now available covers many
element of the relay for all fault conditions, taking into applications hitherto dealt with by electromechanical
account the possible range of source and line impedances. devices. The static equivalent generally offers greater flex-
ibility in the design to meet given protection functions.
Typical characteristics are shown in Figure 35.10 for static
Beam A balanced beam with two electromagnets can be protection, which needs no auxiliary supply and provides a
used as a simple double-input device and has been widely high reliability and accuracy.
applied to distance protection (Figure 35.9(b)). It can also
serve as a directional relay.
35.1.5 Overcurrent protection
Definite time Devices employing a clockwork escapement The most common overcurrent relay is the induction type,
released by the operation of an attracted-armature relay, or typical characteristics of which are given in Figure 35.11.
an excapement driven by a disc or drum, are available. The standard characteristic follows no simple law, but the
35/8 Protection

relay 1 (near to fault), 0.1 s; circuit-breaker operating time,

Inverse time current pickup point 0.1 s; over-shoot of relay 2 (nearer to supply), 0.04 s; error
of relay 2, 0.1 s; total, 0.34 s. The greater low-current times
e tripping time of the extremely inverse time characteristic may be suitable
for grading with fuses, and also are less likely to cause trip-
ping on switching-in after a supply interruption, when there
may be heavy overloads resulting from plant left connected.
E/F ~ Independent time
current current pickup point
Graded time lags and directional relays If the overcurrent
fickup point relays embody a directional feature (DOC), discrimination
on more complicated networks can be obtained. Figure
35.12(a) shows a ring main: the arrows indicate the current
IE/F tripping Independent tripping direction for which the relays will operate, and the figures
time time show typical time settings. The directional feature ensures
that time grading can be obtained in each direction around
the ring.
Current For the two parallel transformers in Figure 35.12(b) direc-
tional overcurrent relays are employed at the transformer
Figure 35.10 Static protection unit characteristics ends on the LV side to detect phase faults on the line.
Thus, a fault at F would be cleared by relays at C, while
those at D would restrain. For a fault on the LV system
50- both relays at C and D would restrain.
A more complicated network is shown in Figure 35.13.
Suppose that the interconnector and feeder 6 are open and
20 that there is a fault F on feeder 5. Fault current will then
flow from the supply infeed direction into feeder 5 through
10 2. Now if feeder 2 is provided at each end with current

w
,, ~,,
O ~ ...__ DEFINITE-TIME
__. 3 oo~oz ooc;.o
I1:
w
2-
INVERSE TIME SUPPLY
OC 1.4 D(X; 0.6
t B
(ST.NO.~RO) INFEED

1"0- - DOG 0 ' 2 DOC 1'0

1
..,1..1---

0-3 L L
2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100
CURRENT, MULTIPLE OF PLUG-SETTING CURRENT
..\ c
SUPPLY OC AND EF
Figure 35.11 Overcurrent relay characteristics INFEED ~/TECT~N

I r, ~,_~-~ o
very-inverse-time characteristic is ( I - 1 ) t = k , and the
extremely-inverse-time law is ( i 2 _ 1)t = k.
The relay has two adjustable settings. The plug setting
(current setting) comprises a tapped winding for the current Figure 35.12 Directional overcurrent protection
coil, the tappings being brought out to a plug bridge on
which, by insertion of the plug, current settings of 50, 75,
100, 125, 150, 175 and 200% of the full-load output of SUPPLY
the current transformer (5 A) can be obtained; removal of INFEED
A i ,ill
the plug automatically short circuits the current trans-
former terminals. A time setting is achieved by varying the
amount of travel of the contacts, giving time multipliers
between 1.0 and 0.1. The times on Figure 35.11 are for a
time setting of 1.0 and the currents are multiples of the
plug setting current.
B C

35.1.5.1 Discrimination
F

Graded time lags On simple radial distribution systems,

discrimination by graded time lags is effective, the lags of D
the relays being set successively longer for relays nearer to INTERCONNECTOR
the supply source. The minimum time difference at all parts
of the relay characteristic may be estimated as: error of Figure 35.13 Network time-grading
 Overcurrent and earth leakage protection 35/9

operated relays having definite time delay, and if similar S-S.~ENr

=.tC~ONAL LOCK-our
S-ELEMENt
=~Cr,~AL
relays for feeder 5 are set lower than those for 2, then the ~LAY ~LAYS~ ~LAY
former will operate first and clear the fault, after which the
relays on 2 reset and leave the feeder still connected to
the system. It will be apparent that a fault on feeder 2 will
be cleared in a longer time than a fault on feeder 5.
Suppose now that feeder 6 is closed and that its relays are '' -: -I t_J
set the same as those of 5; then for fault F on 5 the relays on 9 '
~-~ ~ I
9
5 and 6 both operate to trip both feeders. This unwanted
result is avoided if the relays at the E end of 5 and 6 are set
to a shorter time than those at the C end and provided with a GC. O.C.
directional feature; then for fault F the first operation will be
the feeder 5 relays at E, and the second will be those at C,
which are set in time to discriminate with the relays for feeder 2.
Such a scheme is the simplest form of directional overcurrent
protection, and at each point the relays provided may be TRI, COILS'~ __L.._
1
(1) one overcurrent (o.c.) relay in each phase together with an TIME DELAY ~ ~ TIMEDELAY
O RELAY ~ ~, RELAY O
earth fault (e.f.) relay, or (2) two o.c. relays and one e.f. relay,
or (3) three o.c. relays only, where the system is solidly
earthed. In the case of earthing through a resistor, the o.c.
and e.f. relays would require different settings. Figure 35.14 Lockingsignal protection using pilot wires
Consider the effect of closing the interconnector with a
fault F on feeder 5. If the two radial systems are identical
in length, feeder size and relay time settings, then, although operating voltage range 415V to as high as 66 kV. The
fault current will divide between feeders 1 and 2, the first basic principle involves connecting a fuse directly in series
relays to operate will be those at E on feeder 5. However, with the protected equipment so that, when a given current
when this occurs the fault is fed through 2, 6 and the inter- is exceeded a metallic fuse 'element(s)' melts and thereby
connector; therefore the feeder 6 relays at E will operate breaks the circuit. In this way, fuses both detect and directly
first if their operating time plus that of the feeder 5 relays isolate faulted equipment from the network.
at E is less than the operating time of the feeder 5 relays at The term 'fuse' is used in national and international stan-
C. Furthermore, the interconnector cannot be proved with dards to describe a complete assembly. In its simplest form,
DOC relays satisfactorily for its own protection unless it is this consists of a piece of metal wire connected between two
regarded as a 'loose link', in which case they would have to terminals on a suitable support; and at its most complex as
be set for rapid tripping to cut off the second infeed to a a cartridge fuse-link mounted in a carrier and fuse base.
fault elsewhere on the system. If it is required that the inter- Modern cartridge fuse-links contain fusible elements
connector should not trip, it must be provided with mounted in rigid housings of insulating material. The hous-
balanced protection and the o.c. relays set high for back-up. ings are filled with suitable exothermal and arc-quenching
A disadvantage of time graded systems is that the relays powders, such as silica, and they are sealed by metal end-
on feeders nearest to the supply point must have the longest caps which carry the conducting tags or end connections.
operating times. As fault currents at such points are great- A typical fuse-link is shown in Figure 35.15. The metal
est, this is a drawback in the case of phase faults, though parts, other than the fusible elements, are invariably of cop-
less so for single phase-earth faults, where fault current may per, brass, steel or composites and they must be capable of
be limited by earthing resistors. operating under the exacting thermal, mechanical and elec-
trical conditions which may arise in service.
Locking signals To avoid the long time lags associated
with overcurrent equipment, a scheme involving transmis-
sion of locking signals from the remote end of a line may 35.1.6.1 Fuse technology
be employed. Consider Figure 35.14, in which only the lock-
A fuse must be able to carry normal load currents and even
ing signal pilot and relay contact circuits are shown: if the
transient overloads (and the thermal cycling which accom-
o.c. relays at, say, the left-hand end detect a fault current,
panies them) for a service life of at least 20 years, without
they will operate to close the trip-coil circuit of the circuit-
breaker at that end; if, however, the directional relay at the
right-hand end detects a fault current going out of the feeder Granulated
(indicating a fault on another section), it initiates a signal on
the pilot circuit which energises the lock-out relays and pre-
vents tripping at both ends. A failure of the pilot circuit will
cause the sending end to trip on a through fault but will not
interfere with operation on an internal fault.
Either private pilot wires, telecommunication pilots or
carrier current over the line itself may be used, the equip-
ment for the latter being similar to that for carrier current
phase comparison. • Fusible
elements

35.1.6 Fuses

The simplest overcurrent protection device is the fuse,

which is used in vast numbers throughout the circuit Figure 35.15 HRC fuse-link
35/10 Protection

any change of state that might affect its electrical perfor-

mance. This property of 'non-deterioration' requires that
the fusible element be both thermally and chemically com-
patible with the ambient media. It must also respond ther-
mally to overcurrents by melting and subsequently interrupting
its circuits.
The melting of an element is followed by a period of Short-circuit
zones
arcing during which the electrical energy input can be very
high, its magnitude and the duration of arcing being depend-
ent on the protected circuit. Successful fault interruption
implies that the arcing is wholly contained within the fuse-
link and the level at which this can be achieved is termed the
breaking or rupturing capacity of the fuse-link.
Copper tags
The operating time of a fuse-link varies inversely with the
level of an overcurrent and discrimination is obtained in
networks by choosing fuses with the necessary time/current
characteristics and current ratings.
The time/current characteristic is determined by the Overload zone
design of the fuse itself, in particular but not exclusively, thermo/mechanical
the fuse material and the physical geometry of the fuse (copper) X
link(s). In practice, the fuse/current characteristic is chosen
to ensure adequate discrimination with other fuses and/or
overcurrent relaying devices around the network. Figure
Steel
35.16 for example shows how, in general terms, a fuselink caps
'f' situated between protective devices 'u' on the source side
and 'd' on the load side could be arranged to provide
discriminative tripping on a radial feeder. Short-circuit zone
(copper)
(b)
35.1.6.2 Fuse links with short operating times
Figure 35.17 (a) Fuse element (English Electric); (b) Dual-element
All modern high-breaking-capacity fuse-links contain ele- fuse
ments, usually with restrictions, of small cross-sectional
areas connected between relatively massive end connections
which act as heat sinks. To obtain rapid operation this prin- the control of time/current characteristics. The thermally
ciple is employed to a high degree. The extent to which the most stable fuse element is a simple homogeneous metal. Such
mass of the heat sink can be increased while reducing the an element provides the highest degree of non-deteriora-
length of the relatively thin element is determined by the tion and reliability with adequate breaking capacity at
requirement that the fuse should withstand the system volt- higher overcurrents, but it may be insensitive to lower
age after the current has been interrupted i.e. it must not overcurrents. A lower melting temperature metal with high
restrike. Considerable ingenuity has reconciled these two resistivity and, therefore, greater thermal mass, can be made
mutually incompatible requirements. to respond more sensitively to lower overcurrents but may
be unreliable at higher currents.
The M effect is a means by which these extremes can
35.1.6.3 The M effect be combined to produce a desired characteristic, but it needs
to be used with care in design to avoid compromising
The M effect, deriving from an exposition by Metcalf, refers
non-deterioration properties. An element incorporating the
to exploiting the thermal reactions of dissimilar metals in
M effect is shown in Figure 35.17(a).
d f u
35.1.6.4 Composite or dual-element fuses
Satisfactory operation throughout the overcurrent and
short-circuit ranges is sometimes obtained in the same pack-
age by combining what are, in effect, two fuses connected in
series in the same cartridge (Figure 35.17(b)). Typical of
these is the so-called dual-element design common in the
USA. The short-circuit zone is similar to the homogeneous
element used in single-purpose HRC fuses. The overload
zone may take the form of a massive slug of low-melting-
point alloy, or some electromechanical device, e.g. two
copper plates soldered together and stressed by a spring,
so that when the solder melts the plate springs apart to
interrupt the current.

