Color Definitions

How are colors classified? What is a saturated color? Here is an explanation of the chromatic circle
and definitions of color terms such as you have never had before!

Primary colors: Primary colors - red , yellow and blue - may not be created by mixing other colors. On the
contrary, they are mixed with one another to produce other colors. In printing and plastic arts, magenta (a pinkish
red), yellow and cyan (a blue) are used as primary colors because they are better suited to mixing, and yield
better balanced secondary colors. A mixture of the three primary colors produces black.

Secondary colors: They result from the mixing of two of the primary colors. Red (magenta) and yellow produce
orange, yellow and blue (cyan) produce green while red and blue (cyan) produce violet.

Intermediate colors: Mixing a primary and a secondary color produces an intermediate color such as orange-
yellow.

Complementary colors: Colors that are opposite one another in the chromatic circle are called complementary.
For example, green (resulting from the mixing of the primary colors yellow and blue [cyan]) is complementary to
red. Orange (a mixture of yellow and red [magenta]) is complementary to blue, while violet (a mixture of blue
[cyan] and red [magenta] is complementary to yellow.

Warm colors: Colors ranging between yellow to red-violet on the circle i.e. yellow, orange-yellow, red and red-
violet.

However, interaction between colors may cause a hue such as red-violet to appear warmer if it is placed next to a
cold color, such as green, or colder if it is placed next to a warm color, such as orange.

Cold colors: Colors ranging between blue-violet and yellow-green on the chromatic circle i.e. blue-violet, blue,
blue-green, green, yellow-green.

However, interaction between colors may cause a hue such as yellow-green to appear colder if it is placed next to
a warm color, such as red, or warmer if it is placed next to a cold color, such as blue.

Pale or clear colors: Hues containing more or less white.

Dark colors: Hues containing more or less black.

Saturated or bright colors: Pure hues containing, theoretically, no white, black, gray or complementary colors.
However, this definition can be stretched to extend the range of complementary colors. For example, the range of
saturated blues is not limited to pure blues. Blues containing white or black may still be considered saturated. On
the other hand, orange containing black, even in small quantities, is considered unsaturated because it becomes
brownish.

Unsaturated or gray-tinted colors: Hues containing more or less gray, or of their complementary color.
Theoreticians also use the expression "dull colors" to designate those colors. The expression does not carry a
derogatory meaning.

Munsell Color Space

Harmony: In decoration, harmony refers to a combination of colors that is pleasing to the eye.

The Voice of Color® has adopted definitions derived from the Munsell System of Color Notation. The Munsell
System arranges colors in a three-dimensional space resembling a tree. The trunk (vertical axis) serves as a scale
for neutral gray tones, black being at the bottom, white at the top. The horizontal axes, in variable lengths,
represent a degree of saturation for each of the hues.

The world renowned Munsell System describes each color according to three attributes: hue, value and chroma
(saturation), terms that allow all those interested in color to speak the same language.

Chromatic Circle

Hue: It is the quality that distinguishes one color from another. It is, for example, what differentiates blue from
yellow.

Munsell Value

Value: It refers to the position of a hue relative to the vertical gray scale. Value allows to qualify hues as pale or
dark, or light and dark.

Munsell Chroma

Chroma (saturation): It describes the horizontal spread between a hue of the same scale value as neutral gray.
Chroma allows us to describe a color as saturated or unsaturated, or as bright or gray-tinted. Adding gray makes
the hue less saturated or more unsaturated. A hue can also be modified with the addition of some of its
complementary color.
The seven color contrasts:

The seven color contrasts, as described by Johannes Itten (The Art of Color), form the basis of almost every color
effect used in interior design. The Voice of Color® provides a brief explanation. To find out how to transpose those
notions into decorating, visit the Playing with Space page of the About Color section.

Pure color contrasts (hue)

They result from the juxtaposition of saturated colors that are clearly different. These contrasts are peak when the
three primary colors are juxtaposed to one another.

Light-dark contrasts (value)

They are produced by the juxtaposition of a pale and dark color or of a clear and dark color. In a monochromatic
palette, the use of such contrasts adds depth to the entire palette. In a palette made up of different colors,
however, the absence of such contrasts, or the use of hues of equivalent lightness, help to link the different colors.

Warm-cold contrasts (temperature)

They result from the juxtaposition of warm and cold colors, which makes warm hues appear warmer, and vice
versa. This type of contrast, which helps balance color schemes, can be found in many of the Harmony
Collection™ palettes.

In AF-8, the yellow (warm) makes the greens look rather cold, whereas in
AF-6, the blue (cold) makes them look warmer.

Complementary contrasts
They refer to the juxtaposition of diametrically opposed colors on the chromatic circle. Such contrasts contribute
to the fundamental and natural balance of chromatic composition.
Quality contrasts (saturation)
They are the result of juxtaposing saturated and unsaturated colors, or bright and gray-tinted colors (to which
gray or its complementary color was added). This contrast exists only if unsaturated colors are considerably
dominant.

In this example, the red (232-7), relatively more luminous, contrasts

with the other colors which are more attenuated.

Simultaneous contrasts
They flow from the juxtaposition of two colors that are not exactly complementary. In such cases, colors seem to
repel one another and vibrate as the eye tries to bring them closer to their precise complementary colors. The use
of such contrasts makes chromatic compositions livelier and more interesting.

Quantity contrasts (proportion)

They are the result of the juxtaposition of little and much, small and large. The surface devoted to each color
influences their impact on compositions. Creating balanced compositions calls for more than devoting equal space
to each color. The brightness and saturation of each hue must also be taken into account. The lighter a hue, the
greater its impact and the lower its need for space. The more saturated or bright the color is, the more powerful is
its effect.
Itten's Color Contrasts

Johannes Itten was one of the first people to define and identify strategies for successful color combinations.
Through his research he devised seven methodologies for coordinating colors utilizing the hue's contrasting
properties. These contrasts add other variations with respect to the intensity of the respective hues; i.e. contrasts
may be obtained due to light, moderate, or dark value.

The contrast of saturation (quality)

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of light and dark values and
their relative saturation.

The contrast of light and dark (value)

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of light and dark values. This
could be a monochromatic composition.

The contrast of extension (quantity)

Also known as the Contrast of Proportion. The contrast is formed by

assigning proportional field sizes in relation to the visual weight of a color.

The contrast of complements

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of color wheel or perceptual

opposites.
The contrast of hue (pure color)

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of different hues. The greater

the distance between hues on a color wheel, the greater the contrast.

The contrast of warm and cool (temperature)

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of hues considered 'warm' or

'cool.'

Simultaneous contrast

The contrast is formed when the boundaries between colors perceptually

vibrate. Some interesting illusions are accomplished with this contrast.
Combining Colors

Color combination is really the most important part of color theory and designing with colors, and also the hardest-- It
always comes down to your personal judgement and how you look at colors. There are, however, some guidelines that can
be used to make a color combination that is interesting and pleasing to the eye.

How many colors?

It is hard to give an exact answer to this question, but in general one can say that the risk of using too many colors is greater
than the risk of using too few.

Too many colors will make the page feel too busy and it usually makes it harder for the viewer to find the information he or she
wants. It is also more tiring to the eyes.

A page with too few colors, on the other hand, risks being seen as a bit boring, but this need not always be the case.

One commonly used rule in these matters is to use three colors:

>> Primary color: This is the main color of the page. It will occupy most of the area and set the tone for the design as a whole.

>> Secondary color: This is the second color on the page, and it is usually there to "back up" the primary color. It is usually a
color that is pretty close to the primary color.

>> Highlight color: This is a color that is used to emphasize certain parts of the page. It is usually a color which constrasts more
with the primary and secondary colors, and as such, it should be used with moderation. It is common to use a complimentary or
split-complimentary color for this (see below).

Color Wheel
By now you should recognize the color wheel. If not, please read the section about
Color Theory. As mentioned there, the color wheel is very useful when you want to
combine colors in a way that is pleasing. Below I will demonstrate some of the most
common ways to combine the colors in the color wheel.

Analog Colors
The analog colors are those colors which lie on either side of any given color. Often
these are color schemes found in nature. A site that makes use of analogous colors
usually feels harmonious. The secondary color, as described above, can often be an
analogous color.

Complementary Colors
The complementary colors are the colors which are directly opposite from one another
on the color wheel. Complementary colors are contrasting and stand out against each
other. Often it is a good idea to use a complementary color as the hightlight color, as
described above.
 Split Complementary Colors
Split complementary is a color and the analogous colors to its complement color. Using
split complementary colors can give you a design with a high degree of contrast, yet still
not as extreme as a real complementary color. It also results in greater harmony than
the use of the direct complementary.

Triad Colors
Triad colors are three hues equidistant on the color wheel. When you want a design that
is colorful and yet balanced, a triad color scheme might be the way to go.

Other color combinations

Besides the color combinations described above, which are based on the position of the colors on the color wheel, there are
also a few other ways of combining colors.

Monotone Chromatic
A monotone color scheme is just one single hue and its variations in terms of tints, shades and saturation. Using saturation and
tint/shade variations of a color is always good. However, in most cases I would advise against using a fully monochromatic
scheme, as there is a risk of monotony. Using it with pure white or black can be efficient, though.

Monotone Achromatic
A monotone achromatic color scheme is a special instace of the monotone scheme which consists of only neutral colors ranging
from black to white. A scheme like this can be efficient, but it can very easily look boring. Using an acromatic scheme with just
one bright color for highlight can be very effectful.
Color Contrast

Now that we know how different colors can be combined, we just need to introduce one more important aspect of color
theory, and that is contrast.

Simply put, contrast is the difference between two colors. On a web page, the amount of contrast required varies with different
parts of the page. You usually want a high contrast between text and its background color. But too high contrast between design
elementsmight give an unsettled and messy impression. Black and white create the highest contrast possible.

Please visit our Color Contrast Analyzer page to see if the colors you want to use have enough contrast.

Colors can contrast in hue, value and saturation, but there are many different types of contrasts that have been defined by
color theorists throughout the years. Some of them are perhaps not directly applicable to web design, but let's look at a few of
the most important.

Contrast of Hue
Contrast of hue is what relates most directly to the color wheel combinations described
above. The further away from each other two colors are, the higher the contrast. This
means that the complementary color combination has the highest contrast, while the
analogous combination has the lowest. For text, a contrast of hue alone is usually not
enough to make the text as legible as wanted. In that case, you might want to combine
contrast of hue with some other form of contrast.

Contrast of Value
Contrast of value is very efficient in creating large contrasts. The biggest contrast of
them all-- black and white-- can be said to be a contrast of value. In general, large
differences in lightness are considered to be pleasant for the eye, but low contrasts of
value can also be useful for more subtle differences-- for instance, in a background.

Contrast of Saturation
Contrast of saturation is often best for design aspects that do not require a lot of
emphasis. A set of colors with different saturations set against a grey background can be
interpreted as transperancy. This is something that can be used to interesting effect.

Simultaneous Contrast
This is a contrast effect that is created by our eyes' tendency to require a
complementary color. You can get this effect by combining two bright colors that are
not complementary, or by using a single bright color against a grey background. This
gives a feeling of instability and tension and should be used with caution.
Combination of Contrasts
While the contrasts above can be efficiently used one at the time, is is most common to
use a combination of them-- especially for text where you need a high contrast. The top
picture to the left shows blue and its split complementary color, orange. This is a
combination that has a high contrast of hue. This gives a rather vibrant combination
that can be tiring to the eyes. By changing the value and saturation as in the next
picture you will get a combination which is much more pleasing to the eye, and more
readable.

Colors and Text

As mentioned above, using the right contrast is especially important for text. Using the
wrong colors can decrease the readability drastically, and it will quickly tire the reader's
eyes. Black text on a white background has the highest readability. Black and yellow is
another combination which usually has a high readability, as do blue and white.

Green text on red and red text on green are particularly hard for many people to read.
A combination of red and blue creates a vibrating effect that can also make reading very
Color Basics, Introduction to Color Theory http://www.worqx.com/color/color_basics.htm

Art does not reproduce the visible; rather, it makes visible.

— Paul Klee

Related Resources
Be sure to visit Resources for bibliographical references and links to additional sites.

Color Basics
Color is the perceptual characteristic of light described by a color name. Specifically, color is light, and light
is composed of many colors—those we see are the colors of the visual spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, and violet. Objects absorb certain wavelengths and reflect others back to the viewer. We perceive
these wavelengths as color.

A color is described in three ways: by its name, how pure or desaturated it is, and its value or lightness.
Although pink, crimson, and brick are all variations of the color red, each hue is distinct and differentiated by
its chroma, saturation, intensity, and value.

Chroma, intensity, saturation and luminance/value are inter-related terms and have to do with the
description of a color.

Chroma: How pure a hue is in relation to gray

Saturation: The degree of purity of a hue.
Intensity: The brightness or dullness of a hue. One may lower the intensity by
adding white or black.
Luminance / Value: A measure of the amount of light reflected from a hue.
Those hues with a high content of white have a higher luminance or value.

Shade and tint are terms that refer to a variation of a hue.

Shade: A hue produced by the addition of black.

Tint: A hue produced by the addition of white.

Continue tutorial, view: The Color Systems

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Color deceives continuously.

— Josef Albers

Color on the Web

The Web brings a level of constraint regarding the use of color; not only is there a difference in
monitor quality and resolution, but there are only 216 'browser safe colors.' This is thought of as a
concern of the past as statistics reveal that 65% of computers browsing the Web today display
16,777,216 different colors, but handheld devices are still limited to 256 colors. Read more about
Browser Statistics at: www.w3schools.com
For more information, read "Death of the Web safe Color Palette?" at Webmonkey

Color Systems
Available color systems are dependent on the medium with which a designer is working. When painting, an
artist has a variety of paints to choose from, and mixed colors are achieved through the subtractive color
method. When a designer is utilizing the computer to generate digital media, colors are achieved with the
additive color method.

Subtractive Color. When we mix colors using paint, or through the printing process, we are using the
subtractive color method. Subtractive color mixing means that one begins with white and ends with black; as
one adds color, the result gets darker and tends to black.

The CMYK color system is Those colors used in

the color system used for painting—an example
printing. of the subtractive color
method.

