UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

AC CIRCUITS

2.1 Introduction:
In Electrical Engineering, there are basically two types of voltage or current source which defines
the kind of circuit and they are; Alternating Current (or voltage) and Direct Current.

“AC” stands for Alternating Current, which can refer to either voltage or current that
alternates in polarity or direction, respectively.
An electrical circuit is a complete conductive path through which electrons flow from the source to
the load and back to the source. The direction and magnitude of the electrons flow however depend on the
kind of source. An alternating quantity is on that periodically reverses its direction. Sinusoidal wave is one
of the periodic wave forms. In this sinusoidal wave magnitude is varies at every instant of time.

The following are different AC quantities

1. Question: How the simple AC waveform is represented? Define time period,

frequency and Amplitude of AC sinusoidal waveform.

2.2 Alternating Quantity :

The shape obtained by plotting the instantaneous ordinate values of either voltage or current against
time is called an AC Waveform. An AC waveform is constantly changing its polarity every half cycle
alternating between a positive maximum value and a negative maximum value respectively with regards to
time.
Waveforms are basically a visual representation of the variation of a voltage or current plotted to a
base of time”. Generally, for AC waveforms this horizontal base line represents a zero condition of either
voltage or current. Any part of an AC type waveform which lies above the horizontal zero axis represents a
voltage or current flowing in one direction.
An Alternating Current or Voltage, is one in which the value of either the voltage or the current varies
about a particular mean value and reverses direction periodically.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

1) The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or

intensity of the signal waveform measured in
volts or amps.
2) Cycle: In an AC Waveform to complete one
full pattern from its positive half to its negative
half and back to its zero baseline again is called
a Cycle.
one complete cycle contains both a positive
half-cycle and a negative half-cycle.
3) Time Period: The time taken by the waveform
to complete one full cycle is called the Periodic
Time of the waveform, and is given the symbol
“T”. The Period, (T) is the length of time in
seconds that the waveform takes to repeat itself
from start to finish.
Time period can be calculated by considering
1. Zero Crossing point to the next successive zero crossing point.
2. From +ve peak to Next +ve peak
3. From -ve peak to next -ve peak.
One cycle of sine wave repeats the number of times mathematically represented as 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑇)
for all time.

4) The Frequency, (ƒ) is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a one second time
period. Frequency is measured in Hertz, (Hz) named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz.
Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period.
1
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑓) = 𝐻𝑧
𝑇
One Hz is defined as one cycle per one second. (The number of complete cycles that are produced within
one second (cycles/second) is called the Frequency)

5) Peak Value:
The maximum value of +ve or -ve attained by a waveform is called peak value.

6) Peak to Peak value;

The peak to peak value of sine wave form is the value from +ve peak to -ve peak.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

2.3 Sinusoidal waveform

2.3.1. Basic terms

As mentioned in sinusoid wave generation at time t=0 , magnitude is zero , as time increases
magnitude reaches to maximum value and then decrease and reaches to zero at T/2. Later polarity changes
i.e decreases to -ve maximum and again increases to zero at time ‘T’. The complete +ve and -Ve portion is
called one cycle. This is repeated for t=infinity.

The most commonly used waveform is the sinusoidal one. Suppose V (t ) is a sinusoidal waveform:
V(t)=Vm Sin (ωt +φ)
where Vm is the amplitude – it is the minimal and maximal value of the waveform;
ω=2. π . f is the angular frequency of the waveform. It is measured in rad. s−1.
Φ is the phase shift in degrees or radians that the waveform has shifted left or right from the
reference point ( t=0 ).
When φ=0 we say that the waveform is in phase. When φ>0 or φ<0 the phase is positive or negative
respectively.
i) Instantaneous value:
The value of an alternating quantity at a particular instant is called its instantaneous value. Each
repetition of a set of positive and negative instantaneous values of an alternating quantity is called a
cycle (The value of wave form magnitude at each instant time is called instantaneous value)

ii)Phase: Phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement that specifies the position of the sine
wave relative to reference wave. This is of two types
1. In phase: Any wave which is starts from the starting position of reference wave.
2. Out of phase: A wave form starts not from the position of reference wave is out of phase this
may be lead or lag. Consider the above figure w.r.t wave A , Wave B is lagging by phase ɵ.
W.r.t wave A Wave C is stats earlier thus it lead by phase ɵ. This difference is called phase
difference.
Mathematically represent by as follows. 𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 ∓ ∅)

Where ω is angular frequency

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2. Define (i) Average value (ii) RMS value (iii) Form factor (iv) Peak factor
3. Determine the average and rms values of simple sine wave v(t) = Vm sint.

iii) Average value:

The average value or mean value of an alternating current is the average of all instantaneous
values during a half cycle. It is the ratio of all instantaneous values to the number of instantaneous
values selected during a half cycle.