current 35.1.7 Earth leakage protection

Figure 35.16 Use of fuse time/current characteristic to provide A current-to-earth on an HV system invariably indicates the
discrimination on radial feeder presence of a fault: if large enough, it will operate the o.c.
 Overcurrent and earth leakage protection 35/11

3-PHASE
RY B .,I,.ClRC.CURR REACTOR ClRCCURR. __ R Y =El
]
J TANK 11

! !-~
i~lCrs

;! t'_hl
. _ ~

~ ~
,

J
~ ~ I

lr'_'~ !, c!! !
!
INSULATION
r:dl/ Ill
/ II
E~J~POTENT~AL
MID-I::R~NT
r.----~
BOX
Ill I
II I /
__1

(o) (b) (c)

fZ RELAY

Figure 35.19 Circulating current protection on a reactor

of heavy fault; but a large d.c. fault current component may

cause dissimilarity and spurious unbalance.
(d) (*) (f) The relays must be located at the electrical mid-point of
the pilot wires. This introduces no difficulty where the ends
Figure 35.18 Earth leakage protective schemes: (a) residual c.t.s; of the protected zone are not far apart, but is less suitable
(b) neutral c.t.s; (c) frame leakage; (d) core balance; (e) overcurrent for feeders (although some are in fact so protected). Short
and earth leakage; (f) balanced (restricted earth leakage)
pilot circuits obviate the need for summation transformers to
reduce their number, and the arrangement of Figure 35.19
is typical. Circulating current protection is widely used for
relays, but it is necessary to detect earth currents even if
reactors, transformers, generators and bus-bars. In appro-
they are limited by resistance earthing of the neutral point.
priate circumstances it has the advantages of simplicity,
Separate earth leakage (e.1.) protective equipment is thus
sensitivity and rapid response (e.g. 10-20 ms).
usually desirable. The arrangements shown in Figure 35.18
are available, usually with induction relays, or linear or
rotary attracted-armature types for high sensitivity. (An 35.1.8.2 Opposed voltage schemes
overload conductor falling to earth of dry soil may produce
no more than 5 A of earth fault current, but the associated As relays can readily be installed at each end of the protected
potential field may be dangerous to human and animal life.) zone, an opposed voltage scheme is suitable for feeder
Schemes (a)-(e) in Figure 35.18 have no discrimination protection. Summation transformers or other means reduce
and operate for any fault beyond the equipment. If, how- pilot wires to one pair, but even so the pilot problems limit
ever, the e.1. relays are given a time lag, any serious fault the practicable feeder length.
can be cleared discriminatively by o.c. or other protection. Per kilometre loop, the resistance of the typical pilot circuit
In (c) the transformer tank, switchgear frame or metallic with 7/0.075 mm conductors is 12.5 f~ and the capacitance is
bus-bar covering must be lightly insulated from earth: an about 0.1 ~tF. The c.t.s operate, even on internal fault, with a
insulation resistance of a few ohms is adequate, but it must high impedance burden; on a through-fault they are virtually
never be short-circuited, e.g. by a length of conduit or a metal on open circuit, and unless precautions are taken, the voltage
tool leant against it. Scheme (d) employs a 'core balance' c.t. between pilot wires can reach 1 kV, making magnetic balance
in which the core flux is produced only by earth leakage of the transformers difficult and also giving rise in the pilot
currents. Scheme (a) is commonly extended to include two wires to capacitance currents which are likely to cause mal-
o.c. relays, as in (e). operation. Of the many schemes devised to overcome these
Discrimination can be provided by balancing the e.1. difficulties, that mentioned below is typical.
currents at two points in the network. A common application This scheme employs induction relays so arranged that
is for the protection of the star-connected winding of a only two pilot wires are required, their capacitance currents
transformer (]) in which the e.1. relay will operate only for being used to give a restraining effect. The pilot wire voltage
internal faults in the transformer. is limited to about 130 V. In Figure 35.20 consider a fault F
A directional feature can be given to an e.1. relay, the between the R and Y phases: the currents in section (1) of
second input being usually provided from open-delta the relay primary windings 11 and l la induce e.m.f.s in
voltage transformers.

35.1.8 Balanced (differential) protection

Balanced protection is based on the principle that the cur-
rent entering a sound circuit is equal to the current leaving
it, whereas, if faulted, the detectable current difference can
be used to trip the appropriate circuit-breakers.

35.1.8.1 Circulating current schemes

The c.t.s in circulating current schemes operate with low-
impedance secondary burdens, provided that the pilot
wires are short, so that identical c.t. characteristics at the
two ends are not difficult to achieve even under conditions Figure 35.20 Biased balanced voltage protection
35/12 Protection
A ~ discrimination is obtained by introducing time delays for
the more distant faults. Two schemes are available, imped-
o ance time and steeped time, the latter being more widely
used on lines above 33 kV, on account of the shorter oper-
ating times obtainable.

35.1.8.3 Impedance time scheme

r<] Relays having a directional characteristic give an operating

time proportional to the impedance presented, i.e. propor-
tional to the distance of the fault from the relay. By locating
such relays at each circuit-breaker on a succession of feeders
.... I,_ [. . . . I the characteristics of Figure 35.22(a) are obtained. It can be
seen that should a relay, e.g. that at B, fail to operate, it will
(o) (b) be backed up by that at A after a time interval. With feeders
of different lengths the slopes of the characteristics must be
Figure 35.21 Balanced protection principles: (a) discriminating delta; adjusted to give correct discrimination; thus, the relay at A
(b) summation transformers
must have characteristic X (dotted) rather than Y, as the
latter would give incorrect back-up discrimination for a
12 and 12a which, being now additive, circulate a current in fault near the end of section CD. The relays cater for fault
the operating coils 13 and 13a and in the two pilot wires. currents flowing from left to right; a similar set would be
Both upper and lower magnets are energised, and if the required to cater for fault currents from right to left.
fault current exceeds the scale setting, the relays operate to
trip their associated circuit-breakers. A fault between
phases Y and B energises section (2) of windings 11 and 35.1.8.4 Stepped time scheme
1 l a, while a fault between phases R and B energises both Three separate relays are required for each direction of fault
sections (1) and (2), the fault setting being one-half of that current at every circuit-breaker location. The relays are of
in the former cases. the induction or (more rarely) of the beam type. In Figure
In the event of an earth fault on line R, the resultant 35.22(b) relay 1 of the group at circuit-breaker A is set to
secondary current from the phase R c.t. flows through sec- give 'instantaneous' operation for faults occurring within
tions (1), (2) and (3) of windings 11 and lla. A Y phase the nearest 80% of feeder AB, i.e. over distance X]. Relay
earth fault energises sections (2) and (3); and a B phase 2 operates, after a time lag, for faults occurring up to a
fault, only section (3). point just beyond circuit-breaker B; it thus acts as a back-
up for relay A over the distance X1. Relay 3 operates with a
still longer time lag for faults beyond the cut-off point of
Pilot wires It is often desired, especially for feeder protection,
relay 2; it thus acts as a further back-up for relay A, and
to reduce the number of pilot wires to two. One method is
also for relay 2 over the last 20% of feeder AB.
the discriminating delta connection (Figure 35.21(a))
in which the c.t.s have different ratios (e.g. N, 3 N/4 and
N/2). A more common method employs a summation 35.1.8.5 Fault impedance
transformer (b). If the primary turns of the summation
transformer are in the ratios 1 between A and B, 1 between The impedance 'seen' by a relay depends upon the type of
B and C, and n between C and N, then the relative sensitiv- fault. Two sets of relays, differently connected to the sys-
ities for various types of fault are in the following relative tem, are required (although a single set with a switching
proportions as secondary outputs: device is also practicable).

Earth fault For a simple earth fault fed with current/re and
Fault A - N B-N C - N A-B B-C C-A A-B-C phase-to-neutral voltage Va of the faulted phase, the earth
Proportion 2 + n 1 + n n 1 1 2 x/3 loop impedance presented to the relay is

V a / l e = Z l q- g e --- Zl(1 -4-k)

Stability ratio High sensitivity is desirable to ensure opera-
tion of the relays on minor or incipient faults, while high where Z 1 is the normal positive-sequence line impedance
stability is required to prevent operation on heavy through- from the relay to the fault, Ze is the corresponding
faults. These requirements are in conflict and it is usual to impedance of the earth path, and k = Ze/Z1.
restrain ('bias') the relays by an additional winding carrying
a current proportional to the fault current, thus desensitising
2"0 . tl o
the response to heavy fault conditions. The ratio (maximum
through-fault stable current)/(minimum fault operating z,
im s s SS'
current) can thus be made as great as 100.

D&tance (impedance) protection This type of protection,

Oi
/
!
used chiefly for overhead lines, involves the measurement A B C ~) A B C D
of the impedance of the circuit as 'seen' from the relay loca- DISTANCE DISTANCE
tion; if this impedance falls below a specified value, a fault (a) (b)
is present. The impedance observed is approximately pro-
portional to the distance of the fault from the relay and Figure 35.22 Distance (impedance) protection principles
 Overcurrent and earth leakage protection 35/13
Phase-phase fault The relay is fed with the phase-phase In Figure 35.24 the impedance seen by the relay at X and
voltage and with the difference ( l a - Ib) between the faulted looking towards B is given by
phase currents, so that the impedance is
Zp = Z[A/(A - 1) - k]
Vab/(I. - Ib) = Va/1a = z~
where A = (EA/EB)l 6, with ~5representing the phase angle
between EA and EB, and Z the total impedance of the line.
Three-phase fault Relays connected as for the phase-phase The expression gives approximately the linear impedance
fault see the same impedance Z], because locus shown, part of which around t5=90 ~ may well fall
within the operating zone of the relay and cause false trip-
Vablv/3Ia = ValIa = Z~ ping unless special precautions are taken.

and consequently operate correctly with the same setting.

35.1.8.6 Relay characteristics
Earth current compensation If, as is common, the system is
earthed at more than one point, a proportion of the earth Characteristics for various relay constructions are given in
fault current will return by a path other than that at which Figure 35.25, the relays operating if the impedances seen by
the relays are located. The impedance seen is thus in error: them fall within the shaded area. The impedance for which
it will be too low. This can be corrected in two ways. a relay is required to operate is given by OZ], OZ2 or OZ3 in
Figure 35.25, so that this value should lie within the shaded
area and any other impedance seen by the relay (due to
Sound-phase compensation A fraction p = Z~I(Z] + Z~) of
load, arc resistance, power swings, etc.) should lie outside
the sound-phase currents is added to the faulted-phase
it. The quadrilateral characteristic (.f) is desirable, but it
current, as shown in Figure 35.23(a). Typical values for
can be obtained only by electronic means.
a 132 kV line are Z1 - 0.44 f~/km and Z~ = 0.21 f~/km, so
Typical arrangements for the three steps of a stepped-
that p = 0.34.
time scheme are also shown in Figure 35.25. At (g) the direc-
tional feature is given by the 'mho' relays used for the first
Residual compensation A fraction q of the residual current two stages, while at (h) the mho relay for the third stage is
Ir is added to the relay operating current, as in Figure used as a starting element and also prevents the reactance
35.23(b). If q = Ze/Zl, the measured impedance is Z], and relays operating under load conditions.
the relays must be set for Z~ instead of for Ze to give correct Inaccurate operation can result if the relay voltages are
operation. With the typical values above, q - 0.52. low, owing to a high source/line impedance ratio, e.g. 30/1
or more. A polarising winding on the relay fed (1) through a
Arc resistance If the fault has an arc resistance, the relay memory circuit so that it retains pre-fault voltage or (2) from
will 'see' the fault as located too far away, and errors in the sound phases through a phase shifting circuit, may be
discrimination may result. Typical values of fault resistance used. Method (2) is not effective for three-phase faults.
lie between 0.5 and 3 ~, the higher values for lower currents.