Additive Color. If we are working on a computer, the colors we see on the screen are created with light
using the additive color method. Additive color mixing begins with black and ends with white; as more color
is added, the result is lighter and tends to white.

The RGB colors are light Percentages of red,

primaries and colors are green, & blue light are
created with light. used to generate color
on a computer screen.

Working With Systems

The Visible spectrum consists of billions of colors, a monitor can
display millions, a high quality printer is only capable of producing
thousands, and older computer systems may be limited to 216
cross-platform colors.

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Reproducing color can be problematic with regard to printed, digital media, because what we see is not what
is possible to get. Although a monitor may be able to display 'true color' (16,000,000 colors), millions of these
colors are outside of the spectrum available to printers. Since digital designs are generated using the RGB
color system, colors used in those designs must be part of the CMYK spectrum or they will not be reproduced
with proper color rendering. Working within the CMYK color system, or choosing colors from Pantone©
palettes insures proper color rendering.

Continue tutorial, view: Color Wheel

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All colors are the friends of their neighbors and the lovers of their opposites.
— Marc Chagall

For Further Review

The color wheel is an invention credited to Sir Isaac Newton (1706). Read more about Newton's color
circle at: Handprint.com
Artists use a traditional color wheel based on the Red/Yellow/Blue model with secondary colors of
orange, green and purple. Read more at: Wikipedia

Color Wheel
A color wheel (also referred to as a color circle) is a visual representation of
colors arranged according to their chromatic relationship. Begin a color wheel by
positioning primary hues equidistant from one another, then create a bridge
between primaries using secondary and tertiary colors.

These terms refer to color groups or types:

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Complementary colors make a strange pair. They are opposite, yet they require each other. They incite each
other to maximum vividness when together; and annihilate each other when mixed. — Johannes Itten

Mixing Complements
As stated by Johannes Itten, complementary colors annihilate each other when mixed to create dark
neutrals:

Complementary Colors
We look at a color wheel to understand the relationships between colors. Analogous colors are positioned in
such a way as to mimic the process that occurs when blending hues. The colors that are positioned opposite
one another are complementary colors.

To call those hues in direct opposition to each other "complements of each other" is appropriate.
Complementary colors bring out the best in each other. When fully saturated complements are brought
together, interesting effects are noticeable. This may be a desirable illusion, or a problem if creating visuals
that are to be read.

Note that Vibrating Boundaries may occur when opposing colors are brought together.

(Notice the illusion of highlighted edges and raised text.)

Perceptual Opposites. We learn from the relationships displayed by a color wheel that every color has an
opposite. Every color has both a color wheel opposite as well as a perceptual opposite. Without a color
wheel, it is still possible to find the opposite of a color and this is due to a phenomenon of our eyes. Due to
the physiological differences between individuals, everyone's perceptions do vary—the complements shown
below are my own perceived opposites:

source >> result

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Learn more about perceptual opposites. Continue the tutorial and view: After Images

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Primary Colors: Colors at their basic essence; those colors that cannot be created
by mixing others.

Secondary Colors: Those colors achieved by a mixture of two primaries.

Tertiary Colors: Those colors achieved by a mixture of primary and secondary hues.

Complementary Colors: Those colors located opposite each other on a color wheel.

Analogous Colors: Those colors located close together on a color wheel.

The color wheel can be divided into ranges that are visually active or passive. Active colors will appear to
advance when placed against passive hues. Passive colors appear to recede when positioned against active
hues.

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Advancing hues are most often thought to have less visual weight than the receding hues.

Most often warm, saturated, light value hues are "active" and visually advance.

Cool, low saturated, dark value hues are "passive" and visually recede.

Tints or hues with a low saturation appear lighter than shades or highly saturated colors.

Some colors remain visually neutral or indifferent.

Color relationships may be displayed as a color wheel or a color triangle.

The Painter's color triangle consists of colors we would often use in art
class—those colors we learn about as children. The primary hues are red, blue
and yellow.

The Printers' color triangle is the set of colors used in the printing process. The
primaries are magenta, cyan, and yellow.

Nine-part harmonic triangle of Goethe begins with the printer's primaries; the
secondaries formed are the painter's primaries; and the resulting tertiaries
formed are dark neutrals.

Continue tutorial, view: Complementary Colors

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Who would believe that so small a space could contain all the images of the universe.
— Leonardo da Vinci (referring to the eye.)

More about the Eye

Visit the Exploratorium to learn more about After Images Bird in a Cage
Learn more about Color Vision at HowStuffWorks.com
Read more about the Eye at:
BiologyMad.com and
WebExhibits.org

After Images
Color is light and colored objects absorb and reflect different wavelengths. Light & color are seen by the
human eye because of the two types of photoreceptor cells - rods and cones - located in the retina of the
eye. Rods are sensitive to light and dark; cones are sensitive to red, green & blue light and responsible for
color vision. These photoreceptors convey the color of light to our brain. (Learn more about rods and cones,
at BiologyMad.com)

When our eyes are exposed to a hue for a prolonged period, the rods & cones become fatigued. You might
notice this if you are reading something on colored paper, and then look away—you often see the inverse, or
complement, of the image. This occurrence can be advantageous if you are seeking the opposite, or contrast,
of a color. This may be dismaying to a viewer if presented with prolonged exposure to colored screens or
reading materials.

Every color has an opposite, and although individual's perceptions do vary, the range of after images seen is
consistent.

Take the After Image Test

Stare at this image for at least 20 seconds. When finished, click on the image or the link below to proceed to
the next page.

Learn more about perceptual opposites. Continue the tutorial and view: After Images

©1998-2009 Janet Lynn Ford

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License.

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Color Combinations
Color combinations may pass unnoticed when pleasing, yet offend dramatically when compositions seem to
clash. One outcome we seek in the final form or composition, is a successful use of color.

We determine whether or not we are successful by critically assessing the visual balance and harmony of the
final composition—balance and harmony are achieved by the visual contrast that exists between color
combinations. Planning a successful color combination begins with the investigation, and understanding, of
color relationships.

Using a color wheel and a template, the relationships between colors are easy to identify.

Monochromatic Relationship Colors that are Complementary Relationship Those colors

shade or tint variations of the same hue. across from each other on a color wheel.

Split-Complementary Relationship One hue plus Double-Complementary Relationship Two

two others equally spaced from its complement. complementary color sets; the distance between
selected complementary pairs will effect the
overall contrast of the final composition.

Analogous Relationship Those colors located Triad Relationship Three hues equally positioned
adjacent to each other on a color wheel. on a color wheel.

Continue tutorial, view: Color & Contrast

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Colors, like features, follow the changes of the emotions.

— Pablo Picasso

Check Your Own Compositions

See how your images appear to someone with a color deficit. Visit: Vischeck
Note: They offer a free filter for use with PhotoShop.

Color & Contrast

Every visual presentation involves figure-ground relationships. This relationship between a subject (or
figure) and its surrounding field (ground) will evidence a level of contrast; the more an object contrasts with
its surrounds, the more visible it becomes.

When we create visuals that are intended to be read, offering the viewer enough contrast between the
background (paper or screen) and the text is important. Text presentations ideally offer at least an 80%
contrast between figure and ground. (Black text on a white background is ideal.) If there is not enough
contrast between figure and ground, a viewer will squint to view the text, causing eye fatigue.

Yellow text on a white background or blue text on a black background, are difficult to read due to the
low level of contrast between figure and ground.

An occurrence known as 'simultaneous contrast' (or chromostereopsis,) may happen when opposing colors
are placed in close proximity to each other. Text may appear to vibrate, or cast a shadow. Eye strain and
fatigue will result if a viewer focuses on a document displaying similar properties for an extended time
period.

Some color combinations, such as red text on a blue background, cause illusions when positioned
together.

Sensitivity to Colorblind Deficiencies. The Design of visual documents or signage without thought to the
overall contrast level between figure and ground can be problematic for people with sight deficiencies. My
first-hand experience with this occurred years ago when visiting a hospital with a friend who was colorblind.
The hospital had creatively marked the floor with "road maps" to various areas like the lab, lobby, etc.
Unfortunately, they used red and green lines and my friend could not distinguish between the colors. If a
visual document uses color to relate important information, insure that no information is lost, or potentially
misunderstood, when the color is not available.

When choosing complementary colors, fully saturated colors will offer the highest level of contrast.
Choosing from tints or shades within the hue family reduces the overall contrast of the composition.

Continue tutorial, view: Itten's Contrasts

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Colour is life; for a world without colours appears to us as dead.

— Johannes Itten

Itten & other Color Mentors

Bauhaus Museum on Itten
Johannes Itten by Froebel Web
Johannes Itten at the artists.org
The Bauhaus by Chris Snider
Albers at the artists.org

Itten's Color Contrasts

Johannes Itten was one of the first people to define and identify strategies for successful color combinations.
Through his research he devised seven methodologies for coordinating colors utilizing the hue's contrasting
properties. These contrasts add other variations with respect to the intensity of the respective hues; i.e.
contrasts may be obtained due to light, moderate, or dark value.

The contrast of saturation

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of light and dark values and their relative
saturation.

The contrast of light and dark

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of light and dark values. This could be a
monochromatic composition.

The contrast of extension

Also known as the Contrast of Proportion. The contrast is formed by assigning
proportional field sizes in relation to the visual weight of a color.

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The contrast of complements

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of color wheel or perceptual opposites.

Simultaneous contrast
The contrast is formed when the boundaries between colors perceptually vibrate.
Some interesting illusions are accomplished with this contrast.

The contrast of hue

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of different hues. The greater the
distance between hues on a color wheel, the greater the contrast.

The contrast of warm and cool

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of hues considered 'warm' or 'cool.'

Continue tutorial, view: Proportion & Intensity

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The relation of color and the relation of proportion are both based on the relation of position.
— Piet Mondrian

Masters of color & proportion

Yaacov Agam
Masterworks Fineart

Google Images: Yaacov Agam

Wassily Kandinsky
Google images: Wassily Kandinsky
Henri Matisse
Google Images: Henri Matisse
Piet Mondrian
Google Images: Piet Mondrian
Pablo Picasso
Google images: Pablo Picasso

Architects:
Luis Barragán
Google Images: Luis Barragán
Ricardo Legorreta
Google Images: Ricardo Legorreta

Proportion & Intensity

When colors are juxtaposed, our eyes perceive a visual mix. This mix will differ depending on the proportions
of allocated areas.

The color with the largest proportional area is the dominant color (the ground).

Smaller areas are subdominant colors.

Accent colors are those with a small relative area, but offer a contrast because of a variation in hue,
intensity, or saturation (the figure).

Placing small areas of light color on a dark background, or a small area of dark on a light background
will create an accent.

If large areas of a light hue are used, the whole area will appear light; conversely, if large areas of
dark values are used, the whole area appears dark.

Alternating color by intensity rather than proportion will also change the perceived visual mix of color.

Dominant color Dominant color

Sub-dominant colors Sub-dominant colors
Accent Accent

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Dominant color Dominant color

Sub-dominant colors Sub-dominant colors
Accent Accent

Continue tutorial, view: Contrast & Dominance

©1998-2009 Janet Lynn Ford

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License.

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Simple colours can affect the intimate feelings with all the more force because they are simple.
— Henri Matisse

Contrast & Dominance

When creating a composition—either something freeform, or a more text based layout, a determination for
the final impact of the whole presentation needs to be identified. Is your intent to craft a vibrant, attention
grabbing ad, or a presentation with a low, or more moderate level of contrast? These decisions concern what
is known as the dominant elements of the design.

The dominant element may be classified as either "contrast dominant" or "value dominant." Designs that
evidence contrast dominance or value dominance are then sub-divided into low, moderate, and high contrast,
or light, medium, and dark value categories. The choice of colors will enhance or minimize the overall
impact.

It is easiest to understand the difference between dominant elements in the following compositions from a
distance, or by squinting your eyes a bit. If the proximity between the neighboring hues is less apparent when
you squint, the overall composition a displays lower contrast level; if the overall composition appears light, it
has a light value. Conversely, if distinctions between hues are very apparent, the contrast is high, and if the
overall composition appears dark, the value level is dark. Understanding how the relationships between the
colors of a chosen palette will affect the final outcome of an overall composition is integral to mastering the
use of color.

Examples of Contrast Dominance

In the examples below, the overall contrast level of a composition changes with the range of luminosity
between chosen hues.

Low contrast Moderate contrast High contrast

Low contrast compositions use moderate contrast compositions High contrast compositions
colors within a narrow range of use colors within a moderate colors range from very light
luminosity or brightness levels. range of luminosity or brightness (high-luminosity) to very dark
levels. (low luminosity).

Examples of Value Dominance

In the examples below, the overall value of each composition changes with the incorporated hues' relative
saturation.

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Light value
A composition made up of tints,
displays an overall light value.

Medium value Dark value

A medium value composition is A dark value composition
made up of a balance between displays mostly shades.
tints, saturated hues, and
shades.

Continue tutorial, view: Shades & Tints

©1998-2009 Janet Lynn Ford

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License.

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Blue is the only color which maintains its own character in all its tones. Take blue in all its nuances, from the
darkest to the lightest — it will always stay blue. — Raoul Dufy

Images Used in Examples

While enrolled in a color class at the U of MN, our professor, Marian Ortolf-Bagley, encouraged us to
use abstract images so as to focus on the color within the composition rather than a subject. Our task
began with a contour drawing of a tree. From there we 'poured' complementary colors into the voids,
and then removed any linear elements.

Contour drawing of tree

Colors poured into voids

(mouse over image)

Cropped for exercises

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Color Shade and Tints

Using a color wheel divided into various shades and tints is one method
of identifying possible options for color schemes. The split
complementary relationship shown in this example presents many
possible combinations. By varying the saturation and experimenting
with shades and tints within the hue relationship, you can achieve quite
a variety of palette options. (Click on the wheel at the left to view a larger
image.)

Moderately-high High contrast, medium

contrast, medium value, value, composition using
composition using fully shades, tints & various
saturated hues. saturation levels.

Moderately-low contrast, Moderate contrast,

medium-light value, medium value, using
using tints & various shades, tints & various
saturation levels. saturation levels.

Moderately-low contrast, Low contrast, medium

medium-dark value, value, using shades, tints
using shades & various & various saturation
saturation levels. levels.