The average value of an AC waveform is giving by the equation;

Where V1...Vn is the instantaneous value of voltage during the half

cycle.

Average value of any curve is the total area under the complete curve divided by the distance of the
curve.

𝟏 𝑻
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = ∫𝟎 𝒗(𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝑻
Note:
1. Average value is calculated for half cycles for symmetrical waves and Non symmetrical waves
calculated for full cycles.
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iv) RMS Value:

The term “RMS” stands for “Root-Mean-Squared”. Most books define this as the “amount of AC
power that produces the same heating effect as an equivalent DC power”, or something similar along these
lines, but an RMS value is more than just that. The RMS value is the square root of the mean (average)
value of the squared function of the instantaneous values. The symbols used for defining an RMS value
are VRMS or IRMS.

𝑉2 2𝜋
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √( 2𝜋
𝑚
∫0 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡)𝑑(𝜔𝑡)

𝐼2 2𝜋
Similarly, 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √(2𝜋
𝑚
∫0 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡)𝑑(𝜔𝑡).

For example, the domestic mains supply in the United Kingdom is 240Vac. This value is assumed to
indicate an effective value of “240 Volts rms”. This means then that the sinusoidal rms voltage from the
wall sockets of a UK home is capable of producing the same average positive power as 240 volts of steady
DC voltage as shown below.

So how do we calculate the RMS Voltage of a sinusoidal waveform. The RMS voltage of a sinusoid or
complex waveform can be determined by two basic methods.
• Graphical Method – which can be used to find the RMS value of any non-sinusoidal time-varying
waveform by drawing a number of mid-ordinates onto the waveform.
• Analytical Method – is a mathematical procedure for finding the effective or RMS value of any
periodic voltage or current using calculus.

The positive half of the waveform is divided up into any number of “n” equal portions or mid-
ordinates and the more mid-ordinates that are drawn along the waveform, the more accurate will be the
final result. The width of each mid-ordinate will therefore be no degrees and the height of each mid-
ordinate will be equal to the instantaneous value of the waveform at that time along the x-axis of the
waveform.
Then we can define the term used to describe a rms voltage (VRMS) as being “the square root of the mean of
the square of the mid-ordinates of the voltage waveform” and
this is given as:

and for our simple example above, the RMS voltage will be
calculated as:
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v) Form Factor:
One other quantity associated with an Alternating current that we need to look at is the form
factor. The form factor is a parameter used in describing AC waveforms and is giving by the ratio
between the RMS value of the alternating quantity and the Average Value.

𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 𝐕𝐦/√𝟐
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 = = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏
𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝟐𝐕𝐦/
𝛑

Where Vm is the peak or maximum voltage.

One other application of form factors is found in digital multi meters used in measuring
Alternating current or voltage. Most of these meters are generally scaled to display the RMS value
of sine waves which they are designed to obtain by calculating the average value and multiplying by
the form factor of a sinusoid (1.11) since it can be a little bit difficult to digitally calculate the rms
values. Thus, at times, for AC waveforms which are not pure sinusoidal, the reading from a multi
meter may be a little bit inaccurate.

vi) Crest Factor:

The crest factor is the ratio of the peak value of an alternating current or voltage to the root mean
square (RMS) of the waveform. Mathematically, it is given by the equation;

𝐕𝐦 𝐕𝐦
𝐂𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 (𝐨𝐫)𝐏𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 = = = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒
𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 𝐕𝐦 ⁄√𝟐
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
Where Vm is the maximum amplitude of the waveform. For a pure sine wave, similar to the form factor,
the crest factor is always fixed at 1.414. The crest factor is majorly an indication of how high the peaks of
an alternating quantity are. In direct current, for instance, the crest factor is always equal to 1 which is an
indication of the lack of peaks in the waveform of a Direct current.

4. What is a phasor? How a simple sinusoidal waveform is represented in phasor

representation?

2.4 Phasor

Basically, a rotating vector, simply called a “Phasor” is a scaled line whose length represents an AC
quantity that has both magnitude (“peak amplitude”) and direction (“phase”) which is “frozen” at some
point in time.
A phasor is a vector that has an arrow head at one end which signifies partly the maximum value of the
vector quantity ( V or I ) and partly the end of the vector that rotates.
Generally, vectors are assumed to pivot at one end around a fixed zero point known as the “point of origin”
while the arrowed end representing the quantity, freely rotates in an anti-clockwise direction at an angular
velocity, ( ω ) of one full revolution for every cycle. This anti-clockwise rotation of the vector is considered
to be a positive rotation. Likewise, a clockwise rotation is considered to be a negative rotation.
The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant in time can be represented by a phasor diagram,
so phasor diagrams can be thought of as “functions of time”. A complete sine wave can be constructed by a
single vector rotating at an angular velocity of ω = 2πƒ, where ƒ is the frequency of the waveform. Then
a Phasor is a quantity that has both “Magnitude” and “Direction”.