Power swing If a power swing occurs, i.e. phase swinging

of the terminal voltages of the section of the system con-
cerned, the impedance seen by a relay may fall to a low
value even if there is no fault in or near its protected zone.
Xl ,), x
z, ~
L I--
(1I SOUND-PHASE COMP I
r ~-~ :--_-I , ' - - ] r - - ] l
i ~ - - - ~ R ~r.----y~: ; , I'-"~, (.o.-o,..c.,o.~, ,......c. (,.o..o~..~...)
I I ~-----J I ' ' I I I I I
I I I 0 ! I I s i I

I ~ : ~: ! ::' '
TII,---,11 ,] _ I I
II _11~11_ .: i ~ ~ '~
Iil''ill !....: :__i i__', k-~TT / !
III IIL-~-:~ ~:-I~ LF~--~
RESIDUALLY/,~ J
COMPENSATORS
(o) (d) MHO (DIRECTIONAL) (e) OFFSET MHO (f) QUADRILATERAL.

Figure 35.23 Sound-phase and residual compensation

STAGE 3 ~
A 'I-L; X : j . ~ 1 ~
kZ (l'k)Z

d;--" 180' ~ ~ o

! (g) MHO AND OFFSET-MHO (hi REACTANCE AND MHO

Figure 35.24 Impedance during power swing Figure 35.25 Distance relay characteristics
35/14 Protection

35.1.8.7 Accelerated distance protection and is trapped in the relay. In the case of a large fault a bulk
displacement of the oil takes place. In a two-float relay the
It can be seen from Figure 35.22(b) that faults near the upper float responds to the slow accumulation of gas due to
remote end of the protected section AB will only be cleared the mild or incipient faults, while the lower float is deflected
after an appreciable time lag. Such a fault will, however, be by the oil surge caused by a major fault. The floats control
cleared 'instantaneously' by the right-to-left equipment at B:
contactsmin the first case, to give an alarm; in the second
and if this equipment is also made to transmit a signal to A
case to isolate the unit.
over a pilot circuit (usually carder over the line), it can initi-
Such relays also incorporate a petcock at the top for the
ate the immediate tripping of the circuit breaker at A, thus removal of the gas; its subsequent analysis can show the
giving almost instantaneous protection over the whole line.
origin and severity of the internal fault.

35.1.9 Miscellaneous equipment

35.1.9.4 Tripping of circuit-breakers
35.1.9.1 Negative sequence Direct-operated trip coils The circuit-breaker trip coil may
Any fault other than a symmetrical three-phase fault devel- be energised directly from the current in the main circuit for
ops negative sequence currents, so that a network respon- lower voltage circuit-breakers, or from a current transfor-
sive to n.p.s, but not to p.p.s, components will indicate the mer with the trip coil shunted by a fuse which blows on
overcurrent to cause tripping. With c.t.s it is possible to
presence of a fault and can be made to operate a relay. Two
use the residual current to operate the tripping at a much
such circuits are shown in Figure 35.26. The cross-connec-
lower earth fault current than for overcurrents. The advent
tion of the current transformers in (a) eliminates the z.p.s.
of solid-state relays enables much better fault discrimina-
components: the latter are earth leakage currents and are
tion to be achieved, and also obviates the need for external
detected in other ways. The n.p.s, schemes illustrated
auxiliary supplies (usually d.c.) for tripping.
employ impedance elements of resistance R and inductive
impedance Z = R / 60 ~ but capacitive impedances
Z = R / - 6 0 ~ give the same results if the positions of R and
35.1.9.5 D.c. tripping and operating circuits
Z are interchanged.
The d.c. circuits brought into operation by protective relays
are of importance, as they are responsible for circuit-
35.1.9.2 Neutral displacement breaker actuation.
Displacement of the neutral point potential from its normal
earth potential is indicative of a fault condition, and may be Single tripping The tripping of one local circuit-breaker
used to initiate tripping. ('unit tripping') by the operation of relays is applicable to
overcurrent or balanced protection of feeders having relays
at each end. The essentials are shown in Figure 35.27(a); it
35.1.9.3 Buchholz relay includes a 'healthy trip circuit' indicating lamp with external
resistance of such value that, if the lamp is short-circuited,
The Buchholz relay is used for the protection of large oil
the current is less than that required for tripping. The lamp
immersed transformers or shunt reactors with oil conserva-
also serves as a 'circuit-breaker closed' indicator, and proves
tors, and is fitted in the pipe from the tank to the conserva-
the continuity of the trip circuit when the breaker is closed.
tor. Any arcing fault causes the oil to decompose,
generating gas which passes up the pipe to the conservator
Intertripping By this is meant the necessary tripping of
circuit-breakers identified with the unit protected; for
z, z, example, the tripping between HV and LV breakers on a
A, e~

C v ' ' '

zo -z, Z=-zb
Vr 89 V, C.-B. CONTROL
SWITCH

V0 L.__JRELAY z~'-z, eo.~I,_z'- r ',,~voL FI II HV I INTERCONNECTIONI L.V.

Vr - ~ Z , -Zb) , It, - Z ( Zb-Zo) v Zo-Z,

ivo-J3,,!
A
Lq (N

tT~
B-
C
[ _.7
SW

~, % -z2 "z. -z,

1

POSITIVE SEQUENCE NEGATIVE SEQUENCE tel (c]

Figure 35.27 Tripping circuits: (a) single circuit breaker; (b) common
Figure 35.26 Negative-phase-sequence protection: (a) high- d.c. supply; and (c) separate d.c. supplies for intertripping of transformer
impedance relay; (b)low-impedance relay HV and LV circuit-breakers
 Overcurrent and earth leakage protection 35/15

transformer with (1) overall circulating current protection Figure 35.28 shows an arrangement embodying a d.c.
or (2) balanced earth leakage and overcurrent protection polarised relay which is energised over two pilot cables by
on each side, it being necessary to trip both breakers for a the operation of the transformer protection relays. It is a
fault on either side. Intertripping may be local and relatively 'dead pilot' system, as the pilots are connected to the d.c.
straightforward, or it may require to be performed on supply through limiting resistors only when the protection
circuit-breakers at separated points in the network. operates--an obvious advantage. The scheme counters the
Local intertripping When two circuit-breakers are induction of e.m.f.s in the pilots by earth fault currents in
involved, use can be made of a standard 'three-point' neighbouring main cables. Special relays, sensitive to d.c.
scheme, either with a three-point relay, or by the addition but strongly biased against a.c., are also available for use
of an interposing relay which gives a positive tripping sup- in this arrangement.
ply to two independent circuits. Figure 35.27(b) shows an Another method, applicable to certain types of balanced
arrangement with three-point relays and a common d.c. voltage protection, operates by interrupting one pilot cable
supply, and Figure 35.27(c) the modification for separate and applying d.c. or a.c. injection across the break.
supplies. In both cases the overcurrent relays, whether for
'back-up' or phase fault protection, trip their respective Alarm systems Modern protective relays are fitted with
breakers only. Buchholz protectors or high-temperature relay signals, but it is also necessary in attended stations to
relays, where used, should be connected so as to intertrip. have audible and visual indication that a breaker has
When transformers are feeding distribution networks, three tripped. The methods are:
overcurrent relays on the HV side only with intertrip to the
LV breaker are sometimes used, i.e. with no overcurrent (1) Electrically operated alarm systems in which an alarm
relays on the LV side. The disadvantage of this arrangement bell and lamp circuit are energised by a relay, manually
is apparent, for the tripping of the LV breaker depends reset or with self-holding contacts; in some makes a
solely on the intertripping wire or cable. Also, the overcur- shunt or series coil closing suitable contacts is embodied
rent relays are inoperative with the transformer charged in the protective relay. Separate contacts on a multi-
from the 1.v. side only, and with balanced earth leakage on point tripping relay, which are bridged when the relay
each winding there would be no phase fault protection, trips, may be utilised.
obviously a dangerous condition. It is considered better (2) Mechanically operated free-handle type, in which an
practice to install overcurrent relays on each breaker so auxiliary switch is operated during the closing of the
that, in the event of damage or bad connection on the inter- breaker, the alarm lamp and audible circuit being com-
connecting pilots, the 'back-up' value of overcurrent relays pleted by an auxiliary switch on the circuit-breaker
will trip each breaker independently, as well as giving com- when it opens; this scheme gives the alarm not only
plete protection with either side energised. when the breaker is tripped from protective relays, but
Distance intertripping is applicable to feeder transformer also if the breaker slips or opens through mechanical
protection with breakers situated in different stations, or to vibration.
special schemes in some forms of bus-bar zone protection. In all cases (with the exception of hand-reset alarm
Basically, feeder transformer protection is treated as a com- relays) cancellation of the alarm system is effected by turn-
bination of (1) feeder protection, generally a balanced ing the circuit-breaker controller to the open position.
protection employing either circulating current or balanced
voltage principles; (2) transformer protection in the form of D.c. supply In large stations it is the practice to employ a
restricted earth leakage or circulating current, both sections trickle-charged 'floating' battery with charging from the
being independent on the a.c. side, but the arrangements local a.c. supply through a rectifier. Where no charging sup-
necessitate the additional tripping of the breaker at the plies are available, a replacement routine must be employed.
remote end of the feeder in the event of a fault on either To reduce fire hazard, modern switchgear is sectionalised.
side of the transformer. The d.c. control circuits should be similarly sectionalised
and fed from the main d.c. panel by separate cables.

~ C=a.
~ II FEEDE2 II
C,B. ~
35.1.10 Efficacy of protection scheme
" FEEDER -J
-i The true measure of the efficacy of a protective unit may be
PROTN. PROTN. PROTECTION
expressed in terms of the number N of operations, of which
n are incorrect, as (N-n)/N. The number N includes both
THv
/ PROT.. L EEOERT through-faults and internal faults; n includes failure to trip
on faults in the protected zone and false operation under
through-fault conditions. Many factors influence this effi-
cacy, such as imperfect design, application or commission-
ing, or failure of the equipment from damage and other
causes. Protective equipment must therefore be carefully
selected and meticulously maintained.
.... ~
PILOT CABLE

TRIP COIL ~lo-l~ -- ~C.