Moderately-high High contrast, light

contrast, medium value, value, using shades, tints
using shades, tints & & various saturation
various saturation levels. levels.

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Color and I are one.

— Paul Klee

Recommended reading from Amazon.com

Notan: The light-dark principle of design - Dorr Bothwell

The Art of Color - Johannes Itten

Review more books about color theory!

Color Studies
Colors of a complementary relationship.
Colors of a Colors reassigned with
complementary proportions allocated to
relationship assigned dominant and
equal proportion. subdominant areas.

Color intensity and Colors applied to

proportion modified. composition.
Using tints and shades of
the original colors results
in a moderate level of
contrast and medium
value.

Color intensity and Colors applied to

proportion modified - the composition.
whole area displays a
moderately-high contrast
and medium value.

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Colors of a triad relationship.

Colors of a triad Colors reassigned with
relationship assigned proportions allocated to
equal proportion. dominant, subdominant,
and accent areas.

Color intensity and Colors applied to

saturation modified - the composition.
whole area displays a
moderately-high contrast
level.

Color intensity and Colors applied to

saturation modified - the composition.
whole area displays a
moderately low contrast
level.

Color intensity and Colors applied to

saturation modified - the composition.
whole area displays a
medium/dark value.

Color intensity and Colors applied to

saturation modified - the composition.
whole area displays a
light value,

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 9
CHAPTER CONTENTS OPTICAL EFFECTS
INTRODUCTION A room painted in a light color will seem larger than that same room painted
HISTORY in a dark color. This is because light colors tend to recede while dark colors
COLOR AND EMOTION advance. Warm colors seem closer while cool colors seem farther away. A long
COLOR PREFERENCES narrow room will seem more in proportion if its far wall is dark and its side
COLOR AND LIGHT walls are light. A room with a low ceiling painted white will seem higher than
OPTICAL EFFECTS
a ceiling painted dark.
BASIC COLOR THEORY
COLOR SCHEMES
A P P LY I N G C O L O R I N FA C I L I T I E S

Warm Colors vs. Cool Colors Colors are often said to be warm or cool in temperature and thus all colors
are classified in one of these two families that create strong and different
impressions.

Warm colors such as red, orange, and yellow, are associated with sun and fire,
and therefore create a sensation that a space is several degrees warmer than
actuality. Warm colors appear to advance toward its viewer as well as excite
and cause a sense of aggression.

Cool colors such as blue, violet and green, are associated with air, sky and water,
and thus, are naturally cool and soothing. Cool colors tend to recede in a space
and can create feelings of passiveness and calmness.

Note that there can be cool shades of red and warm shades of blue that are
determined by mixtures of hues. In addition, the quality of warmth and
coolness in a color may be altered by its neighboring hues. For example, when
a warm hue is in contrast with a cool hue, the warm hue appears warmer and
the cool hue appears cooler.

Simultaneous Contrast The rule of Simultaneous Contrast is the effect of one hue upon another.
Whenever two different hues come into direct contact, the contrast intensifies
their differences. The greatest contrast occurs with complementary colors. For
example, red seems brightest next to green, as green seems brightest when seen
with red. There is an effect with closely related colors, for example, a yellow-
green surrounded by green appears yellowish, but surrounded by yellow, the
yellow-green seems more noticeably green.

The contrast can be in value or intensity as well as in hue. A gray-blue looks

brighter when placed against a gray background; however, the same gray-blue
neutralizes when placed against a bright blue background. These are just a few
examples of the tricks colors play and why it can be difficult applying color.

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BASIC COLOR THEORY
Successful color selection in interior design is a combination of experience,
schooling and talent. Developing the ability to properly apply color begins
with studying the basic principles of color theory.

The Three Dimensions of Color The properties of color are based on three dimensions; hue, value and intensity.

Hue is the name of a color, such as red, blue and yellow.

COLOR
Value is the lightness or darkness of a color that indicates the quantity of light
reflected.
SHADE TINT
Intensity is the saturation or strength of a color determined by the quality of
TONE
light reflected from it. A vivid color is of high intensity; a dull or muted color,
of low intensity.
BLACK WHITE

G R AY

Hue and the Color Wheel Hues are defined and organized by the color wheel which is made up of the
following twelve colors, each at their full intensity:

Primary Colors: Red, Yellow, Blue

Secondary Colors: Orange, Green, Violet
Tertiary Colors: Red-orange, Orange-yellow, Yellow-green
Green-blue, Blue-violet, Violet-red

The Color Wheel

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The primary colors are red, blue, and yellow. When the three primaries are
mixed in pairs, or all together in equal or unequal amounts, all possible colors
can be produced

Secondary colors are created by combining two primary colors:

Red + Yellow = Orange

Red + Blue = Violet
Blue + Yellow = Green

Primary Colors Secondary Colors

Value Value is the relative lightness or darkness of a color that is determined by the
amount of black or white present in a color.

A “tint” is created when white is added to lighten a color. This also gives a
color a high value.

A “shade” is created when black is added to darken a color. This also gives a
color a low value.

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The value of color is graded on the gray value scale with white as the highest
value, black as the lowest value, and several tints and shades of gray in between.
If a black and white photograph were taken of a room full of colors, their
equal values could be compared with the gray value scale. Note: Black and
white printers and black and white copiers do not give the same effect as black
and white photography.

White

High light Yellow

Yellow-Orange Light Yellow-Green

Orange Low Light Green

Red-Orange Medium Blue-Green

Red High dark Blue

Red-Violet Dark Blue-Violet

Violet Low dark

Black

Color Value Scale

Intensity Intensity, or the saturation of color, is determined by the amount of gray added
to a color. The “pure” color of red will have a strong intensity while a muted
color of red will have a low intensity.

9
 9
Color Relationships The successful use of color is dependent upon a clear understanding of color
relationships. A single color retains a certain character, but adding other colors
to its surrounding may change its characteristics. Colors may be closely related
or in contrast. The greatest contrast occurs with complementary colors, two
colors that appear directly opposite each other on the color wheel. For
example, red and green are complementary colors just as violet and yellow,
and blue and orange are complementary colors.

Complementary Colors (extreme contrast)

Split Complementary Colors

A split complementary system involves a color with two colors on either side of
its complement. This results in a variation that has less contrast because of the
short interval between colors on the color wheel.

Split Complementary Colors

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9
There is less contrast when three colors are spaced equally apart on the color
wheel and used together. The first group is called the primary triad which
consists of red, yellow and blue. This triad provides the most striking contrast.

Primary Triad (vibrant contrast)

The secondary triad, composed of orange, green and violet, has the same
interval between hues, yet gives a softer contrast.

Secondary Triad (soft contrast)

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 9
Analogous colors appear next to each other on the color wheel, and because
they have the shortest interval between them, they have the most harmonious
relationship.

Analogous Colors (Close relationships)

The Munsell System Our fascination with color has resulted in the development of a number of
color systems. The most widely used system for identifying color was
developed in the early 1900’s by the American artist, Albert Munsell. Munsell’s
system shows the relationships between color, tints and shades. The system was
used to give names to the many varieties of hues that result from mixing
different colors with each other or mixed with the neutral colors black and
white. In 1943, American industry adopted the Munsell system as its standard
for naming colors. The United States Bureau of Standards in Washington,
D.C. also adopted this system.

Munsell Color Wheel

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The Munsell system has five basic colors: red, yellow, green, blue and purple
(violet). Intermediate colors are created by the mixture of any two of the basic
colors that are adjacent on the color wheel. For example, the mixture of red
and yellow is the intermediate color red-yellow. Other intermediate hues
include green-yellow, blue-green, purple-blue, and red-purple.

Munsell devised a three-dimensional color system that classifies the variations

of colors according to the qualities of hue, value, and intensity.

Each hue is indicated by the notation found on the inner circle of the color
wheel – R for red, Y for yellow, G for green, B for blue, and P for purple. The
intermediate or tertiary colors are described with two letters such as RP for
red-purple. The value number of a color follows the hue designation. For
example, YG/7 is a yellow-green with a value matching step 7 of the gray scale.
The intensity number comes last; thus, YG/7/4 indicates a yellow-green hue at
a value of 7 and intensity of 4.

COLOR SCHEMES
There are several color schemes; some simple while others are very complex.
|As expected, the more complex a color scheme the more skill is required
to achieve a successful design. The concept of harmony lies behind the
development of each color scheme.

Neutral (monotone) Color Schemes

A neutral or monotone color scheme consists of various tints and shades of a
neutral color such as black, white, gray, beige, tan or taupe. A neutral scheme
is easily composed by selecting a neutral then building upon several values of
that neutral. This scheme is often used as a backdrop for a striking accent
color or for non-competing backgrounds when an important element is
displayed, such as artwork. Neutral color schemes can become monotonous
if not accented properly; however, a successful scheme can be considered
sophisticated, elegant, and refined. They are used when a soft but formal
space is desired, such as a hotel, bank or museum.

Neutrals

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Monochromatic Color Schemes
The monochromatic color scheme consists of one chosen hue with several
values and intensities of that hue used to create depth and interest. Spaces with
a single color can look dramatic, but this scheme my create monotony. The
monochromatic color scheme works well in spaces where we don’t spend a
great deal of time, for example, a private hotel suite or an upscale retail store.

Monochromatic Color Scheme

Analogous Color Schemes

Using colors that are adjacent on the color wheel have close relationships and
create analogous color schemes. Blue-green, blue, and blue-violet make up an
analogous scheme. This scheme easily creates harmony, is usually vibrant, and
works well in spaces that encourage high energy such as daycare centers and
sports facilities.

Analogous Color Scheme

Complementary Color Schemes

Colors that are located across from each other on the color wheel are
complementary and thus make up a complementary color scheme. For
example, red and green, yellow and purple, and blue and orange are
complements. Complements have the greatest intensity when seen together
and can be extremely pleasing. When designed correctly, the scheme brings
feelings of energy and cheerfulness. However, it can be difficult to succeed at
this scheme for it can become too bright or garish if the colors are not properly
balanced.

Complementary Color Schemes Fast food restaurants often use complementary color schemes. The result is an
interior that exudes high energy, but also does not make the customer too
comfortable. The effect is that many are attracted, but at the same time there is
the high turnover necessary to achieve profit.

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Split Complementary Color Schemes
The split complementary color scheme consists of one hue with the two hues
adjacent to its complement. The two adjacent hues are harmonious while
the complement adds a vibrant contrast. When used together, the palettes
of yellow-green, red, and blue-green, will create a split complementary
color scheme.

Yellow-Green

Red

Blue-Green

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Triad Color Scheme
The triad color scheme incorporates three hues that are equally spaced on the
color wheel. The most common triad scheme is used with the primary colors -
red, yellow and blue in energetic spaces such as schools, sports arenas, and
movie theaters. Varying the values of triad hues can create a sophisticated look,
but this is difficult to master without creating harshness and confusion within
a space.

Tetrad Color Schemes

The tetrad color scheme incorporates four hues that are equally spaced on the
color wheel. Vivid tones give a lively feeling, while muted tones bring a subtler
mood. Tetrad color schemes are rare and difficult to produce since they often
Child Development Center
create harsh and confusing spaces.
Hanscom Air Force Base, Massachusetts

A P P LY I N G C O L O R I N FA C I L I T I E S
The basics of incorporating color apply to every type of interior space. Yet,
many variables interact with color (e.g., location, the size of the space, and
natural and artificial lighting). The Federal Standard 595B color fandeck
may be used as a reference when selecting colors. The fandeck may be
ordered from the General Services Administration (GSA) catalogue, stock
#7690-01-162-2210.

The following generalizations are suggested for each space type.

Offices – General
The objective for designing an office is to create an environment that promotes
productivity for the many users who work long hours. Color plays an
important role in stimulating productivity without creating distraction. Bright
warm colors work best in areas where physical tasks take place, and calmer,
cooler colors work best where visual and mental tasks are performed. Livelier
colors should be applied in limited areas with related quiet tones in larger
spaces. In multi-floor or large offices, each floor or department can possess an
Gossick Leadership Center Renovation identifying color tonality, with strong colors in lobbies, corridors, and entrance
Arnold Air Force Base, Tennessee points, while related softer hues are used in the general office areas.

• Desks and work surfaces – light toned neutral desks and work surfaces are
good choices since neutrals are not distracting, and their low brightness
contrast (glare) minimizes eye fatigue. Light gray, tan, beige, taupe and ivory
are soft colors that work well and have a light reflectance of approximately
30%.

• Flooring – medium to light toned floor surfaces are suggested to reduce

brightness contrast between the floor color and tasks or work surfaces. The
light reflectance range should be 20% – 50%. The color of soil in a given
geographical region plays a part in the color selection of flooring so as to
camouflage soil.
Typical Office

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• Walls and panels – a light reflectance range of 40% - 60% is suggested for
walls and panels. An accent wall, in a soft hue, can be added for interest and
to relieve monotony. Deep colors may be used behind a desk, or in frontal
view, but should not be used on a window wall due to the high contrast.

• Ceilings – bright ceilings of white are functional for good light reflectance.

• Corridors – bright, bold, and contrasting colors may be added to corridors

for visual stimulation.
Building 32 Rehabilitation
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio • Doors – various colors for doors can be used anywhere.

• Private offices and conference rooms – variations of colors may be used in

private offices and conference rooms. Avoid use of dark colors in spaces with
low light levels. However, dark hues, when balanced with lighter hues,
complement spaces that have an abundance of natural and artificial light.

Air Mobility Command Design Center

Scott Air Force Base, Illinois

Industrial Plants
Color is important in the industrial setting to reduce fatigue, annoyance, and
to promote efficiency and safety. Certain colors in these settings also reduce
absenteeism, and improve labor morale.

Colors may offset problem areas, for example, the use of cool blues and greens
are desirable in a space with excessive heat. Conversely, reds and oranges warm
a cold space or can compensate for the lack of natural light. Incorporating soft
hues, especially tints of green, may calm noisy spaces.

• General surfaces – brightness contrasts are to be considered; glossy surfaces

that produce glare should be avoided.

• Walls – colors should be in light hues; however, a tinted accent hue with a
reflectance of 25% - 40% may be used on an end wall to reduce monotony
and lessen eye fatigue.

• Upper walls – should have a light reflectance between 50% - 70%.

• Ceilings – white should be used on ceilings to provide maximum light reflectance.