Generally, when constructing a phasor diagram, angular velocity of a sine wave is always assumed to
be: ω in rad/sec. Consider the phasor diagram below.

Phasor Diagram of a Sinusoidal Waveform

As the single vector rotates in an anti-clockwise direction, its tip at point A will rotate one complete
revolution of 360o or 2π representing one complete cycle. If the length of its moving tip is transferred at
different angular intervals in time to a graph as shown above, a sinusoidal waveform would be drawn
starting at the left with zero time. Each position along the horizontal axis indicates the time that has elapsed
since zero-time, t = 0. When the vector is horizontal the tip of the vector represents the angles at 0o,
180o and at 360o.
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Likewise, when the tip of the vector is vertical it represents the positive peak value, ( +Am ) at
90o or π/2 and the negative peak value, ( -Am ) at 270o or 3π/2. Then the time axis of the waveform
represents the angle either in degrees or radians through which the phasor has moved.
Sometimes when we are analysing alternating waveforms, we may need to know the position of the
phasor, representing the Alternating Quantity at some particular instant in time especially when we want to
compare two different waveforms on the same axis. For example, voltage and current. We have assumed in
the waveform above that the waveform starts at time t = 0 with a corresponding phase angle in either
degrees or radians.
But if a second waveform starts to the left or to the right of these zero points or we want to represent in
phasor notation the relationship between the two waveforms then we will need to take into account this
phase difference, Φ of the waveform. Consider the diagram below for Phase Difference.

Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform

The generalised mathematical expression to define

these two sinusoidal quantities will be written as:

The current, i is lagging the voltage, v by

angle Φ and in our example above this is 30o. So the
difference between the two phasors representing the two sinusoidal quantities is angle Φ and the resulting
phasor diagram will be.

Phasor Diagram of a Sinusoidal Waveform

The phasor diagram is drawn corresponding to time zero ( t = 0 ) on the horizontal axis. The lengths of the
phasors are proportional to the values of the voltage, ( V ) and the current, ( I ) at the instant in time that the
phasor diagram is drawn. The current phasor lags the voltage phasor by the angle, Φ, as the two phasors
rotate in an anticlockwise direction as stated earlier, therefore the angle, Φ is also measured in the same
anticlockwise direction.
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o
If however, the waveforms are frozen at time, t = 30 , the corresponding phasor diagram would
look like the one shown on the right. Once again, the current phasor lags behind the voltage phasor as the
two waveforms are of the same frequency.
However, as the current waveform is now crossing the horizontal zero axis line at this instant in
time we can use the current phasor as our new reference and correctly say that the voltage phasor is
“leading” the current phasor by angle, Φ. Either way, one phasor is designated as the reference phasor and
all the other phasors will be either leading or lagging with respect to this reference.

5. What is the impedance? Draw the impedance triangle and explain its significance.

2.5 Impedance:
Pure resistance within an AC circuit produces a relationship between its voltage and current phasors in
exactly the same way as it would relate the same resistors voltage and current relationship within a DC
circuit. However, in a DC circuit this relationship is commonly called Resistance, as defined by Ohm’s
Law but in a sinusoidal AC circuit this voltage-current relationship is now called Impedance.
In other words, in an AC circuit electrical resistance is called “Impedance”.
In both cases this voltage-current ( V-I ) relationship is always linear in a pure resistance. So when using
resistors in AC circuits the term Impedance, symbol Z is the generally used to mean its resistance.
Therefore, we can correctly say that for a resistor, DC resistance = AC impedance, or R = Z.
The impedance vector is represented by the letter, ( Z ) for an AC resistance value with the units of Ohm’s
( Ω ) the same as for DC. Then Impedance ( or AC resistance ) can be defined as:

AC Impedance

Impedance can also be represented by a complex number as it depends upon the frequency of the
circuit, ω when reactive components are present. But in the case of a purely resistive circuit this reactive
component will always be zero and the general expression for impedance in a purely resistive circuit given
as a complex number will be:
The impedance Z in ac circuits is defined as the ratio of voltage function to current function. Hence, the
impedance is a complex number and can be expressed in the rectangular form as

The real component of the impedance is called the resistance R and the imaginary component is called the
reactance X, both of which are in ohms. The reactance is a function of ω in L and C loads, and for an
inductive load, X is positive, whereas for a capacitive load, X is negative.
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6. Define apparent power, real power, and reactive power and explain the power
angle triangle.