t -I POLARISED
35.1.11 Digital protection
TRIPPING RELAY
A digital relay is distinguished from other static relays,
0 '-' largely by virtue of the fact that transduced voltages and/
or current signals are sampled at regular intervals and
Figure 35.28 Intertripping of feeder transformer converted, prior to further processing, to digital words (or
35/16 Protection

numbers) representing the instantaneous level of the signals world is needed to program the relay settings into the device
sampled. Once converted, the sampled values are used as and display status information. This is achieved by a display
input values to the protection algorithm, which effectively and keypad. Alarm and tripping signals are produced via
comprises a set of equations that are continuously evaluated the outgoing relays and, in addition, digital outputs sup-
for each set of new data. The protection algorithms are porting fault location equipment, communications modems
stored in the memory associated with a digital microcom- linking other digital equipment and relays at other locations,
puter or microprocessor, which in turn performs the necessary etc., are often integrated.
calculations on each set of incoming data so as to determine Digital relays offer a number of benefits over more con-
the state of the item of plant or line protected. ventional devices and, in recent years, a number of relays
The basic arrangement of a digital relay is shown in have been marketed. The primary impetus for the emer-
Figure 35.29. Each input signal is passed through an ana- gence of digital protection is a general increase in demands
logue low-pass filter which limits the frequency content of from utilities for faster fault clearance times, better discri-
each signal to at least half the frequency at which data are mination and satisfactory detection of difficult or contin-
produced. gency fault conditions which are not easily met by more
In digital systems, any frequencies in the sampled signal conventional relays. Complex operating characteristics are
above one-half of the sampling frequency appear in the readily programmed into digital relays which have been
digital area as lower frequency components or 'aliases' and designed to automatically monitor themselves by executing
prefiltering of the analogue data so as to band limit its automatic check programs which identify potential prob-
frequency content is necessary to avoid such data corruption. lems by comparing the response of specific circuit elements
An analogue-to-digital converter then performs the neces- with that expected for given reference test conditions.
sary conversion to produce a train of digital data to the Digital relays are generally much more flexible than more
microprocessor which performs the necessary protection conventional types since they often include multiple charac-
algorithm calculations. In practice, sampling and associated teristics and options to select any one of these. They can
calculations are performed at frequencies which range from readily accept inputs from the digital devices and are
typically 200 samples/s to 4000 samples/s; the sampling rate directly compatible with digital communication systems for
is to some extent dictated by the performance requirements performing data transmission, alarm handling and supervi-
of the protection and, in particular, the required operating sory controls. It is highly likely that, in the future, increas-
times. Digital relays commonly quantise the incoming data ing integration of digital protection with 'electronic
into at least 12 bits which in turn enables the incoming signals transducers', e.g. fibre optic voltage and current sensing
to be represented by signals ranging from 0 to 211 (or -t-2048) devices, will occur.
levels. The algorithmic calculations performed by the Digital relaying can be applied in unit or non-unit form
microprocessor will commonly involve 16-bit digital words to protect specific items of plant and/or power feeders. At
(+32768), which in turn generally enables the necessary the present time, the major applications have been in the
degree of accuracy to be obtained. Where the algorithms area of e.h.v, transmission line protection of the distance,
are such that a high computational burden is imposed, due differential and directional comparison types.
for example to its complexity and/or the need for a high
sampling rate, it is common to use a high performance
digital signal processor in preference to a conventional 35.1.11.1 Distance protection
microprocessor.
The microprocessor is equipped with random-access A digital distance relay has an algorithm which is designed
memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM) for data to calculate the impedance between the point of measure-
and program storage. Communication with the outside ment and the point of fault. This is done for each set of
samples of voltage and current measured. There are a num-
ber of specific methods of calculating the impedances, the
Inputs most common of which involve implementing an algorithm
that is designed to evaluate the resistance and reactance
of the fault loop. By reference to Figure 35.30, which is a
simplified single-line diagram of a transmission line fault loop,
the relationship between the voltage and current measured
at the relaying point and the fault loop resistance R and
Analogue inductance L is given by
to digital
converter Output
relays v = R + L di/dt (35.1)

Filters
Source ~

network
L

point~
Fault
S'SB oaoo
0000
~
0 10 70 60 1 7 6 1 7 6 /7777
Relaying
Microprocessor Display and keyboard point
Inputs
Figure 35.29 Blockdiagram of digital relay Figure 35,30 Typicaldistance relay fault loop
 Overcurrent and earth leakage protection 35/17

This equation applies to all samples processed. For example, (Equation (35.5)). Internal faults are distinguished from
consider two samples taken at times tl and t2 (for which the healthy conditions by comparing the magnitude of succes-
voltage and current samples are denoted by Vl, il and v2, i2, sive estimates of the differential and bias quantities as deter-
respectively). In this case the fault loop parameters can be mined by sampled digital values. In its simplest form, the
obtained from an algorithm based on the equations algorithm checks that, for example, the differential quantity
consistently exceeds the bias quantity for a number of suc-
9I
R ~ (Vlt2 - V2tl)/D
.!
(35.2) cessive samples before initiating circuit-breaker tripping.
Where, as in Figure 35.31, the scheme is arranged on the
'master and slave' ends principle, a return fibre or digital
L ~ (v2il- vli2)/D (35.3) communications channel can be used to transmit the signal
from the measuring to the remote (slave) end.
where i' denotes a current signal rate of change (di/dt) and ip + iQ (35.4)
D= il{2- i'li2
Estimates of the current differential terms together with
the instantaneous values in the above two equations are
obtained typically by utilising a succession of two or three ip - i Q (35.5)
sampled values and in this way, successive estimates of
impedances measured are obtained. Such estimates are
compared with the distance relay characteristic boundary,
which is defined in accordance with the requirements of 35.1.11.3 Directional comparison protection
particular applications (see Figure 35.25 and Section
The basis of a directional comparison protection scheme is
35.1.8.6). Tripping is initiated when a defined number of
shown in Figure 35.32. In the particular arrangement
successive samples of the fault loop impedance consistently
shown, digital directional detectors measure from the volt-
lie within the defined characteristic boundary and tripping
age and current at each line end. Each directional measur-
times typically as low as 8 ms are readily attainable for most
ing device is designed to determine the direction to the fault
applications.
so that, for the faulted case shown, each measures the fault
as being in the forward direction. The fault direction indi-
cated is signalled to the equipment at the other end to pro-
35.1.11.2 Differential protection duce a tripping signal. Conversely, any fault external to the
The circulating current differential principle is at present line causes only one directional detector to indicate a fault
that which is most commonly applied in digital form (see in the forward direction and tripping is thereby inhibited.
Section 35.1.8.1). Figure 35.31 shows a functional single- There are a number of alternative ways of utilising the
line diagram of such a scheme applied to a plain feeder. In directional indications issued, but the basic principle is the
this arrangement, the currents at the two ends are sampled same as that outlined above. It is worth noting that only a
and transmitted to a digital differential relay located at only single binary signal is required in transmitting the direc-
one end, though separate devices located at each end can be tional signal determined by the detectors, thus avoiding the
used. Each sample is converted to digital form and trans- necessity for multi-valued data communication channels.
mitted to a digital communications link which, in the case It is common for digital directional comparison devices to
of Figure 35.31, comprises a light fibre optic link. Other measure from the fault superimposed voltages and currents.
digital communications channels, e.g. microwave links can The superimposed measurands are in effect the difference
equally be used. The current differential quantity, which is between the actual value measured and the projection
of the form given in Equation (35.4) is evaluated at each of the normal steady-state voltage (or current) existing at
sample instant and compared typically with a bias quantity the point of measurement immediately before a fault.

Master end Slave end

C~ c.a~
Source ~ _ .,, ~ Source
network . . . . . . network
i C.T. C.T.

f
I Relay
-1
F.O. link |
Communications Communications
modem modem

Figure 35.31 Digital difference

35/18 Protection

Reverse Forward Forward Reverse

v

I/
14 I i t,,,

Digital Digital
directional directional
detector detector
Communications
F=I F=I

[~ heme
ogic
Scheme
logic
....

1' !
Figure 35.32 Basic directional comparison scheme

The superimposed voltages and currents can thus be consid- samples previously; this differencing is equivalent to
ered as existing in their own right in an otherwise de-energised projecting the prefault steady-state variations forward in
system, i.e. they propagate within a model of the system time and makes the resulting measurements consistent with
in which each voltage is hypothetically set at zero. For a system superimposed model of the type previously
example, Figure 35.33 shows the form of the resulting super- discussed.
imposed circuit for a transmission line subjected to a fault With reference to Figure 35.33, the superimposed voltage
somewhere behind (or in the reverse direction with respect to) and current measured at say end S (VT, iT) are related for all
the directional measuring point at end S. Figure 35.33 is a time up to twice the wave transit time (2~-) from S to R by
simplified superimposed model of a multiphase line in which v-r = ZoiT, where Zo is the line surge or characteristic imped-
the three-phase voltages and currents are combined into ance. Successive sampled values of VT and iT are used to
single voltage and current measurements. The means of form the directional signals
achieving this network reduction is similar to that used to
derive single measurements in distance protection (see Sl = Vr -- ZoiT (35.6)
Section 35.1.8.5) and further detailed information is given
in the Bibliography at the end of this chapter.
The directional detectors derive superimposed measure- s2 = VT + ZoiT (35.7)
ments which are usually obtained by taking the difference
between any sample on the incoming waveform and that
derived from an integer number of power frequency The directional signals given in the above equations are com-
pared to determine the direction to the fault. For the reverse
fault shown in Figure 35.33, the signal tends to zero whereas
Reverse Forward the signal Sl attains a relatively large value which leads to
twice the superimposed voltage measured at end s2.
Conversely, for a forward fault, the superimposed voltage
$ R and current are of opposite sign and in this case a reverse
, ,,,, , ,.

] iT = VT/Z0 II [ fault direction is indicated by signal sl exceeding signal s2.

De.energised
source i I ~
(for 2r)
.....
De-energised
source ] Directional integrity is obtained by checking the relative size

I! lvI I1~ i of signals over a number of post-fault samples, and the direc-
tion to a fault can be obtained in typically 2-4 ms when using
a sampling rate of 3000 samples/s. The use of superimposed
quantities brings a high degree of immunity to power swing
and heavy circuit loading effects on account of their value
being close to zero under normal steady-state conditions.
(superimposed fault
~ pointvoltage) 35.1.12 Artificialintelligencefor protection
Conventional relays, including digital devices, rely heavily
Figure 35.33 Superimposed circuit for fault behind relaying point upon deterministic signal models and heuristic approaches
 Overcurrent and earth leakage protection 35/19

for decision making and only a small amount of the total with the user interface to accept network description from
information available within the voltage and/or current the user and supply the relay setting results.
signals used in the measuring process is utilised. Similar
considerations apply in respect of relay settings and in
recent years various artificial intelligence (AI) techniques 35.1.12.2 Fuzzy logic
have been investigated for use in the protection field. A vast
The majority of conventional protection techniques involve
amount of work has been done on the design of 'Intelligent
defining circuit breaker states by identifying the patterns of
relays'. In particular three mathematical AI tools lead them-
the measured voltages and/or currents. In practice however,
selves well to the protection field, i.e. expert systems, fuzzy
there exists a significant degree of uncertainty and vague-
logic and artificial neural networks.
ness due to the complex relationships between the system
response to disturbances and the resulting measurands.
Examples of the factors contributing to such vaguenesses
35.1.12.1 Expert systems are signal transducer noise caused by electromagnetic inter-
The prime function of protective relays is the timely and ference and changes in load, generation or the network
discriminative clearance of system faults. In practice, a par- topology. Fuzzy logic has and is still being extensively
ticular relay has to be set so as to ensure that its response is investigated as a means of developing novel protection for
such that its operation is co-ordinated with that of other power systems. It is essentially a method of readily repre-
relays on a system. In this respect, the co-ordination of dis- senting human expert knowledge on a digital processor in
tance relays on an interconnected network is a longstanding particular where mathematical or rule-based expert systems
problem. Consider for example the simple configuration of experience difficulty. Figure 35.36 shows the basic structure
Figure 35.34, where relay Rx is ideally required to act discri- of a relay utilising fuzzy logic. The sensor data is converted
minatively to clear faults on line PL as well as act in a back- to fuzzy data using a fuzzification process in which each
up mode for faults on lines SL and YL. variable is assigned a degree of membership of a particular
The basis of setting distance relays is explained in Section fuzzy class. For example, Figure 35.37 shows membership
35.1.8.4 but it will be evident from Figure 35.22(b) that sim- features for a particular voltage or current measured; here
ple time grading of relay R, in zones 1, 2 and 3 as indicated the process of classification involves defining the measurand
could for example result in that relay seriously underreach- as being very small (VS), small (S), normal (N), large (L), or
ing in zones 2 and/or 3, where the infeed via line YL is sig- very large (VL). Thus for example the vector showing the
nificant enough to cause an 'apparent' increase in the degree of membership for a voltage of magnitude V~ would
impedance measured from relay Rx to a fault on line SL. A be [VL, L, N, S, VS] = [0, 0, 0, 0.2, 0.5] whereas for a voltage
relay or protection which operates to clear faults over a dis- V2, the corresponding vector would be [0, 0.7, 0, 0, 0]. A
tance which is less than the desired or set value is said to matrix of degree of membership is formed and the inference
underreach. The effect of such underreaching could for engine applies in effect a number of rules each of which
example be to increase the time of operation of relay Rx in generates a fuzzy parameter which is defuzzified to provide
circumstances where fast clearance of faults on line SL is a crisp control signal which is channelled to the circuit
required under conditions where a circuit breaker on line breaker(s). There are a number of algorithms that are
SL fails. The derivation of suitable settings for distance applied in the defuzzification process, the most common of
relays is a knowledge intensive problem that requires the which is the so called 'maximum algorithm' in which the
experience of senior relay engineers. It is a time consuming element in the matrix with the largest membership value is
task that is often complicated by the presence of a multipli- chosen to define the required breaker control action.
city of relays having different operating characteristics.
Expert system based methods are particularly suited to the
problem of deriving suitable settings. In essence expert sys- 35.1.12.3 Artificial neural networks
tems are computer programs that contain sets of rules estab- Artificial neural networks (ANNs) resemble the structure of
lished using the experience of experts, which are applied to the human brain but many experts are of the opinion that
the problem in hand. The programs are thus built from expli- the resemblance is very superficial. In engineering terms,
cit information derived from human experts using symbolic what is important is that the ANNs can be 'trained to per-
representation, inference and heuristic search techniques. form' a required action. They are being developed for use
The basic elements of an expert system for deriving relay
in the protection field by using massive training sets of data
settings is shown in Figure 35.35. The inference engine com- for which the required response is known. Figure 35.38
monly uses the AI software language Prolog which interacts shows the topology of a simple ANN. The inputs are
normally derived from measured voltages and/or currents
derived from the power system via voltage and current
transducers. Various features are extracted from the
Zone 3
measured signals e.g. the magnitude of a harmonic in a volt-
Zone ,2., I age signal may form one input signal. It can be seen that the
Zone 1 A N N is built up of a number of nodes (or artificial neurons)
each of which summates weighted input signals and further
weights the sum before transmitting the output to other
Infeed _I (PL) (SL) [., Infeed neurons. In practice an A N N may have a number of hidden
-I L layers the number of which depends on factors relating to
the nature and extent of the protection problem; the single
relay Rx relay Rx L Infeed hidden layer network is however by far the most common
and has been found to provide a satisfactory performance in
relayRy most protection applications. Each artificial neuron
employs a non-linear weighting function of which a number
Figure 35.34 Distance relays applied to an interconnected system are employed. In essence however all weighting functions
35/20 Protection
User behave so as to produce an output level which suddenly
switches from a low signal level to a high level when the
I . Network description i" summated input reaches a critical level.
[ user Land setting results i i Relay setting Figure 35.39 shows the basic structure of a relay employ-
interface I- InferenCeengine knowledge and ing an ANN. As mentioned previously, the ANN needs to
basic data be trained. This is done using a training algorithm of which