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• Colors and safety – various colors have been adopted for safety purposes in
industrial settings. Green is the choice color for machinery and equipment.
Yellow marks potential hazard areas while red indicates fire-safety equipment,
containers of dangerous materials, and control switches and buttons on
machinery. Blue indicates electrical controls and repair areas, and white
indicates trash containers, drinking fountains, and food-service locations.
Black striping indicates traffic areas, aisles, and stairways.

Schools
Studies have shown that the proper use of color in schools plays an important
role in the performance of students. This is especially true in the early years of
children. A warm brighter, color scheme not only offers positive affects on the
academics of students, but their behavior as well.

One of the most important interior elements in schools is illumination. A goal

of effectively controlling illumination with color is to keep eyestrain and glare
to a minimum. The way to accomplish this is to keep the brightness ratios
somewhat consistent.
Child Development Center
Walls, floors, furniture and equipment - these areas should be painted in mild
United States Air Force Academy, Colorado
color schemes with a 50-60% light reflectance. A stronger color painted end
wall can add interest. Gray or green chalkboards can seem less drab when
surrounded by contrasting colors.

• Ceilings – white or off-white ceilings should be installed for maximum

light reflectance.

• Auditorium – several hues of warm tones are suggested, including tints

of green.

• Shops, and art rooms – light hues are appropriate and work well in
Air Force Senior Commissioned these spaces.
Officer Academy
Gunter Annex, • Gymnasium – luminous tones work well in gyms, while colors that reflect
Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama flattering light, such as coral, work best in locker and dressing rooms.

• School facilities such as libraries, offices and teachers lounges, should be

designed with subdued tones.

• Corridors and stairways – bolder colors may be used to offer stimulation in

these transition spaces.

Health and Wellness Center

Elgin Air Force Base, Florida

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Hotels
A hotel design should present a welcome, pleasant experience for its guests.
The climate and customs of the region can add to the characteristics of the
chosen color schemes and style. For example, brightly colored tiles and fabrics
combined with white walls may suggest a tropical location.

• Lobby and lounge – the front lobby and reception desk can accept strong
use of color that creates lasting impressions. Warm colors in lobbies and
lounges provide comfort for people who will occupy these spaces for long
periods. Dark woods and marbles suggest solidity and tradition, whereas
bright saturated colors imply a casual and playful atmosphere.

• Guestrooms – colors may vary, as suggested above, to reflect climate and region.
However, the chosen color scheme should promote comfort and relaxation.

• Corridors - a lively color scheme is suggested for the corridors, incorporating

a dark color at one end to give interest when walking down a long hallway.

Medical and Healthcare Facilities

The interest of the patient is the primary concern when designing medical and
healthcare facilities. Research studies suggest that the environmental ambience
plays a significant role in the rate of patient recovery. Visual contact with the
out-of-doors, natural materials such as wood, and warm colors contribute to a
faster rate of recovery. Warmer colors in hospital rooms flatter users’ skin tones
when reflected in mirrors.

Cooler colors offer a calming ambience and are appropriate for intensive care
units. Bluish-green is a standard for operating rooms because it provides visual
relief of personnel from the red tones of blood and tissue. Cooler colors, which
Area Dental Lab calm, are appropriate for examination rooms, while warmer tones are used in
Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado areas such as dermatology and obstetrics. However, color should be restrained
to avoid the possibility of environmental color reflection interfering with
patient diagnosis.

Food Service
Many studies have been provided by the food service industry regarding color
and the physiological responses to food and its atmosphere. For example, the
color red was found to stimulate the appetite.

In general, warm tones are comforting in restaurant settings. Colors to avoid

include black, dark gray, cold gray, strong tones of blue and violet, and
yellow-green.

Iditarod Dining Facility

Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska

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The style of each food service area should be taken into consideration when
applying color. Fast food establishments and cafeterias incorporate bright
colors to promote a faster pace. Fine restaurants and traditional eating
establishments are typically designed in subdued colors to promote leisurely
dining. In each case, the color of floor coverings should be selected to conceal
soiling. The color scheme should be versatile with bright lighting at lunchtime
and softer lighting at dinner.

Traditional associations of color are appropriate when serving various styles of

cuisine. Mexican, Indian and Spanish foods are associated with bright cheerful
Air Force Senior Commissioned colors, Greek with blue and white, and Italian with red, green and white.
Officer Academy Colors of table settings should complement the food to be served. Care must
Gunter Annex, be taken so that the space does not become a cliché.
Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
Supermarkets apply bright colors in various areas; however, white is preferred
in the dairy section, and lighter blues and blue greens are used at the meat
counter to complement red meats. Colorful cans and other merchandise are
nicely displayed when seen against a neutral background.

Retail Outlets
Retail outlets display their merchandise in the most attractive setting to achieve
high sales volumes. Color has a strong impact on consumer reactions to
products including impulse buying.

The general rule of thumb is to use bright colors in low cost, rapid turnover
shops, and more subtle sophisticated color schemes in higher priced and leisure
shops. Discount stores often use bright colors to stimulate customers; however,
a low-end rack outlet may use white walls and gray floors to give the effect of a
discount image.

Men’s clothing shops tend to have natural wood and brown tones to promote a
club-like atmosphere. Women’s shops usually retain soft, warm tones, possibly
pastels. Bright colors used with metallic, white, black, or gray, tend to promote
electronics and other high tech products. Avoid strong color on display
backdrops and shelves that may distract from the merchandise. Light grays and
tans are good choices. Expensive jewelry and small gift items sparkle against
conservative colors.
BXTRA Open Air Mall
Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii
CONCLUSION
Along with man’s sensitivity to time and space is sensitivity to color. Color can
affect perception of size just as it can affect mood. It is important to wisely and
carefully incorporate color into all interior projects using it to heighten
awareness of the appearance and mood of space.

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 2DIS / Parsons
Ian Hughes

Defining Color: Hue, Value, Saturation

In the first part of the semester, we will attempt to isolate each of the defining attributes of
color–hue, value, saturation–in order to see how each operates. You will be responsible for
knowing and demonstrating an understanding of each of these attributes. You will have the
opportunity to apply what we’ve learned during the rest of the semester.

HUE
Defining Hue
• The identity of a color as it relates specifically to the spectrum. The generic names of spectral
colors are: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet.

If we want to identify a color by its hue, we look for its specific relationship to the spectrum of
pure colors refracted through a prism. We ask, "is it red or red-orange...is it blue, or is it more
violet?"

The words “color” and “hue” are not synonymous. Hue is a specific attribute of color.
Reddish brown, for example, is the color brown with a red hue. Black is a color with no hue.

The hue of a given color is altered only when mixed with another hue.

Organizing Hue
The spectral hues are often organized along a 360º circle, called a hue circle. Yellow is at the top
(0º), and violet is at the bottom (180º). Most hue circles have at least 6 parts: 3 primaries and 3
secondaries. The colors in between are called intermediary colors.

PRIMARY
Colors that cannot be broken down into other colors and are the building blocks for all
other colors.
SECONDARY
The middle mixtures of two primary colors.
ANALOGOUS
The colors that are next to each other on the spectrum or hue circle.
COMPLEMENTARY
Colors that are opposite,as defined by the afterimage of any given color. When mixing
pigments or inks, the secondary color of two primaries produces the complement of the
third primary (for example, red and yellow make orange, which is the complement of blue.)
Complementary relationships are crucial to the understanding of color harmony.
TERTIARY
The mixture of two complements. Also called neutral color.

1
Temperature: Warm Vs Cold
Temperature is an attribute of color related to hue. Generally speaking, colors that gravitate
towards the red-yellow half of the circle are considered warm, and colors that gravitate towards the
green blue are considered cool. This is mostly by psychological association (i.e., fire = red-
yellow=warm, ice =bluish=cool).

2
Mixing Color: Additive vs. Subtractive
Mixing colored light and mixing colored pigments yield two very different, indeed opposite,
results. An understanding of why this happens is important to understanding how we perceive
color and how color interacts with our environment.

MIXING LIGHT:ADDITIVE
Natural light is a mixture of all the hues in the spectrum, naturally! As easily demonstrated
with a prism (or a rainbow), the spectrum can be broken down to reveal its component colors,
which are actually electromagnetic waves of different lengths. Our eyes and brain are
designed to interpret these different wavelengths as different colors. Because of how our eyes
are designed, the colors of the spectrum can be further reduced to three primary colors: red,
blue and green. All the other colors of the spectrum result from what happens when these
colors are combined in our eyes and brain as follows:

Primaries: R, G , B Secondaries: Y (R+G) , Cyan (G+B) , Magenta (R+B)

If a single color is extracted from the spectrum, the leftover light waves combine to produce
its complement. Similarly, if more than one color is broken out of the spectrum, the resulting
combinations produce complementary pairs. Complementary pairs combine to produce white
light. This phenomenon establishes the organizing principle of complementary colors.

Whenever colored light is mixed, the resulting color is always lighter than the parent colors,
because light is being added. This is why mixing light waves is called additive. No absorption
is taking place. If all the colored light waves of the spectrum are brought back together, the
result is white light, which to our eyes appears colorless. Black is the absence of light.

MIXING COLORANTS: SUBTRACTIVE

The exact opposite happens when we mix colorants like paint or ink. All the colors of the
spectrum combine to produce black (or dark grey). That’s because light rays are being
absorbed, or subtracted.

Light waves that are not absorbed are reflected back to our eyes and perceived as color. A
surface appears red, for example, because only the red light waves are reflecting back; all the
other colored light waves are being absorbed. Our experience of color is most often a result
of subtractive mixing.

Notice that the true primaries of subtractive mixing (C, M, Y) derive from the true secondaries
of additive mixing.

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 VALUE

Defining Value (synonyms: luminance, brightness)

•The lightness or darkness of a color.
Black, white, and gray are colors of pure value and have no hue.

Assessing Value
Value can actually be measured as a percentage of reflected light from 100% (white, total
reflectance) to 0% (black, total absorption). A true middle gray is literally 50/50 (i.e., 50%
reflectance, 50% absorption.)

In the visual arts we are concerned with perception and not so concerned with physical
measurements of reflected light (except perhaps when setting up for a staged photograph.)
Accordingly, we use visual comparison within a given context to determine if a color is lighter
or darker than its neighbor:
! If two colors of analogous hue share an edge, you can tell they are close in value if
the edge is soft and far apart in value if the edge is hard.

! If two colors of opposite hue share an edge, you can tell they are close in value if
the edge “vibrates” or shimmers and far apart in value if the edge is hard.

Relative Value
A color’s value can also be assessed by its specific relationship to the value scale (the range of
grays from white to black, also known as the gray scale.) This is known as its relative value.
All colors, including pure hues, have a relative value. A pure yellow is close to white in its
reflectance. Pure red and green are closer to middle gray. Keep in mind that a color’s value, or
reflectance, is also influenced by surface textures.

Manipulating Value
Doing one of the following alters the value of a color, but not its hue:
! Tinting (adding white)
Ex: if red is tinted with white, the result is a pink of the same hue (red).
! Shading (adding black)
Ex: if red is shaded with black, the result is a brown of the same hue (red).

Value is not altered if a color is mixed with another color or gray of the same value.

1
The Importance of Value

When discussing the problem of color in the context of inventing Cubist collage, Georges
Braque said, “[Picassos and I] arrived at cleanly dissociating color from form and at seeing its
independence in relation to form, because that was the main concern: color acts simultaneously
with form, but has nothing to do with it.”1

What did Braque mean exactly? In a sense, Braque is talking about the difference between hue
and value. Understanding this distinction can add enormously to our understanding of color.
The perception and representation of form is entirely dependent on value, or the contrast of
light and dark, not hue. If we subtract the perception of hue from our world, we would still
perceive form. On the other hand, if the world suddenly converted to pure hue, we would be in
big trouble!

What Picasso and Braque knew from experience has since been corroborated by science.
Recent research has shown that the part of our brain that responds to light/dark is several
inches away from the part of our brain that responds to hue. The value sensitive portion of our
brain is literally color-blind.2 Our ability to perceive depth, spatial relationships, three-
dimensionality and volume (form), as well as movement or stasis, derives from the part of our
brain that responds exclusively to differences in value without regard to hue.

All mammals perceive luminance, however only primates evolved with the ability to perceive
the colors of the spectrum between infrared and ultraviolet. Before our eyes and brain have
fully developed in infancy, we see only light and dark. In the weeks following birth, our brains
develop the ability to perceive hue. Once our brains have fully developed, hue continues to
play a secondary role to value in how we perceive the world around us.

If you are a visually sensitive individual, you may already know this intuitively. The observed
world is experienced mostly as infinite gradations of light and dark accented by equally subtle
modulations of hue. In other words, our primary visual experience is of value, not hue. Within
the last century, mechanical reproduction and color processing have added significant bursts of
saturated color to our perceptual world. The more time we spend gazing at printed and
electronic media, the more this becomes the norm. But this is a recent phenomenon, the
implications of which are interesting to ponder.

The psychological and emotional components of hue cannot be understated and go way beyond
mere perception. If we imagine life without hue—as a black and white movie, for
example—we can appreciate how important and inextricably linked the perception of hue is to
our experience of the world. As long as we are in the presence of light, we are constantly
under the influence of hue, even though we may not even be aware of it. Hue is like the spice
that makes the visual “food” we need for survival worth eating.

1
Christine Poggi, In Defiance of Painting, Yale University Press, p. 15
2
Margaret Livingstone, Vision and Art: The Biology of Seeing, Abrams, pp. 37-38

2
 SATURATION

Defining Saturation (Synonyms: Chroma, Intensity)

• The purity of a color.
100% saturation is defined as the absence of white, black, or gray; 0% saturation is the absence of
hue. Neutral colors are by definition low saturation, or low chroma, and can be either achromatic
(i.e., having no hue, as in the gray scale), or chromatic (i.e. having hue, as in tertiary colors).

Assessing Saturation
As with the other attributes of color, saturation is relative and therefore a matter of comparison. If
comparing ten different reds, for example, the reddest red is the most saturated.

Manipulating Saturation
Adding white, black, or gray to color results in reduced chromatic intensity, or reduced saturation.
The same result occurs when mixing complements together.