2.6 Power in Ac Circuits

• When the current is out of phase with the voltage the power indicated by the product of the applied
voltage and the total current gives only what is known as apparent power and measured in volt-ampere.
• Power that is returned to the source by the reactive components in the circuit is called reactive power
and is measured in VAR.
• Power that actually used in the circuit (dissipated in resistance) is true or active power and is measured
in watts or kW.

i) Active Power (Real Power): The power due to the active component of current is called as the active
power or real power. It is denoted by P.
The active power, measured in Watts: P=V. I. cos φ
Real power is the power that does useful power. It is the power that is consumed by the resistance. The unit
for real power in Watt(W).

ii) ReactivePower: The power due to the reactive component of current is called as the reactive power. It
is denoted by Q. Reactive power does not do any useful work. It is the circulating power in the L and C
components. The unit for reactive power is Volt Amperes Reactive (VAR).

The reactive power, measured in VArs is: Q=V. I. sin φ

iii) Apparent Power: The apparent power is the total power in the circuit. It is denoted by S. The unit for
apparent power (S ) is Volt Amperes (VA). S=V.I

The apparent power and the phase difference angle could be estimated from the right triangle as well:

S=√P2+Q2 φ = tan−1 (Q/P)

Power Triangle: From the impedance triangle, another triangle called the power triangle can be derived
as shown.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
As was earlier demonstrated power consumed in resistors is really consumed and called active power,
while power consumed in reactive elements is only temporary stored and it’s called reactive. Similarly, to
the resistance triangle the powers in a AC circuit are related by the sides of a right angle triangle (fig.
5.26).
The phase different angle could be positive or negative and so can the reactive power while the active
power is always positive.

a) b)
Fig. 5.26. Power triangle for: a) inductive load; b) capacitive load.

The phasor describing the power triangle is called complex power and is equal to:
•

S=P+ j Q = S .e jφ

Similarly, to the apparent power the complex power is measured in VA. The power triangle is right angled
triangle with P and Q as two sides and S as the hypotenuse. The angle between the base and hypotenuse is
Φ.

7. What is resonance and explain the conditions to achieve the resonance.

2.7 Resonance:
In a series RLC circuit there becomes a frequency point were the inductive reactance of the inductor
becomes equal in value to the capacitive reactance of the capacitor. In other words, XL = XC. The point at
which this occurs is called the Resonant Frequency point, ( ƒr ) of the circuit, and as we are analysing a
series RLC circuit this resonance frequency produces a Series Resonance.
Series Resonance circuits are one of the most important circuits used electrical and electronic circuits. They
can be found in various forms such as in AC mains filters, noise filters and also in radio and television
tuning circuits producing a very selective tuning circuit for the receiving of the different frequency
channels. Consider the simple series RLC circuit below.

Series RLC Circuit

Firstly, let us define what we already know about series RLC

circuits.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

From the above equation for inductive reactance, if either the Frequency or the Inductance is increased
the overall inductive reactance value of the inductor would also increase. As the frequency approaches
infinity, the inductors reactance would also increase towards infinity with the circuit element acting like an
open circuit.
However, as the frequency approaches zero or DC, the inductors reactance would decrease to zero, causing
the opposite effect acting like a short circuit. This means then that inductive reactance is “Proportional” to
frequency and is small at low frequencies and high at higher frequencies and this demonstrated in the
following curve:

Inductive Reactance against Frequency

The graph of inductive reactance against frequency is a straight-line linear curve. The inductive reactance
value of an inductor increases linearly as the frequency across it increases. Therefore, inductive reactance
is positive and is directly proportional to frequency ( XL ∝ ƒ )
The same is also true for the capacitive reactance formula above but in reverse. If either the Frequency or
the Capacitance is increased the overall capacitive reactance would decrease. As the frequency approaches
infinity the capacitors reactance would reduce to practically zero causing the circuit element to act like a
perfect conductor of 0Ω.
But as the frequency approaches zero or DC level, the capacitors reactance would rapidly increase up to
infinity causing it to act like a very large resistance, becoming more like an open circuit condition. This
means then that capacitive reactance is “Inversely proportional” to frequency for any given value of
capacitance and this shown below:

Capacitive Reactance against Frequency

The graph of capacitive reactance against frequency is a hyperbolic curve. The Reactance value of a
capacitor has a very high value at low frequencies but quickly decreases as the frequency across it
increases. Therefore, capacitive reactance is negative and is inversely proportional to frequency ( XC ∝ ƒ -
1
)
We can see that the values of these resistances depend upon the frequency of the supply. At a higher
frequency XL is high and at a low frequency XC is high. Then there must be a frequency point were the
value of XL is the same as the value of XC and there is. If we now place the curve for inductive reactance
on top of the curve for capacitive reactance so that both curves are on the same axes, the point of
intersection will give us the series resonance frequency point, ( ƒr or ωr ) as shown below.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
Series Resonance Frequency

where: ƒr is in Hertz, L is in Henries and C is in Farads. Electrical resonance occurs in an AC circuit when
the two reactances which are opposite and equal cancel each other out as XL = XC and the point on the
graph at which this happens is were the two reactance curves cross each other. In a series resonant circuit,
the resonant frequency, ƒr point can be calculated as follows.

We can see then that at resonance, the two reactance cancel each other out thereby making a series LC
combination act as a short circuit with the only opposition to current flow in a series resonance circuit
being the resistance, R.

In complex form, the resonant frequency is the frequency at which the total impedance of a series RLC
circuit becomes purely “real”, that is no imaginary impedances exist. This is because at resonance they are
cancelled out. So, the total impedance of the series circuit becomes just the value of the resistance and
therefore: Z = R.
Then at resonance the impedance of the series circuit is at its minimum value and equal only to the
resistance, R of the circuit. The circuit impedance at resonance is called the “dynamic impedance” of the
circuit and depending upon the frequency, XC (typically at high frequencies) or XL (typically at low
frequencies) will dominate either side of resonance as shown below.

8. Explain the behaviour of impedance (Z), voltage (V), current (I) with respect to change in
frequency in series resonance condition.

Impedance in a Series Resonance Circuit

Note that when the capacitive reactance dominates the

circuit the impedance curve has a hyperbolic shape to itself,
but when the inductive reactance dominates the circuit the
curve is non-symmetrical due to the linear response of XL.
You may also note that if the circuits impedance is at its
minimum at resonance then consequently, the
circuits admittance must be at its maximum and one of the
characteristics of a series resonance circuit is that
admittance is very high. But this can be a bad thing because
a very low value of resistance at resonance means that the
resulting current flowing through the circuit may be
dangerously high.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
We recall from the previous tutorial about series RLC circuits that the voltage across a series combination
is the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC. Then if at resonance the two reactance’s are equal and cancelling, the
two voltages representing VL and VC must also be opposite and equal in value thereby cancelling each
other out because with pure components the phasor voltages are drawn at +90o and -90o respectively.
Then in a series resonance circuit as VL = -VC the resulting reactive voltages are zero and all the supply
voltage is dropped across the resistor. Therefore, VR = Vsupply and it is for this reason that series resonance
circuits are known as voltage resonance circuits, (as opposed to parallel resonance circuits which are
current resonance circuits).

Series RLC Circuit at Resonance

Since the current flowing through a series

resonance circuit is the product of voltage divided
by impedance, at resonance the impedance, Z is at
its minimum value, ( =R ). Therefore, the circuit
current at this frequency will be at its maximum
value of V/R as shown below.

Series Circuit Current at Resonance

The frequency response curve of a series resonance circuit

shows that the magnitude of the current is a function of
frequency and plotting this onto a graph shows us that the
response starts at near to zero, reaches maximum value at the
resonance frequency when IMAX = IR and then drops again to
nearly zero as ƒ becomes infinite. The result of this is that the
magnitudes of the voltages across the inductor, L and the
capacitor, C can become many times larger than the supply
voltage, even at resonance but as they are equal and at
opposition they cancel each other out.
As a series resonance circuit only functions on resonant
frequency, this type of circuit is also known as an Acceptor
Circuit because at resonance, the impedance of the circuit is at its minimum so easily accepts the current
whose frequency is equal to its resonant frequency.
You may also notice that as the maximum current through the circuit at resonance is limited only by the
value of the resistance (a pure and real value), the source voltage and circuit current must therefore be in
phase with each other at this frequency. Then the phase angle between the voltage and current of a series
resonance circuit is also a function of frequency for a fixed supply voltage and which is zero at the resonant
frequency point when: V, I and VR are all in phase with each other as shown below. Consequently, if the
phase angle is zero then the power factor must therefore be unity.