!
Network config uration
-I V
I Initiation
the 'backpropagation' algorithm is often used. In essence,
the ANN is subjected to an input array derived via system
simulation studies or actual recorded system data, for which
and short circuit results the desired output is known. For example, the input may
be derived from a faulted transmission line for which a
Short circuit tripping signal is required or conversely an input array asso-
analysis ciated with a healthy situation where the output should be
software zero. Training is performed iteratively by adjusting the
weight of the input to each artificial neuron so as to obtain
the desired output(s). In practice training has to be achieved
Figure 35.35 Basicelements of a relay setting expert system using a training set which is large enough to ensure final
convergence of the network weighing coefficients. Very sig-
Knowledge nificant progress has been made in the application of ANNs
base 1 to protection and associated control functions such as sin-
gle-pole autoreclosure. A number of commercial develop-
FuzzYparameters ! Infer!noel _.., Fuzzydata ments are underway and there is little doubt that A N N
engine ] - " based protection and control will ultimately be applied. In
this respect, it is likely that the first applications will be
,, t ' ,~',' ' aimed at providing improved performance of protection
Defuzzification I l Fuzzi'ication} in difficult applications and where it is necessary to cover

+ Protected
equipment
f
contingency fault and systems conditions where more con-
ventional protection, including digital measuring devices,
often provide less than optimal response.
Control signals Sensor data
(trip/block etc.) 35.1.12.4 Hybrid artificial intelligence networks
Figure 35.36 Basicarrangement of a 'fuzzy relay' Recent research indicates that AI based protection tech-
niques may be significantly enhanced by the integration of
expert systems, fuzzy logic and artificial neural network
Degree of membership techniques. Fuzzy neural networks are actively being
researched as a means of further enhancing next generation
1 IVS S N L VL
protection performance. Further integration of expert system
techniques is also likely to provide a very important way
0.7 forward in future generations of 'intelligent protection',
0.5 though much more on-going work is required in this area.

0.2 I(V) 35.2 A p p l i c a t i o n of p r o t e c t i v e s y s t e m s

0
V~ V~
There are usually several ways of protecting any given
Figure 35.37 Typicalmembership functions equipment, and the more usual zones of protection are

(" .._.. phase a

Control
Input signals
signals .< c
(features)
- ~'~'~~~~~ ~7"'~~ Output
layer

Hidden
~ layer
Input
layer
Figure 35.38 Rudimentary artificial neural network (ANN) topology
 Application of protective systems 35/21

Input(s) i [ Analog
from { Feature
extraction
[ meutra Oecison To
transducers [~ digi~ network ~ making circuit-
(CVTs, VTs -[_interface breakers
CTs etc.) Anti
aliasing
filters
Figure 35.39 Basic structure of an (ANN) protection relay

r--- l
S
faults can be cleared by normal discriminative earth fault
F---q F' 7 ' ~, protection.

t t
~ ~
. . .
t
. .
- .
g ~ : ~
I
1
,,,]L_
t r. .
. . .
.
.
.
.....
. . 35.2.1 Plant

35.2.1.1 Generators
A :
The core of an electrical power system is the generator,
requiring a prime mover to develop mechanical power
L I I 0
from steam, gas, water or diesel engines. The range of size
extends from a few hundred kilovolt-amperes up to turbine
',w: driven sets exceeding 600 MV-A in rating. Small sets may be
,- , re.,:.H directly connected to the distribution system, while the
larger units are associated with an individual step-up trans-
;,-,',.,~
L IUJ~l
: r-,
l~r;
'-.'~-~ former through which the set is coupled to the transmission
I I
system.
i~ ~ . , ' ~ ,
j ~ w
.... ~11 I A modern generating unit is a complex system consisting
r :..~- ~ !II
of the generator stator, the rotor with its field winding and
t.._'C~L
- - - J_ .; ~''.a exciters, the turbine and associated condenser, the boiler
with auxiliary fans and pumps, and possibly an associated
Figure 35.40 Zones of protection: A, bus-bars; B, generator; or unit transformer. Faults of many kinds can occur in such
C, generator-transformer; D, power transformer; E, auto-transformer; a system, for which diverse protective means are needed.
F, unit transformer; G, earthing transformer; H, transmission line of The amount of protection applied will be governed by eco-
feeder; I, transformer; J, reactor; K, induction motor; L, synchronous
motor; M, rectifier nomic considerations. In general, the following faults need
to be considered:
(1) stator insulation earth faults;
(2) overload;
shown in Figure 35.40. One relay can often be used for (3) overvoltage;
several functions; for example, a triple-pole overcurrent relay (4) unbalanced loading;
can be used for both overcurrent and earth fault protection, (5) rotor fault;
and the following combinations are commonly found in (6) loss of excitation;
practice: (1) inverse time overcurrent and earth fault; (7) loss of synchronism;
(2) inverse time with instantaneous high-setting overcurrent, (8) failure of prime mover;
with or without inverse time earth fault; and (3) thermal (9) low vacuum in condenser;
overcurrent, with instantaneous overcurrent and earth (10) lubrication oil failure;
fault. (11) overspeeding;
The power system neutral is considered to be earthed (12) rotor distortion;
when the neutral point is connected to earth directly or (13) differential expansion; and
through a resistor. Earth fault protection is applicable in all (14) excessive vibration
such cases. The neutral point is considered to be insulated
when the neutral point is not connected to earth, or is earthed The neutral point of a generator is normally earthed, with
through a continuously rated arc suppression coil or some impedance inserted in the earthing lead to limit the mag-
through a voltage transformer. nitude of earth fault current to values from a few amperes
Arc suppression coils are a form of protection applicable to about rated full load current. Phase-phase faults clear of
where the majority of the earth faults are expected to be of a earth are unusual, as are interturn faults; and they usually
transient nature only. They can be continuously or short- involve earth in a short time. Circulating current biased dif-
time rated (normally 30s), with one phase of the system ferential protection is the most satisfactory way of protecting
faulted to earth. The continuously rated coils can be pro- a generator stator or a generator-transformer unit.
vided with an alarm to indicate the presence of a persistent Generators on a large system under continuous super-
fault, and in some cases directional earth fault relays vision are not usually subject to prolonged accidental over-
are used to indicate the location of an earth fault. The loading and are often protected only by built-in temperature
short-rated coil is short-circuited, either directly or through measuring devices on both stator and rotor. For the smaller
a resistor after a short time, so that persistent earth machines inverse definite minimum time (i.d.m.t.) overcurrent
35/22 Protection

relays are used (often forming a back-up feature) and may be Various faults may occur on the mechanical side of
voltage restrained to give better discrimination. the set, such as failure of the prime mover, overspeed,
Power frequency overvoltages are usually dealt with by boiler failure, loss of vacuum, lubricating oil failure, rotor
instantaneous relays with fairly high settings, and transient distortion, etc. These can all be protected, the inclusion
overvoltages by surge diverters and capacitors connected being a matter of economics.
to the generator terminals if the incoming surges are not Where generator-transformers are used, the differential
sufficiently reduced by transformer interconnections. protection will always need to be biased, using either har-
Any unbalanced load produces negative sequence com- monic bias or special attention to settings. Earth fault protec-
ponents, the resulting reaction field producing double-fre- tion will cover the generator and the transformer primary
quency currents in the field system and rotor body, which winding; in addition, the transformer h.v. winding will usually
can result in serious overheating. For turbo sets the negative be provided with restricted earth fault protection and
sequence continuous rating is only 10-15% of the continu- Buchholz protection (see Figure 35.41).
ous mean rating value for positive sequence. The unbalance The field of a faulty generator should be suppressed as
is detected by relays in a negative sequence network, provid- quickly as possible. For machines above about 5 MV-A
ing first an alarm and finally tripping the generator load. this is usually done by connecting a field discharge resistor
Rotor faults due to earthing of the winding, or partial of about five times the rotor field-winding resistance in par-
short-circuited turns, can be detected by methods involving allel with the generator field when the field circuit-breaker
a potentiometer across the winding, or a.c. or d.c. injection. opens. This reduces the field time constant, but it may still
Failure of the field system results in a generator losing syn- be more than 1 s.
chronism, running above synchronous speed and operating
as an induction generator with the main flux produced by
reactive stator current drawn from the system. In general, a 35.2.1.2 Transformers
60 MW machine with conventional cooling will not be over- The power transformer is one of the most important links in
heated by asynchronous operation at full load for 5 min; but
a transmission system, and as it has the greatest range of
a hydrogen cooled 500 M W set should not be run like this
characteristics, complete protection is difficult. These con-
for more than 20 s. A generator may also lose synchronism
ditions must be reviewed before detailed application of pro-
because of a severe system fault, or operation at a high load
tection is settled. The ratings of units used in transmission
with leading power factor and, hence, a relatively weak
and distribution schemes range from a few kilovolt-amperes
field. This subjects the generator and prime mover to
to several hundred megavolt-amperes. The simplest pro-
violent oscillations of torque, but synchronism can be
tection, such as fuses, can be justified only for the small
regained if the load is reduced in a few seconds; otherwise
transformers; those of the highest ratings have the best pro-
it is necessary to isolate the machine. Alternatively, the excita-
tection that can be afforded.
tion may be removed so that the generator runs asynchro- A fault in a transformer winding is controlled in magni-
nously, thereby removing the violent power oscillations. tude not only by the source and neutral earthing impedance,
Re-closing the excitation at a low value will then cause the but also by the leakage reactance of the transformer, and
machine to resynchronise smoothly. The range of possible the fact that the fault voltage may differ from the system
positions of saving curves makes detection by simple relays
voltage according to the position of the fault in the winding.
relatively difficult, but by the use of two impedance relays, Star-connected windings may be earthed either solidly or
pole slipping can be detected and corrected by varying the through an impedance, presenting few protection problems;
excitation. but delta-connected windings require close consideration, as