Intensity vs. Brightness

Saturation can be the most difficult of color’s attributes to agree on. Picking the reddest red out of a
line-up sounds easy enough, and often it is, but what happens if white is added to make a bright
pink that appears more chromatically intense than the original? By definition, adding white makes
a color less saturated, so what gives? Even more confusing is when a violet or green pigment in its
most saturated form (right out of the tube) is so dark that you can’t really perceive its hue until you
add white. So which of the two colors has more chroma, the one that looks almost black or the one
with white in it?

It can be hard to separate brightness and intensity. When white is added to a dark color, it becomes
brighter, which is technically specific to value. When hue is added to a color (providing it is not a
complement), it becomes more intense, which is technically specific to saturation. The variables of
different colorants can create anomalies of color so that a brighter, less saturated color can appear
more intense, even if that sometimes amounts to a contradiction in terms.

Suffice it to say that color by its very nature cannot be defined like words in a dictionary. After all,
it is literally a matter of perception.

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- Complementary
- Analogous
- Triadic
Privacy
- Split-Complementary
- Rectangle (tetradic)
- Square

Colors affect us in numerous ways, both mentally and physically. A strong red color has
been shown to raise the blood pressure, while a blue color has a calming effect.

Being able to use colors consciously and harmoniously can help you create spectacular
results.

The Color Wheel

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The color wheel or color circle is the basic tool for combining colors. The first circular
color diagram was designed by Sir Isaac Newton in 1666.

The color wheel is designed so that virtually any colors you pick from it will look good
together. Over the years, many variations of the basic design have been made, but the
most common version is a wheel of 12 colors based on the RYB (or artistic) color model.

Traditionally, there are a number of color combinations that are considered especially
pleasing. These are called color harmonies or color chords and they consist of two or
more colors with a fixed relation in the color wheel.

ColorImpact is designed to dynamically create a color wheel to match your base color.

Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Colors

In the RYB (or subtractive) color model, the primary colors are red, yellow and blue.

The three secondary colors (green, orange and purple) are created by mixing two
primary colors.

Another six tertiary colors are created by mixing primary and secondary colors.

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The above illustration shows the color circle with the primary, secondary and tertiary
colors. Click on the labels to turn the colors on / off.

Warm and cool colors

The color circle can be divided into warm and cool colors.

Warm colors are vivid and energetic, and tend to advance

in space.

Cool colors give an impression of calm, and create a

soothing impression.

White, black and gray are considered to be neutral.

Tints, Shades, and Tones

These terms are often used incorrectly, although they describe fairly simple color
concepts. If a color is made lighter by adding white, the result is called a tint. If black is
added, the darker version is called a shade. And if gray is added, the result is a different
tone.

Tints - adding white to a pure hue:

Shades - adding black to a pure hue:

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Tones - adding gray to a pure hue:

Color Harmonies
- basic techniques for creating color schemes
Below are shown the basic color chords based on the color wheel.

Complementary color scheme

Colors that are opposite each other on the color wheel
are considered to be complementary colors (example:
red and green).

The high contrast of complementary colors creates a

vibrant look especially when used at full saturation. This
color scheme must be managed well so it is not jarring.

Complementary color schemes are tricky to use in large

doses, but work well when you want something to stand
out.

Complementary colors are really bad for text.

Analogous color scheme

Analogous color schemes use colors that are next to each
other on the color wheel. They usually match well and
create serene and comfortable designs.

Analogous color schemes are often found in nature and

are harmonious and pleasing to the eye.

Make sure you have enough contrast when choosing an

analogous color scheme.

Choose one color to dominate, a second to support. The

third color is used (along with black, white or gray) as an
accent.

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Triadic color scheme

A triadic color scheme uses colors that are evenly spaced
around the color wheel.

Triadic color schemes tend to be quite vibrant, even if

you use pale or unsaturated versions of your hues.

To use a triadic harmony successfully, the colors should

be carefully balanced - let one color dominate and use
the two others for accent.

Split-Complementary color scheme

The split-complementary color scheme is a variation of
the complementary color scheme. In addition to the base
color, it uses the two colors adjacent to its complement.

This color scheme has the same strong visual contrast as

the complementary color scheme, but has less tension.

The split-complimentary color scheme is often a good

choice for beginners, because it is difficult to mess up.

Rectangle (tetradic) color scheme

The rectangle or tetradic color scheme uses four colors
arranged into two complementary pairs.

This rich color scheme offers plenty of possibilities for

variation.

Tetradic color schemes works best if you let one color be

dominant.

You should also pay attention to the balance between

warm and cool colors in your design.

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Square color scheme

The square color scheme is similar to the rectangle, but
with all four colors spaced evenly around the color circle.

Square color schemes works best if you let one color be

dominant.

You should also pay attention to the balance between

warm and cool colors in your design.

Copyright © 2000 - 2009 Tiger Color

color schemes made easy

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How do we perceive color?

Overview What is color? How do we perceive color? Color Models Learn more

As humans, our color vision influences everything from our art and poetry to the colors
we paint our homes and the clothing we choose to buy. Yet, we rarely question the Plug into
mechanics of our color perception — or what we may not be able to see. Photoshop
Available now! Link
We perceive color when the different wavelengths composing white light are
ColoRotate to Photoshop.
selectively interfered with by matter (absorbed, reflected, refracted, scattered, or
Sync your palettes and
diffracted) on their way to our eyes, or when a non-white distribution of light has been
share with colleagues.
emitted.
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Visible light is merely a small part of the full electromagnetic spectrum, which extends
from cosmic rays at the highest energies down through the middle range (gamma rays,
X- rays, the ultraviolet, the visible, the infrared, and radio waves) all the way to
Dive into color
induction-heating and electric-power-transmission frequencies at the lowest energies. Explore the
Note that this is the energy per quantum (photon if in the visible range) but not the causes of color, as well as
total energy; the latter is a function of the intensity in a beam. color vision and art, at the
WebExhibits museum.
LEARN MORE

We can detect the range of light spectrum from about 400 nanometers (violet) to about 700 nanometers (red). We perceive
this range of light wavelengths as a smoothly varying rainbow of colors, otherwise known as the visual spectrum.

What Happens in the Eye?

The eye is often compared to a camera. But it
might be more appropriate to compare it to a TV
camera that is self-focusing, has a self-cleaning
lens, and has its images processed by a computer
with millions of CPUs. Light from an external
object is refracted as it moves through the
cornea, and then moves on to the pupil, which is

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controlled by the iris. The light is again refracted by the lens, which projects an upside-down image on the retina, or the
rear, inner surface of the eyeball. There, it is absorbed by pigments in light-sensitive cells, called rods and cones. These
photoreceptors convert light (photons) into electro-chemical signals, which are then processed by neural circuits in the
retina and transmitted to the brain.

There are approximately 6 million cones in our retina, and they are sensitive to a wide range of brightness. The three
different types of cones are sensitive to short, medium and long wavelengths, respectively. Cones are active at high light
levels and allow us to see color and fine detail directly in front of us. They can adapt to widely varying colors and
illumination levels, but don’t work well in low light.

Our retina’s 125 million rods are used only in dim light, and are monochromatic, so they don’t perceive color — only black
and white. Rods account for our peripheral night vision, but don’t enable us to see well when we’re looking straight ahead.

The retina consists of a very thin layer of nerve cells and contains two The three types of nerve cells that detect bright light
types of photoreceptors, rods and cones. Ganglions are also located in span the "short," "medium," and "long" wavelength
the retina. This graph shows the sensitivity of the different cones to ranges.
varying wavelengths.

Retinal ganglion cells calculate color

But the cones in our eyes are just the beginning of the color story. Ganglions are a type of neuron located in the retina that
receive signals via various intermediate cells from the cones and rods. They are the cells that transmit information to the
brain. Why all the fuss?

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The ganglion cells add and subtract signals from many

cones. For example, by comparing the response of the
middle-wavelength and long-wavelength cones, a
ganglion cell determines the amount of green-or-red.

The result of these steps for color vision is a signal that is

sent to the brain. There are three signals, corresponding
to the three color attributes. These are:

The amount of green-or-red

the amount of blue-or-yellow; and
the brightness.

Using ColoRotate, you can view colors in these three

dimensions.

Working in 3D makes colors blossom.

Color’s 3D nature makes it difficult to accurately assess color on a flat paper or screen. With ColoRotate, you aren’t limited
to moving colors around a flat color circle. Instead, you can explore all kinds of clusters and color arrangements. It’s fun,
and it will give you new ideas for fresh and inviting color harmonies and color palettes. ColoRotate also allows you to
define colors using slider controls for most color theories.

Copyright © ColoRotate and IDEA. All Rights Reserved. Learn about color Discussions Contact Us Terms Of Service

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Home Learn about color Tour Your account Store About

Color Models

Overview What is color? How do we perceive color? Color Models Learn more

Plug into
Photoshop
Available now! Link
ColoRotate to Photoshop.
Sync your palettes and
share with colleagues.
LEARN MORE

Dive into color

Explore the
causes of color, as well as
color vision and art, at the
WebExhibits museum.
LEARN MORE

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Topics
Color Models RGB CMYK LAB HSV HSL NCS

21st century color theory

For centuries, artists and philosophers have theorized that color is three-dimensional.
Contemporary neuroscientists have confirmed this theory, finding that our sensation of
color comes from nerve cells that send messages to the brain about:
The brightness of color
Greenness vs. redness
Blueness vs. yellowness

When colors are dark or light, we perceive less variation in their vividness. We see the
maximum range of color saturation for middle-toned colors. This is why many color Philipp Otto Runge’s color
models, including ColoRotate, taper the top and bottom colors and are wide in the sphere (Farbenkugel), 1810.
middle, forming a sphere or bicone. The sphere is shown from
the outside, and in cross-
sections.
Color Models
In color theory, color models mathematically describe how colors may be represented. A color space is one where the
components of the color model are precisely defined, allowing viewers to know exactly how each color looks.

Physical representations of the color space started with the two-dimensional color wheel that allowed you to see hue (red,
blue, green, etc.) and brightness for the various colors. Later, the concept of color solids emerged. Color solids are three-
dimensional representations of the color space. In addition to the hue and brightness in the two-dimensional model, a color
solid also shows the degrees of saturation for a particular hue. Most color solids are in the shape of a sphere, but that is
largely a matter of convenience. Color solids can be any shape.

ColoRotate is a color solid based on the HSL color model, and is designed to make it easy for even a layperson to navigate
the color space.

BACK TO TOPICS

RGB
In the mid-19th century, Thomas Young and Hermann Helmholtz proposed a
theory of trichromatic color vision that became the basis for the RGB
(red-green-blue) color model. This is an additive color model, in which the
three colors of light are added together to produce various colors.

The intensity of the light is determines the color perceived. With no

intensity, each of the three colors is perceived as black, while full intensity
leads to a perception of white. Differing intensities produce the hue of a
color, while the difference between the most and least intense of the colors
make the resulting color more or less saturated.

Electronics displays use the RGB model, which means that the colors are not RGB uses additive color mixing that
absolute, but rather dependent upon the sensitivities and settings of produces secondary colors where two
individual devices. Cathode ray tube, LCD, plasma, and LED displays all use

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the RGB model. colors overlap, while equal intensities of

all three colors produce white
The 24-bit RGB model is also used to encode color in computing, where each
color’s value is specified by the intensity of red, green, and blue, respectively. In web page design, there are 216 so-called
“web-safe” RGB colors represented by hexidecimal values. Today, RGB remains the color model and standard for HTML
programming, but the prevalence of 24-bit displays allows most users to see 16.7 million colors of HTML RGB code.

BACK TO TOPICS

CMYK
Unlike RGB, which is an additive color model, CMYK is a subtractive color model. Typically used in printing, CMYK assumes
that the background is white, and thus subtracts the assumed brightness of the white background from four colors: cyan,
magenta, yellow, and black (called “key”). Black is used because the combination of the three primary colors (CMY) doesn’t
produce a fully saturated black.

CMYK can produce the whole spectrum of visible colors thanks to the process of half-toning, whereby each color is assigned
a saturation level and miniscule dots of each of the three colors are printed in tiny patterns so that the human eye
perceives a certain color.

Like RGB, CMYK is device-dependent. There’s no straightforward formula to convert CMYK color to RGB colors or vice
versa, so conversion is typically dependent upon color management systems. ColoRotate easily converts one system to the
other.

"Still Life with Crystal Bowl," Roy Lichtenstein, 1973

BACK TO TOPICS

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In this three-dimensional model, the L stands for

the lightness of the color, with 0 producing black LAB
and 100 producing a diffuse white. The “a” is the
Designed to approximate human vision, Lab color theory is built upon
redness vs. greenness, while the “b” is the
the Munsell color system, the 1948 Hunter color space, and the 1976
yellowness vs. blueness
CIE color space. Unlike RGB and CMYK, Lab is not device-dependent.
Today, software applications use CIELAB or CIELAB D50. In this three-dimensional model, the L stands for the lightness of
the color, with 0 producing black and 100 producing a diffuse white. The “a” is the redness vs. greenness, while the “b” is
the yellowness vs. blueness.

BACK TO TOPICS

HSV
First described by Alvy Ray Smith in 1978, HSV seeks to depict relationships
between colors, and improve upon the RGB color model. Standing for hue,
saturation, and value, HSV depicts three-dimensional color. If you think
about HSV as a wheel of cheese, the center axis goes from white at the top
to black at the bottom, with other neutral colors in between. The angle
from the axis depicts the hue, the distance from the axis depicts saturation,
and the distance along the axis depicts value.

BACK TO TOPICS

The angle from the axis depicts the hue,

the distance from the axis depicts
saturation, and the distance along the
axis depicts value

HSL
Like HSV, HSL was described by Alvy Ray Smith and is a 3D representation of
color. HSL stands for hue, saturation, and lightness. The HSL color model has
distinct advantages over the HSV model, in that the saturation and lightness
components span the entire range of values.

Based on the HSL color model, ColoRotate contains all the hues at different
levels of saturation along its horizontal plane and with variant intensity along
its vertical plane.