9. Describe about the 3-phase system and draw the 3-phase waveforms.

2.8 Three Phase System:

Previously we have only looked at single-phase AC waveforms where a single multi-turn coil
rotates within a magnetic field. But if three identical coils each with the same number of coil turns are
placed at an electrical angle of 120o to each other on the same rotor shaft, a three-phase voltage supply
would be generated.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
A balanced three-phase voltage supply consists of three individual sinusoidal voltages that are all
equal in magnitude and frequency but are out-of-phase with each other by exactly 120o electrical
degrees.
Standard practice is to colour code the three phases as Red, Yellow and Blue to identify each individual
phase with the red phase as the reference phase. The normal sequence of rotation for a three phase
supply is Red followed by Yellow followed by Blue, ( R, Y, B ).
As with the single-phase phasors above, the phasors representing a three-phase system also rotate in an
anti-clockwise direction around a central point as indicated by the arrow marked ω in rad/s. The
phasors for a three-phase balanced star or delta connected system are shown below.

Three-phase Phasor Diagram:

The phase voltages are all equal in magnitude but only differ
in their phase angle. The three windings of the coils are
connected together at points, a1, b1 and c1 to produce a common
neutral connection for the three individual phases. Then if the red
phase is taken as the reference phase each individual phase
voltage can be defined with respect to the common neutral as.

Three-phase Voltage Equations:

If the red phase voltage, VRN is taken as the reference voltage as stated earlier then the phase sequence
will be R – Y – B so the voltage in the yellow phase lags VRN by 120o, and the voltage in the blue phase
lags VYN also by 120o. But we can also say the blue phase voltage, VBN leads the red phase
voltage, VRN by 120o.
One final point about a three-phase system. As the three individual sinusoidal voltages have a fixed
relationship between each other of 120o they are said to be “balanced” therefore, in a set of balanced
three phase voltages their phasor sum will always be zero as: Va + Vb + Vc = 0

10. Define the line voltage and phase voltage and prove that VL = √3VPh in star
connection using phasor diagram.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

2.9 Star – Delta connected system:

i) Star-(Υ)- Connected System:
To derive the relations between line and phase currents and voltages of a star connected
system, we have first to draw a balanced star connected system.

Suppose due to load impedance the current lags the applied voltage in each phase of the system by
an angle ϕ. As we have considered that the system is perfectly balanced, the magnitude of current and
voltage of each phase is the same. Let us say, the magnitude of the voltage across the red phase i.e.
magnitude of the voltage between neutral point (N) and red phase terminal (R) is VR.

Similarly, the magnitude of the voltage across yellow phase is VY and the magnitude of the voltage
across blue phase is VB. In the balanced star system, magnitude of phase voltage in each phase is Vph.

∴ VR = VY = VB = Vph

We know in the star connection; line current is same as phase current. The magnitude of this current is
same in all three phases and say it is IL.

∴ IR = IY = IB = IL, Where, IR is line current of R phase, IY is line current of Y phase and IB is line current of
B phase. Again, phase current, Iph of each phase is same as line current IL in star connected system.

∴ IR = IY = IB = IL = Iph.

Now, let us say, the voltage across R and Y terminal of the star connected circuit is VRY.
The voltage across Y and B terminal of the star connected circuit is VYBBR.
From the diagram, it is found that VRY = VR + (− VY)
Similarly, VYB = VY + (− VB) And, VBR = VB + (− VR)
Now, as angle between VR and VY is 120o(electrical), the
angle between VR and – VY is 180o – 120o =
60o(electrical).
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
Thus, for the star-connected system line voltage = √3 × phase voltage.
Line current = Phase current

As, the angle between voltage and current per phase is φ, the electric power per phase is

So the total power of three phase system is

11. Define the line current and phase current and prove that IL = √3IPh in delta
connection using phasor diagram.

ii) Mesh or Delta (Δ) Connected System:

When the starting end of one coil is connected to the finishing end of another coil, as shown in Fig. 7.6
(a), the delta or mesh connection is obtained. The directions of emfs in the coils have been taken as positive
from start end to finish end in Fig. 7.6 (a).

From Fig. 7.6 (b) it is obvious that line current is phasor difference of phase currents of two phases
concerned. For example, the line current in red outer IR will be equal to the phasor difference of phase
currents IYR and IRB. The current phasors are shown in Fig. 7.6 (b).
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
From above figures we have:

Since in delta-connected system, only one phase is included between any pair of line outers, potential
difference between the line outers, called the line voltage, is equal to phase voltage.
i.e., Line voltage, EL = Phase voltage, EP … (7.12)
Power output per phase = EP IP cos ɸ where cos ɸ is the power factor of the load

Total power output = 3 EP IP cos ɸ = 3 EL IL/√3 cos ɸ = √3 EL IL cos ɸ

i.e., Total power output = √3 × line voltage × line current × power factor

Apparent power of 3-phase delta-connected system:

= 3 × apparent power per phase = 3EPIP = 3 EL IL/√3 = √3 ELIL … (7.14)