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Figure 35.41 Generator-transformer protection

 Application of protective systems 35/23

the individual phase currents may be relatively low. Faults and 33kV distribution systems with balanced opposed-
between phases within a transformer are comparatively voltage schemes for the more important 33 kV lines.
rare, and interturn faults in low-voltage transformers are The protection can be by either electromagnetic or static
unlikely unless caused by mechanical force on the windings relays, both of which may be switched by fault detectors,
due to external short circuits. Where a high-voltage trans- and for earthed systems can incorporate earth fault relays.
former is connected to an overhead transmission line, a The length of feeder frequently results in additional
steep-fronted voltage surge due to lightning may be concen- circuits being necessary between the relays at each end. Pilot
trated on the end turns of the winding, resulting in 70-80% wires are often used for this purpose, but for distances
of such transformer failures unless some form of voltage above about 20 km the pilot wires may behave as a trans-
grading is employed. The bolts that clamp the core together mission circuit, and may need shunt reactors to compensate
are insulated to prevent eddy currents. Should this insu- for the circuit capacitance. Pilot wires are also liable to elec-
lation fail, then severe local heating may damage the wind- trical interference, manual disturbance and limits as to over-
ing. As the oil is usually broken down, the gas produced can voltage and current, so that many schemes are provided
be used to operate a Buchholz relay. Tank faults are rare, with continuous supervision to warn that the overall protec-
but oil sludging can block cooling ducts and pipes, leading tion is unsound and relay adjustment may be necessary. By
to overheating. using the line itself as a link and injecting high-frequency
One of the major problems in the protection of large signals (70-700 kHz), the necessary end-to-end protective
transformers is the phenomenon of magnetising current coupling can be achieved. Information is impressed on the
inrush when switching on. This is not a fault condition and signal by a modulation process. Attenuation of the signal
the protection relays must not trip, although the inrush cur- carrier makes pilots unsuitable for transmitting the ampli-
rent appears superficially as an internal fault and may have tude of a measured quantity; however, the phase can be
a long time constant. To avoid long time delays and, hence, transmitted satisfactorily. Frequency modulation can con-
damage to important transformers, it is essential to clear all vey all the characteristics of the modulating quantity but
faults rapidly. Use is made of the fact that magnetising involves frequency-amplitude conversion. The best use of
inrush currents contain a unidirectional component plus carrier involves simple on/off switching: this method of
second, third and higher harmonics. The second harmonic modulation has been extensively used in conjunction with
is the most useful as a stabilising bias against inrush effects, polyphase directional relays by transmitting a locking signal
and by combining this (extracted through a filter) with the over the line for through-faults.
differential current through a static device, a setting of 15% With extensive power systems and interconnection to
can be obtained, with an operating time of 45 ms for all ensure continuity of supply and good voltage regulation, the
fault currents of two or more times rated current. The problems of combining fast fault clearance with protective
relay will restrain when the second harmonic component gear co-ordination have become increasingly important.
exceeds 20% of the current. To meet these requirements high-speed protective systems
Most of the usual transformer arrangements such as star/ suitable for use with automatic reclosure of the circuit-
delta, auto-, earthing, etc., can be protected by differential breakers are under continuous development and are already
relays, sometimes with restricted earth fault relays. very widely used. The distance scheme of protection is com-
Sometimes transformers are connected directly to trans- paratively simple to apply and offers high speed, primary
mission lines without circuit-breakers. In such cases the and back-up facilities, and needs no pilot wires; but by com-
transformer and feeder are both protected by differential bining it with a signal channel (such as carrier) it is particu-
protection plus intertripping of the remote circuit-breaker. larly suitable for use with high-speed auto-reclosing for the
An alternative to intertripping is to detect earth faults on a protection of important transmission lines.
feeder connected to a non-earthed transformer winding by Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional
measuring the residual voltage on the feeder, using either to its length, it is appropriate to use a relay capable of
voltage transformers or capacitors to detect the neutral measuring the impedance of a line up to a given point. The
displacement. basic principle of measurement (Section 35.1.8) involves the
comparison of the fault current seen by the relay with the
voltage of the relaying point, whence it is possible to
measure the impedance of the line up to the fault. The
35.2.1.3 Reactors plain impedance relay takes no account of the phase angle
The most common are the series and tie-bar reactors, for between the current and voltage applied to it, and is there-
limiting overcurrents. On earthed systems with air insulated fore non-directional. It has three important disadvantages:
reactors the protection usually consists of differential relays (1) it is inherently non-directional and therefore needs a
or time-delayed overcurrent with time-delayed earth fault directional element to give it discrimination;
relays. For insulated-neutral systems the earth fault relays (2) it is affected by arc resistance; and
are unnecessary. Shunt reactors for compensating line capa- (3) it is highly sensitive to power swings, because of the
citance are usually oil immersed and protected by time- large area covered by the impedance circle.
delayed overcurrent relays, with instantaneous restricted
earth fault relays where the system neutrals are earthed. The admittance relay, by addition of a polarising signal,
Buchholz relays are often used on oil immersed reactors. combines the characteristics of the impedance and direc-
tional relays. It is satisfactory on long lines carried on steel
towers with overhead earth wires, where the effect of arc
resistance can be neglected, but for lines on wooden poles
without earth wires the earth fault resistance reduces the
35.2.2 Feeders
effective zone to such an extent that most faults take longer
Many schemes are available: therefore, only general to detect. This problem can usually be overcome by using
guidance can be given. Scope still exists for adapting schemes either reactance or fully cross-polarised admittance relays
to individual requirements. Fuses and/or overcurrent pro- for the detection of earth faults. In theory, any increase in
tection with graded time lags are commonly used for 11 kV the resistive component of the fault impedance has no effect
35/24 Protection

upon a reactance relay: however, in practice, when the fault power can take place during the dead time. If only the
resistance approaches that of the load, then the relay char- faulty phase is tripping during earth fault conditions
acteristics are modified by the load and its power factor and (which account for the majority of faults on overhead
it may cover either more or less of the line. This can be lines), synchronising power can still be interchanged
overcome by the use of a fully cross-polarised circuit which through the healthy phases, but this entails the provision
needs two input signals for a +90 ~ comparison angle. of circuit-breakers provided with tripping and closing
A distance protection scheme comprises starting, distance mechanisms on each phase, and the reclosing circuitry is
measuring, auxiliary, zone timer and tripping relays. To more complicated. In the event of a multi-phase fault, all
cater for the economic and technical requirements of a par- three phases are tripped and locked out. It is important to
ticular power system, schemes are available using either a ensure simultaneous tripping of the circuit-breakers at all
plain distance measurement with several steps of protection, ends of the faulty section, and distance protection imposes
or a combination of distance measurement and a high-speed some difficulties in this respect, so that a signalling channel
signalling channel or power-line carrier to form a unit sys- is often used between ends. On highly interconnected trans-
tem of protection over the whole of the protected line and to mission systems where the loss of a single line is unlikely to
provide its own back-up protection to the adjacent lines. cause two sections of the systems to drift apart and lose
Full-distance, or switched-distance, schemes are applied synchronism, three-phase auto-reclosing can be delayed for
according to the system voltage and the importance of the 5-60 s with an increase in successful reclosures.
lines to be protected. The main difference between the two
arrangements is that the full-distance scheme uses six meas-
uring units (three for phase and three for earth faults),
whereas the switched-distance scheme uses only one meas-
uring unit for all types of fault, this being switched to the 35.2.2.1 Bus-bars
correct fault loop impedance by means of a suitable set of Bus-bars have often been left without specific protection for
starting units of the overcurrent or underimpedance type. one or more of the following reasons.
One of the main disadvantages of conventional time
stepped distance protection is that the instantaneous zone (1) The bus-bars and switchgear have a high degree of
of protection at each end of the protected line cannot be reliability and are often regarded as intrinsically safe.
set to cover the whole of the feeder length. It usually covers (2) It was feared that accidental operation of bus-bar pro-
about 80%, leaving two end zones in which faults are tection might cause widespread dislocation which, if not
cleared instantaneously at one end of a feeder but in much quickly cleared, would cause more loss of supply than
longer time at the other end. In some applications this the very infrequent bus-bar faults.
cannot be tolerated; either the delay in fault clearance may (3) It was expected that system protection, or back-up pro-
cause the system to become unstable, or, where high-speed tection, would provide sufficient bus-bar protection if
auto-reclosing is used, the non-simultaneous opening of the needed.
circuit-breakers interferes with the auto-reclosing cycle. The reasons are applicable only to small indoor metal
These objections can be overcome by interconnecting the enclosed stations: with outdoor switchgear the case is less
distance protections at each end by a signalling channel to clear, for although the likelihood of a fault is higher, the
transmit information about the system conditions at one risk of damage is much less. In general, bus-bar protection
end to the other end of the protected line. It can also initi- is required when the system protection does not cover the
ate, or prevent, tripping of the remote circuit-breaker. The bus-bars, or when, to maintain system stability, high-speed
former arrangement is a 'transformer trip scheme', while the fault clearance is necessary.
other is a 'blocking scheme'. To maintain the high order of stability needed for bus-bar
If two circuits are supported on the same tower or are protection, it is now an almost invariable practice to make
otherwise in close proximity over the whole of their length, tripping dependent on two independent measurements of
there is mutual coupling between them. The positive and fault quantities. Methods include: (a) two similar differen-
negative sequence coupling is small and usually neglected. tial systems; (b) a single differential system (Figure 35.42),
The zero sequence coupling cannot be ignored. Types of checked by a frame earth system (Figure 35.43); (c) earth
protection that use current only (e.g. power-line carrier fault relays energised by c.t.s in the neutral earth connec-
phase comparison and pilot-wire differential systems) are tion; (d) overcurrent relays; and (e) a frame earth system
not affected, whereas types using current and voltage, checked by earth fault relays. Separate current transformers
especially distance protection, are influenced by the phe- are normally used with separate tripping relays series-con-
nomenon and its effect requires special consideration. nected in pairs to provide a single tripping output, so that
The protective schemes described previously for the pro- independence is maintained throughout. The essential prin-
tection of two-ended feeders can also be used for multi- ciple is that no single occurrence of a secondary nature shall
ended feeders with load or generation at any terminal. be capable of causing an unnecessary trip of a bus-bar
However, the application of these schemes to multi-ended circuit-breaker.
feeders is much more complex and requires special attention.
As transient faults, such as an insulator flashover, make
up 80-90% of all faults on HV and e.h.v, systems, and are
35.2.3 Motors and rectifiers
cleared by the immediate tripping of one or more circuit-
breakers, they do not recur when the line is re-energised.
Such lines are frequently provided with auto-reclosing
35.2.3.1 Motors
schemes, and result in a substantial improvement in Protection is required against (a) imposed external condi-
continuity of supply and system stability. The choices of dead tions, and (b) internal faults.
time, of reclose time, and of whether to use a single- or Category (a) includes unbalanced supply voltages, under-
a multi-shot scheme, are of fundamental importance. With a voltage, single-phasing, and reverse-phase-sequence start-
three-phase scheme the tripping of all three phases on the occur- ing; (b) includes bearing failures, internal earth faults and
rence of a fault means that no interchange of synchronising overloads.
 Testing and commissioning 35/25
BUS separating the positive and negative sequence components
SECTION A SECTION SECTIONB
of the line currents by means of a sequence filter, arranged
~RS to allow for the greater relative heating effect of negative
sequence current components.
T-BREAKERS