For example, by using the “Hue” mode, you can position colors on opposite
edges of the diamond to correspond to complementary colors. Or you can
arrange the colors so their hues are triangularly positioned relative to each
In the bicone or diamond of the HSL
other for a triadic color scheme. And, by using three dimensions when you
structure, all the visible colors can be
edit colors or palettes of colors, you can intuitively understand which colors
seen. These are the three dimensions in
are similar, and which are more contrasting.
which our brain analyzes the colors we
see. The first dimension is brightness (a On the horizontal equatorial plane, pure saturated hues are along the
vertical slice). The hue is comprised of equatorial perimeter. Similar to traditional color wheel and color sphere
representations, contrasting hues are located opposite each other. As you

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the second and third dimensions move towards the center of the color disc (on the same plane) the color
(corresponding to round slices through saturation decreases toward the center, where all the colors merge into a
the diamond). single gray. Moving vertically along this center, the color gradually becomes
lighter towards the top (ending in white), and darker towards the bottom
(ending in black). The hues vary in intensity and saturation as you moves vertically up or down, or inwards in the diamond.
Any given hue can be varied in saturation by moving inwards or intensity (tint) by moving vertically up or down.

BACK TO TOPICS

NCS
Based on the color vision theories of Ewald Hering, the
Natural Color System is a color opponency system based on
six colors that cannot be used to describe one another:
white, black, red, yellow, green, and blue. Unlike the
additive RGB system or the subtractive CMYK system,
which are based on reactions of the eye’s color-receptive
cones, NCS colors are processed in the retina’s ganglion
cells.
NCS colors have three values: darkness, saturation, and hue.
NCS colors have three values: darkness, saturation, and The hue is defined as a percentage between two of the
hue. The hue is defined as a percentage between two of following colors: red, yellow, green, and blue. The NCS color
the following colors: red, yellow, green, and blue. The NCS system is expressed as the percentage of darkness, the
color system is expressed as the percentage of darkness, percentage of saturation, and the percentages of two of the
the percentage of saturation, and the percentages of two opponent colors
of the opponent colors.

BACK TO TOPICS

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New Mexico State University

A Guide To Color

Guide C - 3 16
Susan Wright, Extension Consumer Education and Health Specialist
College of Agriculture, Consumer and Environmental Sciences New Mexico State University
This publication is scheduled to be updated and reissued 4/06.

Color is one of the most important stimuli in the world. It affects our moods and personal characteristics. We
speak of blue Mondays, being in the pink, seeing red, and everything coming up rosy. Webster defines color
as the sensation resulting from stimulating the eye's retina with light waves of certain lengths. Those
sensations have been given names such as red, green and purple.

Color communicates. It tells others about you. What determines your choice of colors in your clothing? In your
home? In your office? In your car? Your selection of color is influenced by age, personality, experiences, the
occasion, the effect of light , size, texture and a variety of other factors.

Some people have misconceptions about color. They may feel certain colors should never be used together,
certain colors are always unflattering or certain colors indicate a person's character. These ideas will limit their
enjoyment of color and can cause them a great deal of frustration in life. To get a better understanding of
color, look at nature. Consider these facts:

S The prettiest gardens have a wide variety of reds, oranges, pinks, violets, purples and yellows all mixed
together.

S There are un-numbered shades of greens in a forest, in the desert and in the ocean.

S The sky can change its blue from moment to moment, and what begins as blue becomes pink and violet or
orange and crimson as the sun sets.

S Even the soil boasts a variety of colors, from whitest white to coal black, with numerous colors in between.

Color makes life interesting.

To use color effectively, you must understand some basic color facts. There are three dimensions of color:

S Hue is another word for color. It usually indicates a modification of basic color. Red is a color; orange is a
reddish hue.

S Value refers to the lightness and darkness of a color. A light color is a tint. For example, pink is a tint of
red. A dark color is called a shade. Forest green is a shade of green.

S Intensity refers to the brightness or dullness of a color such as a bright yellow or a dull yellow.

QUALITIES OF COLOR
Hue
A widely accepted theory of color is based on the idea that all colors or hues are derived from the three
primary colors-red, yellow and blue. All other colors or hues come from mixtures of these primary colors.
Thinking about colors around you and where they might be placed on a color wheel will help you see color
relationships.

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Pri m ary colors: red, yellow and blue

Second ary colors: green, orange and purple
Inter m e d iate colors: yellow-orange, red-orange, red-purple, blue-green and yellow-green
Gray: combination of all pigments
Further mixing of neighboring colors produces many other colors and color gradations. Mixed colors can be
considered as relatives because they have common ancestors. You will note that any mixed color fits into the
color wheel, according to the amount of yellow, red or blue it contains.

There are three neutrals; black, white and gray are not true colors or hues. They are achromatic colors. Black
results from the complete absorption of light rays. White is a reflection of all the rays that produce color. Gray
is an imperfect absorption of the light rays or a mixture of black and white.

Value
Value, the second dimension of color, describes the lightness or darkness of a color. You have a choice within
each color family from light to dark colors.

Colors follow a natural order. In a rainbow, yellow is the lightest color. Yellow-red or orange is somewhat
darker. The blues and purples are darkest of all. We can say that warm colors are lighter than cool colors in
their natural order from light to dark.

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Intensity
The thirds characteristic of color is intensity. Intensity is the dimension of color that tells the brightness or
dullness, its strength or its weakness. Intensity describes the distance of the color from gray on the color
wheel.

Colors in the outer circle of the color chart are full intensity because they are as bright as each color can be.
As colors go down in brightness, toward neutral gray or no color, they are said to be dulled or low intensity.

It is easy to see the difference between vivid red and dull maroon, or between bright orange and dull brown or
beige. It is sometimes more difficult to recognize that a dusty pink is duller than a clear, fresh pink.

Warm or Cool Colors

Colors are considered warm if they contain enough yellow or yellow-red. They are considered cool if they
contain a noticeable quantity of blue.

There are warm and cool versions in each color family. Purple-red or bluish-red is the cool version of red.
Aqua is an example of a warm version of a cool color because some yellow had to be mixed with the
predominately blue color.

In summary, the three qualities of color are hue, value and intensity. There can be both light and dark colors
in a bright or vivid group of colors, and light and dark colors in a dull or subdued group of colors.

TIPS FOR COMBINING HUES, VALUES AND INTENSITIES

Comb ine Warm and Cool Colors
Contrasting colors make each other seem more intense when used together. Warm colors make cool ones
seem cooler, and cool colors make warm ones seem warmer.
The duller a color becomes, however, the less power it has to make its compliment look brighter. A dull color
is more likely to emphasize, through repetition, other colors related to it. For example, a camel coat (orange

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hue) would emphasize blond hair and creamy skin more that it would blue eyes (complementary color).
Usually, unequal amounts of warm and cool colors are most pleasing because the color combination will
create a unified idea of either warmness or coolness.

Comb ine Light and Dark Colors

Some contrast of light and dark is needed in a color scheme. Try combinations using only light colors, then try
combinations using only dark colors. Some variation in value is needed for interest.
Strong light and dark contrasts are the most striking. For example, light cream with dark brown is more
striking than dark tan with medium brown.
Make pleasing combinations by keeping the natural color in mind and combining a lighter warm color with a
darker cool color.

Comb ine Bright and Dull Colors

Colors go together well when the quality of brightness is nearly the same. Brighter color combinations look
cheerful, and duller ones soft and restful. Some of the dull color combinations may appear even somber or
drab.
A small amount of bright color used with subdued color can improve a color scheme. Combine a bright accent
color with a dull-colored costume. If too much bright color is used, dull colors look even duller.

STANDARD COLOR HARMONIES

Color combinations can be contrasting or related, according to their placement on the color wheel.
Contrasting colors are those that lie some distance apart on the color wheel. Related color are those that lie
side by side, or near one another on the color wheel. Standard color harmonies are outlined below, but many
other variations are possible.

Related Harmonies
Related color harmonies are those in which the colors are similar. They include the one-hue (monochromatic)
harmony and the analogous harmony.

Monochrome (one - hue)

S Simplest scheme
S Uses differences in value and intensity (such as pink, red and rose together)
S Texture contrasts help
S Beware of tiresome, boring effect

Analogous (neighbors)
S Shows one color running throughout the entire group of colors
S Uses different values and intensities
S Quiet, restful effect
S Warm and cool related schemes possible

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Contrasting Harmonies
Contrasting harmonies are classified as complementary, double complementary, split complementary and
triad. Combinations of opposite colors on the color wheel are more difficult to use than those of neighboring
colors. Special care must be taken when using contrasting harmonies in clothing. However, when done
properly, they are richer than related harmonies, and more satisfying to the eyes.

Comp lementary
S Two colors opposite each other on the color wheel
S Reddish hues are hardest to handle
S One of the complements used should be dull, light or dark, or in small amount

>
Sp lit Complementary
S Combines a primary color with colors on either side of its complement
S Cannot start with a secondary color because its complement, a primary, cannot be split
S Adjust amounts of different values and intensities

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Double Complementary
S Two directly adjacent colors and their complements used together
S Pick only one hue to be outstanding and used in largest account (dulled)
S Vary intensities and values of other hues, as well as amounts

Triad
S Richest harmony if well-used
S Equilateral triangles create triads such as Red, Blue, Yellow; Green, Orange, purple; Yellow-Purple,
Blue-Green, Red-Purple; AND Yellow-Green, Blue-Purple, Red- Orange.

New Mexico State University is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer and educator. NMSU and the
U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating.
Reprinted April 2001
Electronic Distribution July 2001

Copyright 2005 NMSU Board of Regents

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painting in neutrals
technique
The aim of this section is to get
you to recognize grays, mix them reliably with
paints, and use them effectively in design. neutrals in context

near neutrals and

color design
neutrals in context
seeing color value
Let's start by putting near neutral
colors in context. The defining feature of near seeing hue bias
neutrals is their chroma or saturation — they mixing complementary
don't have any. paints

Well, almost. Think of chroma as the balance the material qualities

between hue and value. Pure neutral tones of paint
contain no information at all about hue: they
are achromatic or colorless, and vary only in
lightness or value. Strongly chromatic colors
are so intense that the color sensation
frequently obscures the color value, which
weakens the clarity of the value structure.

Saturation or chroma is a measure of the

balance between the conflicting visual
sensations of value and hue. Which means
your basic consideration, when thinking about
color saturation, is how to strike the
balance between value and hue.

What is value good for? As the dominant

visual information our vision extracts from
light, value is essential to show the spatial
form of physical objects in the world
represented by the painting. Value expresses
the direction and intensity of light, the purity of
the air, the volume, shape and spacing of
objects.

Lights and darks are able to do this because

they neither clash nor harmonize with actual
reds, yellows, greens, blues and violets. Value
stands behind color as an independent
dimension. In fact, the traditional grisaille oil
painting method turns this fact into a method:
it blocks out the picture in tones of gray, then
animates distinct surfaces with transparent

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glazes of color.

In contrast, hue functions primarily to show

the quality of light and the inner
composition of objects in the world — their
molecular or crystal structure, fine grained
surface texture, translucency, refractive
qualities, and so on. Value signals that the
orange and lemon both have shiny, textured
skins; color signals their inner taste. A red and
a brown apple have the same value, but we see
(almost with our gut) that the brown apple
won't be good to eat.

The problem for artists is that intense hues

make it difficult to see values accurately:
using saturated colors has the effect of value shows spatial form,
hue shows the composition
weakening the value structure of a painting
of
(making the relative value of colors more light and material objects
difficult to see). There is a deep design reason
why modern artworks that emphasize
expressive extremes of color also suppress the
value and perspective cues of space, and why
the older style of paintings emphasized
chiaroscuro and landscape depth within a
limited chromatic range. Chroma or saturation
is not merely the balance between two
academic colormaking attributes, but the
boundary between two very different design
approaches to the visual richness of the world.

This "black or blue" distinction is not neat, for

three reasons. First, hue and value are linked in
familiar ways: pine trees are green but also
dark, lemons are yellow but also light. Second,
our expectation under normal daylight is to see
lighted surfaces as warm hues and dark
surfaces or shadows as cool hues; hue seems
aligned with the warm/cool color contrast.
Finally, surfaces shift from primarily hue to
primarily value depending on the illumination:
in dim lighting all colors become varied shades
of near gray, and in extremely bright lighting
colors appear bleached or denatured.

The key to using dull or unsaturated passages

of color is that dull colors can accent both
value and hue. Because they are much closer
to a pure gray than intense hues, near neutrals
are easier to read as part of the value

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structure; they combine with pure values.

Because they still contain hue information, they
accent or contrast with pure hues. They
increase each colormaking attribute, but
through harmonious or antagonistic means.

This last effect, the antagonistic relationship

between dull and intense hues, can be
controlled by choosing near neutrals that are
analogous or complementary hues to the
saturated hues near them. The effects of
simultaneous complementary contrast will
cause saturated hues to appear more distinct
but sometimes less resonant than they will
against an achromatic background. Placing the
same hues near to analogous near neutrals
acts to diffuse their color power over the entire
near neutral area.

These points will become clearer in the

examples below, and once you actually
experiment with near neutrals in visual design.
The point is that near neutrals are
important, no matter what your style of
painting. Using these dull mixtures effectively
means coming to grips with the three value
painting challenges — seeing neutrals
accurately as values, mixing them as hues
accurately, and effectively using their combined
value and hue in visual design.

near neutrals and color design

Let's start with the use of near

neutrals in color design. This is the way the
subject is normally approached, and basic
design effects provide a good context for other
problems, such as seeing the hue bias of a
near neutral accurately.

Students are commonly taught the importance

of simultaneous complementary contrast
in color design. However, important effects
also arise from simultaneous analogous
contrast, in which the background color is not
the complementary hue of the saturated color,
but the same or similar hue.

Some visual examples will illustrate the main

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points. Again: the visual impact of color

samples on a light transmitting computer
monitor will not be the same as the visual
effect of light reflecting paints on paper. Treat
these examples as illustrative.

First we consider saturated color samples from

the twelve tertiary points of the visual color
wheel, displayed against a constant
achromatic mid value background (example 1).
Because the lightness of highest chroma
color varies by hue, so the central colors are
not of equal lightness and chroma, though
each hue is shown at the highest lightness that
retains the maximum saturation. (In all the
examples in this section, the central colors are
arranged vertically as visual complementary
pairs.)