Total reactive power, Q =3 EP IP sin ɸ = √3 EL IL sin ɸ= P tan ɸ… (7.15)

It should be noted that in balanced delta-connected system:

(i) Line currents are 120° apart.
(ii) Line currents are 30°, behind the respective phase currents.
(iii) Line currents are times phase currents.
(iv) The angle between line currents and corresponding line voltage is (30° ± ɸ) as in star system.
(v) Line voltages are equal to phase voltages.
(vi) Power = √3 EL IL cos ɸ, where ɸ is the phase angle between respective phase current and phase
voltage.
(vii) Apparent power = √3 EL IL
(viii) In balanced system the resultant emf in the closed circuit will be zero. i.e., ERY + EYB + EBR = 0
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

2.10 Sinusoidal Response of R,L, C parameters :

i) Sinusoidal Response in a ‘R’:

𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎 𝑺𝑰𝒏(𝝎𝒕)
Then the electrical current that flows through an AC resistance varies sinusoidally with time and is
represented by the expression, I(t) = Im x sin(ωt + θ), where Im is the maximum amplitude of the current
and θ is its phase angle.

In addition, we can also say that for any given current, i flowing through the resistor the maximum or peak
voltage across the terminals of R will be given by Ohm’s Law as:

and the instantaneous value of the current, i will be:

So for a purely resistive circuit the alternating current flowing through the resistor varies in proportion to
the applied voltage across it following the same sinusoidal pattern. As the supply frequency is common to
both the voltage and current, their phasors will also be common resulting in the current being “in-phase”
with the voltage, ( θ = 0 ).

From Above equations

Both current and voltage are in phase with each other.

Power: 𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) ∗ 𝑖(𝑡)

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡) = 2
[1 − cos(2𝜔𝑡)]

From figure it is obvious that power at every instant of time is positive. Frequency of power signal is
double frequency and unidirectional.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

ii) Sinusoidal Response in a ‘L’:

This simple circuit above consists of a pure inductance of L Henries (H), connected across a sinusoidal
voltage given by the expression: V(t) = Vmax sin ωt. When the switch is closed this sinusoidal voltage will
cause a current to flow and rise from zero to its maximum value. This rise or change in the current will
induce a magnetic field within the coil which in turn will oppose or restrict this change in the current.
But before the current has had time to reach its maximum value as it would in a DC circuit, the voltage
changes polarity causing the current to change direction. This change in the other direction once again
being delayed by the self-induced back emf in the coil, and in a circuit containing a pure inductance only,
the current is delayed by 90o.

So for a pure loss less inductor, VL “leads” IL by 90o, or we can say that IL “lags” VL by 90o.

Where: VL = IωL which is the voltage amplitude and θ = + 90o which is the phase difference or phase angle
between the voltage and current.
In the phasor domain the voltage across the coil is given as:
−1
= 𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
𝜔𝐿 𝑚

1
= 𝑉 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 90)
𝜔𝐿 𝑚
𝑉𝑚
In polar form 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝜔𝐿 ∠ − 90 to represents this phasor which is 90 lag w.r.t to the voltage phasor as
𝑚𝑉 𝑉𝑚
shown below 𝑖(𝑡) = −𝑗 𝜔𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑗𝜔𝐿
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿

and in Polar Form this would be written as: XL∠90o where:

12. Derive an expression for the current, impedance and average power for a series RL
circuit excited by a sinusoidal alternating voltage and also find the power factor of the
circuit.

iii) Sinusoidal Response in a ‘RL’:

In the RL series circuit above, we can see that the current is common to
both the resistance and the inductance while the voltage is made up of
the two component voltages, VR and VL. The resulting voltage of these
two components can be found either mathematically or by drawing a
vector diagram. To be able to produce the vector diagram a reference or
common component must be found and in a series AC circuit the current
is the reference source as the same current flows through the resistance
and the inductance. The individual vector diagrams for a pure
resistance and a pure inductance are given as:

Vector Diagrams for the Two Pure Components

We can see from above and from our previous tutorial about
AC Resistance that the voltage and current in a resistive circuit
are both in phase and therefore vector VR is drawn
superimposed to scale onto the current vector. Also from
above it is known that the current lags the voltage in an AC
inductance (pure) circuit therefore vector VL is drawn 90o in
front of the current and to the same scale as VR as shown.