E BONDING BARS
ATED CABLE 35.2.3.2 Rectifiers
)S
"Z SHEATH
ING BAR
The majority of rectifier duties are now performed by semi-
~ATORS
conductors: these have special demands for protection.
Faults can be classified as: (a) cell overload and failure;
RAL CT's
E LEAKAGE CT'$
(b) operational faults such as backfires; (c) d.c. faults on
MAIN EARTH the bus-bars and cables; and (d) a.c. faults on the supply
BAR
transformer and cables.
E LEAKAGE
Because of their low thermal mass and consequent low
r fault-current withstand, the series- or parallel-connected
cells need to be individually protected, usually by fuses
shunted by a small indicating fuse which, on blowing, oper-
~LAYS ates a microswitch to trip the supply or give an alarm.
Semiconductor cells are susceptible to overvoltage fail-
"ER TRIPPING ures caused by switching or lightning surges, arc voltages
YS
on fuse clearance, chopping of load current, etc. Protection
usually takes the form of surge diverters or resistor/capacitor
TRIP COILS networks connected to earth (or between phases) and across
MARY SWITCHES the d.c. output. Rectifier transformers are often provided
with earthed screens between the windings to limit the surge
transfer.
Figure35.42 A single differential system for bus-bar protection

35.3 Testing and commissioning

The testing of protective schemes has always been a prob-
lem, because protective gear is concerned only with fault
RELAYS conditions and cannot readily be tested under normal system
operating conditions. The problem has been aggravated in
recent years by the complexity of protective schemes and
relays.
!
i x =i : _ _ Protective gear testing may be divided into three stages:
.. 9 (1) factory tests, (2) commissioning tests, and (3) periodic
_
maintenance tests.
Figure35.43 A frame earth system The first two stages prove the performance of the protec-
tive equipment during its development and manufacture,
and in its operational environment. The last stage, properly
Motors up to about 400 kW usually have ball or roller planned, ensures that this performance is maintained
bearings which may fail very quickly: the only remedy is to throughout its life.
disconnect the motor as rapidly as possible to avoid the The relay manufacturer must provide adequate testing of
overcurrent damaging the windings. Larger machines protective gear before it is accepted and commissioned.
usually have sleeve bearings, incipient failure of which may The tests performed are (a) tests in which the operating
be detected by a temperature device embedded in the bear- parameters of the relays, etc., are simulated; (b) conditions
ing. As the current increase may be only 10-20%, it cannot such as temperature range, vibration, mechanical shock,
be detected by the overload relays. electrical impulse withstand, etc., which might affect the
The majority of winding failures are caused by overload, operation in service. In some cases tests of both groups are
leading to deterioration of the insulation followed by conducted simultaneously to check performance.
electrical fault in the winding. With the advent of static relays the use of semiconductors
The wide diversity of motor designs makes it impossible and other electronic components has posed new problems
to cover all types and ratings with a simple characteristic to the manufacturer, because the production of such devices
curve. Motors with fluctuating loads where shutdown is not within his control. Quality control testing procedures
would affect the whole process might be left running by have been established with the object of identifying the
giving the overload relay a higher current setting. Motors device that may fail early in its life, the usual method being
on a steady load can be tripped more quickly, as overload to determine which critical parameters will show a substan-
will probably be due to a mechanical fault. tial change when subjected to accelerated life testing and to
A temperature compensated static relay can follow examine these.
changes of the working temperature of the motor more
accurately, so that it will not be shut down on overload
unless it is overheated. By including a number of alternative 35.3.1 Commissioning tests
operating time-current characteristics it is possible to cover The object of the commissioning tests is to ensure that the
a wide range of motor designs and applications. Protection connections are correct, that the performance of current
of motors operating on unbalanced voltages is provided by transformers and relays agrees with the expected results,
35/26 Protection

and that no components have been damaged by transport A heavy current testing transformer may be designed with
or installation. This performance test includes correct cur- an input suitable for a general range of low-voltage supply.
rent transformer ratio, correct calibration of relays and tests The types available include three-phase and single-phase
proving that the tripping, intertripping and indication of the units with resistance or induction regulator control. For the
scheme are in order. purpose of producing primary current the output terminals
Although the details of every protective scheme vary, the are connected across the primary of the circuit under test, to
main points to be checked on every scheme are: (a) stability test windings or test bar primaries embodied in the current
of the system under all conditions of 'through' current; transformers. On metal clad switchgear, connection to the
(b) that the sensitivity of all relays with reference to the primary can be made through the circuit spouts with testing
primary current is correct. plugs; potential transformer spouts may also be used, but the
Prior to making these final checks on site a very careful current-carrying capacity should be investigated.
preliminary check on the protective gear scheme should be When using externally mounted current transformers
made. Such tests would include: around cables, e.g. in core balance types of protection, flex-
ible cables may be used for threading through the transfor-
(1) examination of all small wiring connections, and insula- mers with current supplied from a heavy current testing
tion resistance tests on all circuits; transformer. The cable should be as central as possible, as
(2) identification of all pilot cables--insulation resistance small errors are introduced if the cable is asymmetrically
tests and loop resistance tests on balanced pilot-wire located. For balancing purposes it is noted that if the rela-
schemes; tive position of each cable in each transformer is the same,
(3) polarity and ratio check (if possible) on all current the same error will be introduced and the effect neutralised.
transformers;
(4) tests on d.c. tripping, intertripping and operation of
all breakers connected with the unit, including alarm
circuits and relay signals; 35.3.3 Secondary injection tests
(5) checking of calibration of all relays by secondary injec- The preceding methods utilise primary current, but use can
tion; and be made of secondary injection. The effect of primary cur-
(6) miscellaneous tests depending on special details of a rent in a c.t. is to develop a secondary voltage; in secondary
particular scheme. injection, voltage is applied to the secondary terminals,
usually from an injection transformer, so applying the 'out-
put' voltage. The method has application for checking
35.3.1.1 Saturation curve relays, calibration, commissioning and maintenance. It is
not in itself sufficient for balanced schemes, and must in
Considerable use on site may be made of a c.t. saturation such cases be supplemented by tests on load; however, it is
curve using a LV local supply; it compares closely with possible in most cases to simulate through-faults to earth,
results obtained by primary current. An LV a.c. supply is and phase-phase conditions, by rearrangement of the sec-
fed to the secondary winding through a control rheostat, ondary c.t. connections. One limitation is that the 'load'
and a curve of voltage-current for the secondary is plotted. current is dependent on the load on the unit, usually deter-
The equivalent primary current is inferred from the turns mined by network conditions, and on balanced systems the
ratio. The test is useful for comparing the performance of stability check may be at a low primary current.
c.t.s required to have matched characteristics. The various types of injection transformers generally
Such preliminary tests ensure that components are correct. have a tapped primary winding, with a secondary resistance
The commissioning process thereafter must depend upon site controlled output covering a range of voltage. The method
facilities. The following notes give a general outline. gives fine control for calibrating and enables a low power
input to be used.
When using injection transformer for timing tests on
35.3.2 Primary current tests induction-type relays with inverse time characteristics, the
A generator is isolated with the unit under test and by waveform characteristics should be carefully ascertained.
means of primary short circuits and earth faults stability Such relays are very sensitive to wave form (having an inher-
figures, on balanced systems, under full load conditions ent, saturable iron circuit), and a more satisfactory and reli-
and operation tests with internal faults may be carried out. able method for checking timing is to supply the test current
It is important that the makers of the generator be con- from a low voltage with resistance control. In this way the
sulted before it is used for steady unbalanced conditions, saturating feature of the relay is absorbed by the controlling
e.g. testing with one phase earthed, as the distortion of flux resistance, the source of supply being treated as a transfor-
combined with armature reaction, if prolonged, may result mer of relatively high capacity. It must be noted that the
in excessive heating. Earthing resistors and transformers saturation of the injection transformer itself is important.
should be short circuited or bypassed during current testing,
as they are normally short time rated. An inverted transfor-
mer is a means of stepping-up testing current where a trans-
35.3.4 Fault location
former is available between the unit under test and the
source of test supply. For example, if the transformer has a Rapid location of a fault, together with some idea of its
normal step-up ratio of 6.6 kV to 66 kV, then by connecting nature, is clearly an essential preliminary to its quick repair.
the testing supply (isolated generator or low-voltage source) With overhead lines visual inspection either from the
to the 66 kV windings and supplying the test current from ground or from a helicopter may be possible, but if this is
the output of the 6.6 kV windings a 10/1 step-up of current not practicable, and almost always in the case of under-
is obtained. This 'inversion' can readily be carried out by ground cables, inspection of the flag indicators on protec-
flexible cabling when the connections to the transformer tive relays and simple Megger or continuity tests will
are made through open-type bushings, and is applicable to usually provide useful evidence and enable a suitable
any power transformer. method of more detailed investigation to be selected.
 Overvoltage protection 35/27

35.3.4.1 Loop tests 35.4.1 Insulation co-ordination

If the fault is of low resistance, a low-voltage (car) battery International and national standards for phase-to-earth insu-
may suffice for the test supply. For higher-resistance faults lation are referred to three system voltage ranges, viz. 1-36,
about 500 V from, say, a Megger may be required, while for 52-245 and 300-765kV r.m.s. (Standards for other than
very high resistance, where it is necessary to break down the phase-to-earth insulation are under consideration.) Tables
fault, an HV rectifier set may be used. 35.1 to 35.3 give the standard voltage levels in terms of:
V0 highest system voltage (in kilovolts r.m.s.) at which the
plant and the protective equipment have to operate
35.3.4.2 Other tests normally;
Fall-of-potential, capacitance and pulse reflection tests are Ulp rated lightning-impulse withstand voltage (in kilovolts
more sophisticated methods. Such tests, with loop tests, peak);
may be accurate to a location within 20 m or so of the fault Vsp rated switching-impulse withstand voltage (in kilovolts
point. In the case of underground cables a more precise peak); and
location is desirable before excavation. Typical are induc- V~ rated power-frequency short-duration withstand
tion and discharge methods. voltage (in kilovolts r.m.s.).
Lower range Table 35.1 gives voltage values in two series
based on current practice (I) in Europe and (II) in the USA
and Canada, and applicable to other countries within the
35.40vervoltage protection sphere of influence of (I) or (II). There are two lists in (I),
the choice between them being made on consideration of
Lightning, switching and other less common phenomena the degree of exposure to lightning and switching impulse
produce overvoltages on transmission and distribution sys- voltages, the type of system neutral earthing and (where
tems. Precautions against consequential damage and system applicable) the type of overvoltage protective devices. In
outage must be taken, by (a) preventing overvoltages from (II) the data are based on the apparent power rating of the
being impressed on the system, and (b) protecting vulner- plant protected.
able equipment from voltage surges. Middle range In Table 35.2 more than one level of Vlp is
Insulation levels are based on combinations of short- given, the highest being for plant in systems where the earth
duration power-frequency overvoltages, and impulse volt- fault factor exceeds 1.4.
ages arising from lightning or switching. Protective devices Higher range Table 35.3 specifies no power-frequency
are (1) non-linear resistor surge arresters, (2) expulsion values, the switching overvoltage having priority. The
surge arresters (up to voltages not exceeding 36 kV), and rated values of/Jlp associated with a standard/Jsp have been
(3) spark-gaps. These do not provide the same degree of chosen in accordance with: (a) for plant protected by
protection, and the choice between them depends on such
factors as the relative importance of the plant to be pro-
tected, the consequence of an outage, the system layout, Table 35.1 Insulationco-ordination, 1-36 kV
the probable lightning activity and the system voltage.
The breakdown of plant insulation varies with the time go b'lp Wl
for which an overvoltage is maintained. Figure 35.44 indi- (kV r.m.s) (kV r.m.s.)
cates typical voltage-time relations for plant insulation and (kV peak) (kV peak)
overvoltage protection devices. A surge arrester has a char-
acteristic similar to that of the plant, and is usually arranged Ser&s I L~t 1 L~t 2
to spark-over at a voltage slightly lower. A spark-gap has a 3.6 20 40 10
more nearly hyperbolic characteristic, so that the plant 7.2 40 60 20
insulation may break down first on overvoltages of short 12 60 75 28
duration; but if, to avoid this, the spark-gap breakdown 17.5 75 95 38
voltage is reduced, many unnecessary outages may result. 24 95 125 50
36 145 170 70
SerMsH <500kV-A >500kV-A
4.4 60 75 19
13.2-14.5 95 110 34
26.4 150 150 50
~ Insulation 36.5 200 200 70

Table 35.2 Insulationco-ordination, 52-245 kV

Vo /Jlp V1
(kV r.m.s.) (kV peak) (kV r.m.s.)