1. saturated colors with achromatic mid

valued background
central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies
by hue); background is a pure mid valued neutral
(saturation = 0%, L = 55)

Nothing surprising here. The gray backgrounds

seem to vary slightly, because of the
complementary color shifts produced by the
intense hues (as explained in the section on
complementary color contrast). The
saturated colors all appear very lively, and
many seem to stand in front of the gray
background (with the possible exception of the
purple and red blues, which are darker in value
than the gray).

Now, let's try to fire up the central colors by

changing the background grays to a
complementary near neutral color (example
2). Again, the background is darker valued
than all the central colors except for the purple
(top left) and blue violet (bottom right).

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2. saturated colors with complementary

near neutral background
central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies
by hue); background is a complementary near neutral
(saturation = 15%, L = 55)

Your mileage may vary, but I don't see a

tremendous difference in the quality of the
saturated central color patches (compare
examples 1 and 2). If anything, the
"advancing" effect of the bright colors is
accented (now even the purple and blue violet
seem to stand in front of their backgrounds),
and this enhanced color contrast seems to be
the chief design impact: complementary
contrast separates colors in a pattern. The
background colors have been altered in the
same direction that a simultaneous
complementary contrast would shift them, so
we have slightly intensified the color contrast
without altering its character.

Now let's use the same central patches and

backgrounds as before, but flip the background
colors vertically, so that each saturated hue is
now seen against an analogous near neutral
— that is, its own hue but at lower saturation
(example 3).

3. saturated colors with analogous

near neutral background
central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies
by hue); background is an analogous near neutral
(saturation=15%, L = 55)

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The difference in the color effect is striking

(compare examples 2 and 3). Now the
saturated hue seems to expand or diffuse into
the dull background, uniting with it in a quality
of shared glow or influence, but not a
chromatic quality so much as a unity of mood
or light. The metaphor of light seems justified
by the significant apparent shifts in value and
color temperature that occur in some
background colors — the warm color
backgrounds in particular — and the apparent
chroma increase in the backgrounds,
producing an illusion of greater hue differences
from one background to the next. Yet the
sense of color harmony seems greater across
the example as a whole.

If you compare the dull backgrounds in the

previous two figures (backgrounds that are
exactly the same, just placed around different
saturated colors), you will see that the effect
on the dull colors is very noticeable. In effect,
analogous dull colors act as color
resonators, vibrating in harmony with their
more intense color neighbors and gaining in
apparent saturation as a result.

These backgrounds were set to a constant mid

value, which makes them darker than all but
two of the central saturated squares. What
happens when the dull background colors are
generally light valued and often lighter than the
saturated central colors (example 4)?

4. saturated colors with complementary

light valued background
central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies
by hue); background is complementary near neutral
(saturation=15%, L = 80)

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In this example the backgrounds are lighter

valued than all the saturated colors except
yellow (top right), and the greens and blue
greens (bottom left 4 samples).

Here the results are mixed. For the very light

valued greens and blue greens, the background
is of a very similar value but not lighter, so the
difference in chroma between the background
and central square is interpreted as an increase
in luminosity, and the central colors appear
brighter. For the central squares that are
darker valued than their backgrounds, the
simultaneous lightness contrast causes
them to appear even darker, and this
darkening has an apparent effect on the
chroma as well, making the colors appear
duller. As a result, the dark warm hues function
less effectively as color accents, and the light
cool hues more effectively, when placed within
light valued complementary contrasts.

Now let's flip the backgrounds again (example

5). The yellow, greens and blue green are still
lighter valued than their backgrounds.

5. saturated colors with analogous light

valued background
central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies
by hue); background is analogous near neutral
(saturation=15%, L = 80)

Now all the saturated colors are slightly

enhanced, and the backgrounds are brightened
even more: the whole array appears more
luminous, and every color (central squares and
backgrounds alike) has a richer, warmer
presence. This is especially apparent in the
darker central colors, where the strong
lightness contrast is softened by the analogous
hue relationship.

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The comparisons so far indicate that lightness

and chroma contrasts have different
effects, depending on hue. The lightness
contrast is negligible for the saturated green
and blue green hues, but very strong for the
saturated warm hues and reddish blue. Red
and red orange (top row, center two squares)
appear especially affected.

I said earlier that this is because the lightness

of the maximum saturated color varies from
one hue to the next. We can explore this
relationship further by making the background
color the same lightness as the central square,
with the background either a complementary
hue (example 6) or an analogous hue (example
7).

6. saturated colors with complementary

near neutral background of equal value
central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies
by hue); background is complementary near neutral
(saturation=15%, lightness equal to central square)

7. saturated colors with analogous

background
of equal value
central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies
by hue); background is complementary near neutral
(saturation=15%, lightness equal to central square)

Comparison of these examples with each other

suggests that the chroma and hue shifts for
both saturated and near neutral colors have

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been minimized. This reduced contrast is also

apparent when these examples are compared
to earlier examples with dark backgrounds of
identical lightness (examples 1-3). (To
compare with earlier examples, open this page
in side by side browser windows, and align the
examples you want to compare in each
window.)

In other words, simultaneous color

contrasts are minimized in colors of equal
lightness. Of course, part of this contrast
reduction is due to the greater variation in
lightness across the whole array of colors:
central colors are "merged" with their
backgrounds to accentuate the lightness
differences across the backgrounds. But we
notice too that complementary color contrasts
do not produce any significant hue shifts in the
central squares, and analogous backgrounds
have lost almost all their resonance (indeed,
the yellow green at lower left seems to
disappear into its analogous background).
Lacking any value contrast to start with, color
vision is not stimulated to accent the contrasts
on hue or chroma.

Finally, we can minimize the differences

between central squares and backgrounds on
both value and chroma to see how hue
contrasts work for "average" (moderately
saturated, mid valued) color samples. Here are
the color examples again, with complementary
color backgrounds (example 8) and with
analogous color backgrounds (example 9).

8. moderately saturated colors with

complementary near neutral background
central colors of equal saturation and lightness
(saturation = 50% lightness of 60); background is
complementary near neutral (saturation=15%,
lightness of 55)

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9. moderately saturated colors with

analogous near neutral background
central colors of equal saturation and lightness
(saturation = 50% lightness of 60); background is
complementary near neutral (saturation=15%,
lightness of 55)

Several things seem to be happening at once.

First, the relationship between lightness and
chroma across different hues means that once
we fix the lightness of the central squares to a
single value, some hues will appear lighter or
darker than others based on chroma
differences alone. Thus, the hues that have the
highest chroma at mid to low values (blue
violet, far right in bottom row, or red and
orange, middle of top row) appear relatively
bright, but the hues that have the highest
chroma at high values (yellow, far right of top
row, and greens, middle and left of bottom
row) have their chroma reduced by the darker
value and appear relatively dull. These are not
color shifts due to contrast effects, but are
inherent to the chroma/lightness relationship of
each hue, and are inescapable when we try to
compare effects across different hues.

That said, the complementary color contrast

causes all the moderately saturated color
swatches to appear relatively more distinct. By
comparison, the yellow, green and blue green
central squares are almost lost against their
analogous color backgrounds, although all
hues are more "merged" with their analogous
backgrounds, as they are so similar in value.
Once again, complementary color contrast
serves primarily not to enhance individual
hues, as "color theory" likes to put it, but to
clarify visual textures or patterns among
moderately saturated and dull colors.

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Third, because the value contrasts have been

minimized, the chroma and hue shifts are
reduced as well. Even so, the near neutral
backgrounds seem to receive a larger hue and
value shift from the contrast than the
moderately saturated colors. In general, colors
with higher chroma induce shifts rather
than receive them. This effect seems to hold
true, even when the most saturated colors are
only moderately high in chroma.

Many more examples could be added to

demonstrate the interactions or mutual effects
among hue, value and chroma. At this point it
will be most useful for you to repeat these
effects, using either colored construction or
origami papers, or squares painted with
watercolors. The most important design
principles we can take away from the present
examples include the following:

• The size of color shifts depends

primarily on the value contrast between
color areas. Value acts as the determinant of
other shifts: where value contrasts are large,
hue and chroma differences are muted; where
value contrasts are small, chroma shifts are
accented. (For discussion of the relative power
of value, chroma and hue in simultaneous color
contrasts, see the section on simultaneous
color contrasts.)

• Light valued backgrounds are more

powerful than dark valued backgrounds.
In general, when there is already a strong
chroma contrast between two color areas, a
light colored near neutral area is interpreted by
color vision as if it were information about the
illuminant, and this "illuminant" color affects
nearby saturated colors in the same way
colored lighting would (enhancing analogous
hues, and neutralizing complementary hues).
The chroma enhancing effect of analogous,
light valued backgrounds is greatest for mid to
light valued saturated colors; dark valued
saturated colors will appear darker and duller,
as if they were interpreted as shadows rather
than the illumninant.

• Lightness or chroma contrasts vary by

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hue. We found that light valued near neutral

backgrounds produced the strongest effect of
enhanced luminosity in the saturated hues that
were also light valued — yellow, greens and
blue greens. Dark valued near neutrals produce
a similar effect for dark valued saturated hues.
Roughly, when value differences are very
small, chroma differences enhance apparent
chroma; when value differences are very large,
chroma differences affect apparent value.

• Analogous and complementary contrasts

have different effects. Complementary color
contrasts serve to separate unrelated color
areas in patterns or complex visual textures,
especially when all colors are moderately
saturated. Analogous color contrasts serve to
unite unrelated color areas and reinforce their
common hue by an apparent increase in
saturation, especially when the lighter valued
colors are unsaturated.

• Analogous relations are more powerful

than complementary relations. The
analogous, light valued near neutral
backgrounds combine with the saturated colors
to suggest a colored illuminant, strongly
enhancing the sense of color richness and color
unity.

• Near neutrals show greater apparent

shifts. All other things equal, the near neutral
background shows a larger color shift induced
by the saturated color than the saturated color
shows a shift caused by the near neutral
background. This shift is greater for analogous
than complementary colors, and is greater for
lighter valued colors.

As I've already suggested, these general

principles are less effective than actual
experience with color mixing. It turns out this
is also true when we look at an even simpler
problem: recognizing color values accurately.

seeing color value

There are two challenges to

seeing near neutral colors accurately:

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identifying the color value (on a value scale),

which we'll look at now; and identifying the
hue bias in dull or near neutral color,
discussed in the next section.

Our natural tendency is to take a one

problem/one solution approach to life, but the
problem of recognizing color values is not an
easy one to solve.

A standard trick is to "squint" or narrow your

eyelids when looking at a landscape or still life,
which supposedly helps you to see the values
more clearly. In a way it does, because it
reduces the overall luminosity of the visual
field, which in turn lowers the apparent chroma
of all the colors — and colors lower in chroma
are easier to read as pure values.

Another trick is to carry three slide frames

fitted with red, green and blue filters or colored
cellophane. Each transparency will cause the
hues similar to it to appear at their natural
values, and all other hues to appear darker and
closer to gray. The green filter is especially
effective, since it is neither warm nor cool, and
so cancels out the effects of color temperature.
Using all the filters, one after another, will help
you to separate color values from the effects of
hue and chroma.

All these tricks are more useful in analyzing the

actual values of the motif or subject you are
painting. I feel the best approach for learning
the value of color mixtures is to use the
artist's value wheel to select a triad of
similarly valued paints (green gold, orange and
turquoise for light valued paints, quinacridone
carmine, phthalo green BS and cobalt blue
deep for dark valued paints, etc.), and mix
color circles of similar value. The illustration
shows four of these triad circles, and below
them the same images in a pure gray scale.

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color circles made of similar valued triads

This approach has one great merit: it helps you

to learn the standard value for each hue you
use, without guesswork. The artist's color
wheel is based on spectrophotometric color
measurements of paint pigments across
several different brands of watercolors, so the
values assigned to pigments are highly reliable.
No guesswork is involved.

An added benefit is that, with minor variations,

the mixtures of any equal valued colors you
chose for a color circle will have the same value
as the pure pigments. You also learn the
characteristic value of a range of color mixtures
— green gold with turquoise, carmine with
phthalo green.

The final aid is, of course, the value scale.

Some painters suggest you make such a scale
yourself, through successive layers of dark or
black paint. I strongly recommend you buy a
standard photographer's gray scale (for
example as manufactured by Kodak), sold in
any good camera store or photographic supply
store. The merit is that these gray samples are
accurate, and have a dull glossy finish that
appears relatively constant across a wide range
of illumination. To use the gray scale, simply
hold it alongside the color area you want to
evaluate; you can also use a paper punch to
put small holes along the inner edge of each
gray swatch, and look at the color through
these holes (this eliminates the visually
confusing effects of contrast colors near the
area you want to evaluate).

What do these various tricks or tools amount

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to? Nothing more than patient, trial and error

learning. Some artists are naturally endowed
with a light sensitive eye. For the rest of us,
seeing values accurately is a very complex
visual skill that requires long and patient
practice.

The advantage of using the artist's color wheel,

or colored filters, is that you apply a consistent
method to many different color samples (in
paints or the real world). They key to relatively
painless learning is to create these consistent
methods and use them in many different
situations.

seeing hue bias

Finding the hue bias in a dull or

near neutral color is another subtle problem in
color perception. The problem is made more
difficult because it is hard to find near neutral
color samples with which to train one's color
eye.

The near neutral color samples in this section

are meant to be illustrative only. I recommend
that you buy an inexpensive color atlas, such
as the The New Munsell Student Color Set
or the Process Color Manual, to assist you in
recognizing and distinguishing among greens,
reds, yellows or blues that are very close to
gray.

One approach to hue discrimination might be to

start with the saturated color circle, with its
complete color range, and look at color
samples of decreasing chroma or saturation at
constant value, to see what a dull blue or a dull
red looks like.

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a palette of near neutrals (CIELAB L = 65)

We first notice that the different hues are

harder to distinguish as near neutrals than as
saturated colors. The hue gradations seem to
melt away as the samples shift toward lower
chroma.

The hue fading effect varies by hue: the

turquoise and greenish blue samples appear
bright around a chroma of 35, while the
samples of yellow or yellowish green appear
dull. At different lightness values than the
CIELAB L of 65 chosen for this example, other
colors would appear more intense at a chroma
of 35. So the hue fading depends both on
the hue and the value we are considering.

With those basic cautions in mind, let's start

with a pure achromatic hue and work
outwards. This is closer to the actual situation
you face when painting, which is identifying a
near neutral hue without a strong hue near it to
aid in recognition.

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the circle of grays

The circle of grays starts with a pure

achromatic sample of lightness 50. It is
surrounded on four sides by samples at a
chroma of 4, then at a chroma of 7 at
lightnesses of 50 and 80. The color samples
around the circumference identify the hue
along each "spoke" of the circle.

Working outwards in this way, it's obvious that

our color categories have broken down: we
can't distinguish among these grays with the
same precision that we can distinguish among
the colors in the outer circle. We need to learn
a new hue circle, an near neutral hue circle,
as our framework for identifying near neutral
colors.

Part of the problem is that we must have new

color terms to talk about the differences among
the grays. The hue terms we use for the
saturated colors just don't apply. There is a
very obvious difference between the red violet
and blue violet, but the corresponding grays
look pretty much the same. What should we
call this dull color?

To find an answer, try to divide the grays in the

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outer or middle circle into groups of similar

grays. How many groups do you come up
with? How sure of the groups are you?

There are little or no differences among the

samples of chroma 4. Differences might
become apparent, through color contrast
effects, if these samples were placed next to
more intense color samples. At chroma 7,
there does seem to be a difference between
"warm" colors (magenta through yellow) which
appear as a dull brown, and "cool" colors
(green through blue) which all seem to be a
dull green. At a lighter value (L=80), this
contrast is more obvious, and the violets (red
violet to blue violet) seem also to form a
distinct grouping.

These groups seem roughly to correspond to

the three additive primaries of scarlet,
green and blue violet. It seems that color vision
cannot achieve a reliable hue recognition
because the outputs from the R, G and B cones
are so nearly equal; but it can at least
recognize which of the three cones is
responding most strongly. The hue separation
becomes clearer at lighter values, because at
this value all the cones are much more active,
so the slight differences between them become
magnified.

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the circle of grays (hue symbols omitted)

If we look at samples with a chroma of 14, the

hue differences are distinct for each hue at a
lightness of 90, and are more distinct at a
lightness of 50. The warm colors and green
blues/blue greens still seem to form two large
clusters, but the hue transitions from orange to
green and from blue to magenta are more
distinct. Increasing the chroma further unfolds
hue differences at darker and darker values —
depending on which hue we are looking at.

These comparisons suggest the following

method for identifying the hue of near neutral
colors, whether in mixed paints or in the
surfaces of the real world:

1. Warm or cool? As we've seen, this is the

most robust color judgment, even in near
neutral colors. If you cannot make this basic
distinction, then the color is either a true
neutral, or it is a very dull green or violet.

With paints, lightening the color mixture

with white paint or water can assist in color
identification, as this brings the luminosity up
the point where reliable hue differences appear
even at very low chroma. On natural surfaces,
look at the surface area that is most strongly
illuminated. (If the reflected light is dazzling,
look at areas that are illuminated indirectly.)

2. Closest anchor. Proceed to narrow down

the location of the color by choosing between
the widest possible hue alternatives. If it is a
warm color, ask yourself if it is closer to yellow
or magenta; if a cool color, whether it is closer
to turquoise or blue violet. Then continue
dividing the color alternatives by halves: if you
decide it is closer to yellow, then ask whether it
is closer to yellow or orange; if orange,
whether closer to orange or deep yellow? Stop
when the hue choice seems arbitrary or
uncertain.

3. Saturation. You've located the hue; the

difficulty in making that judgment gives you a
sense for the color's chroma or intensity. Try to

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imagine a gray and the purest imaginary hue of

the same value, and locate the color in your
imagination between these two extremes.

4. Adjacent color. Once you have made as

specific a hue recognition as possible, consider
the contrast effects induced by adjacent colors.
A greenish gray next to a magenta will appear
less saturated and darker than it would appear
in isolation; the same gray next to a blue green
will appear more saturated and lighter. Hue
shifts will also be present.

5. Value. You identify the value of the hue last

of all, because the apparent value of colors
varies by hue, and you may need to adjust for
this mentally when determining your color
mixture.

6. Range of Values. The last step to consider

the place of the color value in the overall value
structure of the image. This is also related to
the visual environment in which you are trying
to make the color judgment. Is the lighting
strong, or weak? Are your eyes somewhat
blinded by light, or is the surface darkly
shaded? In dim light you may want to make
values lighter than they seem; in bright light
you may want to paint the colors less saturated
than you would normally. (Some of these
issues are explained at the page on light in
the world, and at the page on value design.)

I emphasize again that learning to recognize

and then mix near neutral hues is a slow
process. It goes hand in hand with your color
mixing skills, your knowledge of the effects of
light and color contrast on color judgments,
and your experience in making paintings.

mixing complementary paints

Any three paints that define a

mixing triangle which encloses the center or
neutral point of the color wheel can create a
perfect gray if mixed in the right proportions.

There are also many combinations of two

paints that can mix a neutral or gray tone.
These are subtractive complementary

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colors, or mixing complements. These color

combinations are both convenient (two paints
are easier to work with than three) and
effective (two paints can often mix a darker
neutral than three). Most artists memorize the
important combinations as part of their color
mixing lore.

I learned over my first few years of teaching

myself to paint that much of the currently
available information about mixing
complements in watercolor paints is inaccurate
or incomplete. Sometimes the errors are trivial
and sometimes they are large.

Because your mixing intuitions depend on your

knowledge of mixing complements, I will go
into this topic in depth. (Is there any other
way?)

I approached this problem methodically, and

an explanation of my test methods, with a
complete listing of test results, are provided on
this page. The image at right, which shows
the mixing complementary tests for ultramarine
blue (PB29), shows the gist. Each line
connects the measured color locations of
ultramarine blue mixed with every warm
pigment between cadmium yellow deep and
cadmium scarlet. Any mixture that passes
within the light gray circle has a minimum
chroma of 5 or less, which is to most viewers near neutral mixing lines
indistinguishable from a "pure" gray; any for ultramarine blue
mixture that passes within the dark gray circle
has a chroma of 2 or less and really is a pure
gray. (At least, watercolors marketed as
white, gray or black have a chroma within
that range.) Three lines fall within this circle:
raw umber, quinacridone gold, and
benzimidazolone orange.

The chart below shows all the mixing

complements between warm and cool
watercolor pigments (from ultramarine violet
BS to chromium oxide green). (Again, this
page presents the same information as a
table. I've organized the table around the blue
and green pigments, because there are fewer
of them.)

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the watercolorist's mixing complements

pigments that make "pure gray" mixtures are joined by
dark lines, "near gray" mixtures by light lines; see this
page for the same information in tabular form

Before you panic: this diagram is meant to

make a single point. If the hue relationships
between mixing complementary colors were
consistent, then the lines connecting them
would not cross each other. As cool hues
become greener, their mixing complements
should become bluer, so lines between them
would stay roughly parallel all the way down

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the chart. This is obviously not the case!

The real problem here is the ugly mess called

subtractive color mixing, which has some
memorable peculiarities:

• Nearly all the mixing complements for blues

and blue greens are limited to the warm colors
from carmine to deep yellow. That is, most
mixing complements lie around the
warm/cool color contrast, which is really
the "mother of complementaries." This is
emphasized by the way the mixing lines tend to
slant toward the red orange center of the warm
color range (around burnt sienna).

• With few exceptions (yellow ochre and other

dull deep yellows), yellow has no role as a
mixing complement. This is because yellow
reflects both "red" and "green" light, and it
is extremely difficult to get a reddish blue or
blue violet color that can exactly cancel out
both parts of the spectrum equally.

Is Stephen Quiller incorrect to say that

ultramarine violet and lemon yellow make a
pure gray mixture? Yes. The bluish shade of
ultramarine violet (PV15) he recommends
(made by M. Graham or Blockx) produces a
cadaverous near gray with any yellow hue —
lemon yellow through deep yellow. But these
mixtures are actually a greenish gray, not a
true gray. They appear gray, however, because
we tend to choose a cool color as a "true"
gray. I used a spectrophotometer to measure
my test mixtures; Quiller used his eyes.

• The warm hue mixing complements for most

blue or green pigments cover a large hue span.
This means that paint mixing cannot
identify unique complementary colors for
any blue or green. Take phthalo green BS
(PG7) for example: you can get a dead on
dark gray by mixing it with pyrrole scarlet
(PR255) or with perylene maroon (PR179).
So is the "true" complementary color for
phthalo green a bright scarlet or a dull
carmine? (Quiller pairs phthalo green BS with
quinacridone rose PV19, which produces a
violet mixture with a minimum chroma of
around 12.)

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• Some of the mixing complements

contradict color wheel logic. Compare, for
example, the mixing complements of prussian
blue (PB27) and phthalo turquoise (PB16).
The perfect mixing complement for prussian
blue is venetian red (PR101), and the best
complement for phthalo turquoise is perinone
orange (PO43). But phthalo turquoise is much
closer to green than prussian blue, and
perinone orange is also closer to green than
venetian red: as the blue hue moves
counterclockwise around the color wheel, the
complementary color moves clockwise! You
just can't get that to make sense on a color
wheel.

The truth is that you can't show mixing

complements as a color wheel. No matter
how you tug and pluck, you can't unravel the
mess created by the substance uncertainty
of real paints. The only way to cut through the
knot is to work with the color relationships
defined by additive color mixing, as I've
done with my artist's color wheel, and learn
the mixing complementary relationships by rote
for the paints actually on your palette. Paints
you don't use you don't have to know about.

the material qualities of paint

I've carried the color mixing

exercise to an unartistic extreme. But I urge
you to verify the results, at least for paints on
your palette, for a very different reason. Mixing
up your own complementary paint
combinations is a splendid way to learn the
subtle material attributes of the pigments and
paints you use.

A really unfortunate (and unintended) outcome

of learning "color theory" is the prejudice
that paints are "colors" only. This is very
much like thinking of flowers as "colors."
Skillful gardeners and flower artists, when they
plan garden beds or flower arrangements, also
think of the size and shape of the plants, the
shape and spread of blossoms, the arc and
twist of stems, and the pattern and sheen of

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leaves. As a painter, you need to understand

the physical, handling and appearance
attributes of each paint or pigment you use,
not just its "color." Choosing paints to create
harmonious visual effects other than color is
one of the hallmarks of an accomplished
watercolor artist.

The benefit of near neutral mixtures is that

color is eliminated almost entirely, so paint
value and texture is all there is to look at.
Paints that you thought of as "blue" or "dark"
now impress you with textures and surfaces all
their own. You can see clearly the subtle
harmonies or difficulties created by mixing
different types of pigments.

Here is a summary of some of the notes I

made while testing neutral mixtures:

• Mixtures of two synthetic organic pigments —

a phthalocyanine with a pyrrole, for example —
give the strongest, cleanest, most
homogenous grays. These mixtures can
produce extremely even color areas and
exceptionally dark grays (in some cases even
darker than ivory or carbon black), with the
drawback that they make visually boring and
somewhat dull surfaces across large areas.

• Mixtures of the cool phthalocyanines with a

warm iron oxide (earth) pigment are generally
very smooth, with a slight granularity that
lends the finished color a velvety visual texture.
(As always, you must apply the color decisively
and not fuss with it as it dries; this dulls the
surface and produces "mud.") Mixtures with
red iron oxide (venetian red, light red, indian
red) must be fairly diluted, however, because
those earth pigments are thick and opaque,
which can cause a dense mixture to streak
when brushed on.

• Burnt sienna (PBr7) and venetian red

(PR101) are the two workhorse pigments for
neutralizing colors, but a dark raw umber
(PBr7) is also often useful for reddish blue
paints.

• The very pure gray that results from venetian

red with iron (prussian) blue (PB27) is

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"Homer's gray." It was used with special grace

by Winslow Homer to capture the dark
stormy gray skies of Cullercoats and Bermuda.

• Mixtures of phthalocyanine blue or green with

cadmium pigments can be very confusing to
work with. The finer cadmium particles have a
tendency to float on the surface of the mixture,
which confuses your perception of the color;
you have to look through this surface to the
color of the inner solution as you brush it out
against the white palette. Make test swatches
to confirm the dried color appearance before
applying to the painting.

• Mixtures of cobalt blue or cobalt turquoise

with an iron oxide (earth) or synthetic organic
pigment (the quinacridones in particular) are
especially beautiful. (The exception is cerulean
blue, which turns out unusually dull when
mixed with the earth pigments.) Cobalt
pigment particles are just large enough to
create a distinct stippled or speckled texture to
the dried color, which causes the separate
pigments to appear as two interlaced colors
rather than a single homogenous hue. This
color contrast is especially intense with a
scarlet and turquoise, or magenta and green
paint, and is strongest in middle grays
(moderately diluted mixtures).

• The gray that results from ultramarine blue

(PB29) and burnt sienna is one of the most
evocative and texturally interesting grays. It is
slightly biased toward red, which gives it a
fundamental warmth even in its most neutral
tone, and the textural effects that result from
the wet in wet application of the two pigments,
which have a strong tendency to separate in
juicy washes, can be startlingly lovely.

• Grays are especially hard to mix because the

margin of error is limited in all directions. In
most mixtures it does not really matter if your
finished color is slightly off hue from the color
you wanted; the color still takes on its desired
role. But a gray that varies in any direction
from the exact color you want to mix is no
longer a gray, and may even shift temperature
from warm to cool. This problem arises

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because of the drying shifts of the

complementary pair: a mixture that looks spot
on when wet will often dry with a hue bias. It's
best to paint a test swatch of any gray mixture
— and let it dry for at least 10 minutes — to be
sure of the finished color. Drying shifts arise in
various ways: with dark blue pigments —
ultramarine blue, indanthrone blue and phthalo
blue — because they have very large drying
shifts in lightness and saturation; with cobalt
pigments, because they lose tinting strength in
a mixture as they dry. An exception is
dioxazine violet with sap green: both paints
individually have large drying shifts, but the
size and direction of the shifts tend to cancel
each other out, leaving the finished neutral
color pretty much as you mixed it.

As these comments suggest, mixing near

neutral colors present slightly different mixing
problems than you encounter when mixing
more saturated colors at the outer edges of the
color wheel. But these problems can help you
learn the essential nature of the paints and
pigments more clearly.

Last revised 11.12.2007 • © 2007 Bruce MacEvoy

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