52 250 95
72.5 325 140
123 450, 550 185, 230
Time 145 550, 650 230, 275
170 650, 750 275, 325
Figure 35.44 Typicalvoltage/time relationships for plant insulation 245 750, 850, 950, 1050 325, 360, 395, 460
and overvoltage protection devices
35/28 Protection

Table 35.3 Insulation co-ordination, 300-765 kV and results in a long outage. Overvoltage protection is thus
aimed primarily at the defence of transformers.
V0 Usp V1
(kV r.m.s.) (kV peak) (kV peak) Surge attenuation A travelling wave of voltage attenuates
(mainly by corona loss) as it is propagated along a line, and
300 750 850, 950 its magnitude and wavefront steepness are mitigated.
300 850 950, 1050 Inductive coupling with the earth and with earth or counter-
362 850 950, 1050 poise wires assists in this process. A reduction by one-half
362 950 1050, 1175 may thus occur in a line length of 5-8 km.
420 950 1050, 1175 A length of underground cable between the terminal of
420 1050 1175, 1300, 1425 an overhead line and the substation plant also reduces the
525 1050 1175, 1300, 1425 magnitude of an incoming voltage surge, owing to the lower
525 1175 1300, 1425, 1550 surge impedance of the cable. Additional reflections from
765 1300 1425, 1550, 1800 the junctions may, however, partially offset this advantage
765 1425 1550, 1800, 2100 and the cable is itself vulnerable. Although such a section of
765 1550 1800, 1950, 2400 cable is often desirable for amenity or other reasons, it is
rarely installed solely for protective purposes.

Surge arrester The aim is to direct a surge to earth before

surge arresters the two lowest values apply, and (b) for
it reaches a vulnerable plant. The arrester must be located
plant n o t - - o r not effectively--protected by arresters only
as near as is practicable to the terminals of the plant. An
the highest value applies. ideal arrester (a) takes no current at normal system voltage,
Several insulation levels may exist in the one power
(b) establishes an instantaneous path to earth for any volt-
network, appropriate to different situations or to the char-
age that is abnormally high, (c) is capable of carrying the
acteristics of different protective equipments.
full discharge current and (d) inhibits subsequent power-
frequency current. The modern device comprises an assembly
35.4.2 Protective equipment of small gaps and non-linear resistors in series, the whole
being contained in a cylindrical porcelain housing. The use
35.4.2.1 Lightning of multiple rather than single gaps gives the most rapid
breakdown. The resistor elements offer a low resistance to
Underground cables are virtually immune from direct light- surge currents (limiting the voltage across the arrester) and
ning strokes, so that preventive measures apply in general a much higher resistance to the power-frequency follow
only to overhead lines. current. Careful gap design ensures that the follow current
does not restrike.
Earth wire Shielding the line conductors by an earth wire Rod gap A plain air-gap is cheap, and it satisfies require-
is reasonably effective in preventing a direct stroke to the ments (a), (b) and (c) above. However, it does not fulfil
conductors, provided that the conductors lie within a seg- condition (d), and although gap breakdown protects the
ment subtending an angle of about 45 ~ (or preferably 25 ~ plant from overvoltage, there may be a power-frequency
for towers above 50m high) from the earth wire to the follow current which must be cleared by a circuit-breaker
ground. Owing to the complex (and not fully understood) operation, involving an outage. A plain rod gap, connected
nature of the leader stroke as it approaches the earth, such between line and earth, has the following typical gap lengths
protection sometimes fails; in cases of particular import- giving breakdown at about 80% of the plant impulse level:
ance, e.g. near a major substation or where lightning is
particularly prevalent, two earth wires may be installed.

Tower footing resistance A lightning stroke to the earth System voltage (kV) 36.2 72.5 145 300 420
wire can produce a back-flashover to the line conductors Gap length (m): 0.23 0.35 0.66 1.25 1.70
resulting in a line surge voltage unless the tower footing
resistance is very low, e.g. not greater than 1 f~ per 100 kV
of impulse level. In difficult situations a buried counterpoise
earthing system, comprising wires radiating from the foot of 35.4.2.4 Prevention of outages
the tower to a distance of 30-60m, or continuous wires About 80% of the earth faults on overhead lines are of a
from tower to tower, help to lower the footing resistance. transient nature resulting from lightning, birds or other
causes, and no damage to the equipment is caused;
however, the ionised path caused by the transient flashover
35.4.2.2 Switching surges permits a power-frequency follow current to flow which
While switching surges cannot be entirely avoided, it is must be cleared by a circuit-breaker operation. Such
desirable on lines of 300 kV upward to limit them by shunt- outages can, however, be avoided in certain cases by the
ing across circuit-breaker contacts, during closure, resistors use of arc suppression coils (Petersen coils) or auto-reclose
of value approximating to the surge impedance of the line circuit-breakers.
(300-400 ~).
Arc suppression coil For reasons of insulation economy
and/or safety it is customary to earth the neutral point of a
35.4.2.3 Damage to plant system either directly or through a resistor. Any earth fault
Overhead-line damage by overvoltage can occasionally results in fault current and necessitates a circuit outage to
occur, but is generally repairable fairly quickly, but damage clear it. Were the neutral point isolated, it might be expected
to substation plant (particularly to transformers) is costly that an earth fault would result in no fault current and that
 Overvoltage protection 35/29

_..,-v-v'-v~ e i
. . . . . I,,. y I

I l I
I I
, ~ ; I e
~-~ / I I I
_L J_ J__
l J/ C,-p ,,,p ,=p..,C ' z, c I.,,~ c
z,,- z=,+g,
i it i1
z. z,,, L : I :

(o) (b)

vo 4 v~ v,

z,r z,=
Figure 35.45 Action of arc-suppression coil: (a) isolated neutral; (b) neutral earthed through arc-suppression coil

the system could continue to operate, provided that the rais- y SUB-CIRCUIT
ing of the two sound phases to line voltage above earth T~AJ AITO~LOSER
potential were acceptable. However, owing to the system MAIN LINE
(t) FUSE, OR " ~ , ~
capacitance a leading current will flow through the fault as (iii) BACK-UP PROTN. (ii) SECTIONALISER-
shown in Figure 35.45(a). If the fault involves an arc, any
(0)
such current, if it exceeds a few amperes, is likely to cause
damaging voltage surges and to be very persistent. FAULT FAULT RESE T
-CLOSEO. . . . ~
Operation with a completely isolated neutral point is there-
fore impracticable except on very small isolated systems. t CLOSED i
I I
I I
If, however, the neutral is earthed through a high induc-
' ~-' / '----- O~E.---
tive reactance X (several hundred ohms), the resulting lag-
INST. TIME-DELAY TRIPS INST. TRIPS
ging current can, neglecting losses, precisely neutralise the
capacitance current, as shown in Figure 35.45(b). There will (I:)) (c)
thus be no fault current and the system can be operated
with the fault until such time as it can conveniently be Figure 35.46 Auto-reclosing: (a) system; (b) lock-open sequence;
repaired. To secure precise balance the value of the arc sup- (c) hold-closed sequence
pression coil reactance must be X = 1/3~C.
Arc suppression coils are effective on 12 kV, 36 kV and
occasionally up to 245 kV systems, but at the higher volt- example, twice full-load value, movement of the plunger of
ages and with long lines the resistive and other losses pre- a series solenoid causes the recloser to open. The plunger is
vent precise phase opposition of I f l and Ire so that there is a then spring-reset and the reclosing is automatic. Relay
resultant current in the fault which, if it involves an arc, is features control the reclosing and opening times, and a
inextinguishable and damaging. mechanism is provided to enable the recloser to lock open
or hold closed at the end of its operating sequence.
Auto-reclose circuit-breaker A transient flashover rarely Figure 35.46(b) shows a lock-open sequence, the open-
causes damage if the fault is cleared by the normal protec- circuit times being adjustable between 0.25 and 1 s. If the
tive equipment. After an interval of 0.4-0.8 s, sufficient for fault clears and operation is stopped during the cycle, the
the natural de-ionisation of the arc path, the circuit-breaker mechanism returns to the starting position. The 'instant-
can be reclosed with safety. aneous' trips are rapid (2-7 cycles) to avoid fuse deterior-
Circuit-breakers with automatic reclosure was widely ation: they give two chances for fault clearance. The time delay
used on 12kV and 36kV radial distribution networks. switching occurs twice to blow the fuses on a permanently
They are required to provide time delay switching in the faulted section. If the sequence continues, the operation
event of a permanent fault; permit of normal fuse discrimi- terminates with the recloser locked open. In Figure 35.46(c)
nation to limit the area of interruption; operate rapidly on is shown a sequence ending in a hold-closed condition.
the initial passage of a fault current. Figure 35.46(a) shows A permanent fault is cleared by other means, after which
three applications. In (i) all transient faults are cleared by the mechanism automatically resets. Transient faults are
the recloser, and in the case of permanent faults the recloser cleared as with type (b).
sequence provides a time delay trip to blow the fuse only Where adequate fuse co-ordination is not obtainable, the
on the faulty sub-circuit. In (ii) sectionalisers provide the alternative is the use of sectionalisers, as at (ii) in Figure
disconnecting means for faulty sub-circuits. Method (iii) 35.46(a), associated with automatic reclosers. A sectional-
operates as (i), except that on permanent fault the recloser iser comprises a normally closed oil switch latched in
holds closed and back-up protection operates. against spring loading. When a fault occurs, the current
A typical current operated recloser comprises a normally passes through a series coil which actuates the mechanism
closed oil circuit-breaker for pole mounting. The breaker and counts the fault current impulses during the recloser
is held closed by springs. When the current exceeds, for sequence, opening the sectionaliser automatically during a
35/30 Protection

pre-set open-circuit period. The mechanism resets if the IEE, Developments in Power System Protection (lEE
fault clears prior to the end of the sequence, but if the sec- Conference Publication No. 185), Peter Peregrinus
tionaliser reaches the open condition, it must be reset by IEE, Electricity Distribution (CIRED 1981), (lEE Conference
hand. Publication No. 197), Peter Peregrinus (1981)
Auto-reclosing is also sometimes used on transmission JOHN, M. N., 'Electricity supply--problems and
systems to assist in maintaining stability by reclosing before possibilities', lEE Electronics and Power, 29(10), 702-704
synchronous machines have had time to lose synchronism. JOHNS, A. T. and SALMAN, S. K., Digital Protection
In some cases, particularly on single-circuit lines, the added for Power Systems, lEE, Power Engineering Books
complication of selecting, tripping and reclosing only the Series (1995)
faulty phase is justified. JOHNS, A. T. and WALKER, E. P., 'Co-operative research
When the loss of supply may have serious consequences, in the engineering and design of a new digital directional
duplicate supplies or a ring main may be installed. comparison scheme', Proceedings lEE, Part C, 135(4), (July
1988)
KEINERT, L. et al., Service Experience with, and
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