Vector Diagram of the Resultant Voltage

From the vector diagram above, we can see that line OB is

the horizontal current reference and line OA is the voltage
across the resistive component which is in-phase with the
current. Line OC shows the inductive voltage which is 90o in
 UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
front of the current therefore it can still be seen that the current lags the purely inductive voltage by 90o.
Line OD gives us the resulting supply voltage. Then:
• V equals the r.m.s value of the applied voltage.
• I equal the r.m.s. value of the series current.
• VR equals the I.R voltage drop across the resistance which is in-phase with the current.
• VL equals the I.XL voltage drop across the inductance which leads the current by 90o.
As the current lags the voltage in a pure inductance by exactly 90o the resultant phasor diagram drawn from
the individual voltage drops VR and VL represents a right-angled voltage triangle shown above as OAD.
Then we can also use Pythagoras theorem to mathematically find the value of this resultant voltage across
the resistor/inductor (RL) circuit.

As VR = I.R and VL = I.XL the applied voltage will be the vector sum of the two as follows:

The quantity represents the impedance, Z of the circuit.

The Impedance of an AC Inductance

Impedance, Z is the “TOTAL” opposition to current flowing in an AC
circuit that contains both Resistance, ( the real part ) and Reactance ( the
imaginary part ). Impedance also has the units of Ohms, Ω. Impedance
depends upon the frequency, ω of the circuit as this affects the circuits
reactive components and in a series circuit all the resistive and reactive
impedances add together.

v(t) = i(t)R + ji(t)ωL or i(t)[R + jXL ] or i(t)Z

Impedance can also be represented by a complex number, Z = [R + jXL ] called Impedance of Cicuit.
Z = R + jXL
but it is not a phasor, it is the result of two or more phasors combined together. If we divide the sides of the
voltage triangle above by I, another triangle is obtained whose sides represent the resistance, reactance and
impedance of the circuit as shown below.
The RL Impedance Triangle
Then: ( Impedance )2 = ( Resistance )2 + ( j Reactance
)2 where j represents the 90o phase shift.
This means that the positive phase angle, θ between the
voltage and current is given as.
Phase Angle

While our example above represents a simple non-pure

AC inductance, if two or more inductive coils are
connected together in series or a single coil is
connected in series with many non-inductive resistances, then the total resistance for the resistive elements
would be equal to: R1 + R2 + R3 etc, giving a total resistive value for the circuit.
Likewise, the total reactance for the inductive elements would be equal to: X1 + X2 + X3 etc, giving a total
reactance value for the circuit. This way a circuit containing many chokes, coils and resistors can be easily
reduced down to an impedance value, Z comprising of a single resistance in series with a single reactance,

Z2 = R2 + X2.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
In Phasor form it can draw as shown below. It will form impedance triangle.

𝑋𝐿 𝑣𝐿
|𝑍| = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = tan−1 𝑜𝑟 tan−1
𝑅 𝑣𝑅
𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Above triangle is called power triangle. From triangle 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = (Power factor is defined as, it is
𝑉𝐼
the ratio of active power to apparent power)

❖ Average Power P avg = I rms Vrms cos ϕ

iv) Sinusoidal Response in a ‘C’:

AC Capacitance with a Sinusoidal Supply

When the switch is closed in the circuit above, a high current will start to flow into the capacitor as
there is no charge on the plates at t = 0. The sinusoidal supply voltage, V is increasing in a positive
direction at its maximum rate as it crosses the zero-reference axis at an instant in time given as 0o. Since
the rate of change of the potential difference across the plates is now at its maximum value, the flow of
current into the capacitor will also be at its maximum rate as the maximum number of electrons are moving
from one plate to the other.
As the sinusoidal supply voltage reaches its 90o point on the waveform it begins to slow down and for a
very brief instant in time the potential difference across the plates is neither increasing nor decreasing
therefore the current decreases to zero as there is no rate of voltage change. At this 90o point the potential
difference across the capacitor is at its maximum (Vmax), no current flows into the capacitor as the capacitor
is now fully charged and its plates saturated with electrons.
At the end of this instant in time the supply voltage begins to decrease in a negative direction down
towards the zero-reference line at 180o. Although the supply voltage is still positive in nature the capacitor
starts to discharge some of its excess electrons on its plates in an effort to maintain a constant voltage. This
results in the capacitor current flowing in the opposite or negative direction.
When the supply voltage waveform crosses the zero-reference axis point at instant 180o the rate of change
or slope of the sinusoidal supply voltage is at its maximum but in a negative direction, consequently the
current flowing into the capacitor is also at its maximum rate at that instant. Also, at this 180o point the
potential difference across the plates is zero as the amount of charge is equally distributed between the two
plates.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
o o
Then during this first half cycle 0 to 180 the applied voltage reaches its maximum positive value a quarter
(1/4ƒ) of a cycle after the current reaches its maximum positive value, in other words, a voltage applied to
a purely capacitive circuit “LAGS” the current by a quarter of a cycle or 90o as shown below.

Sinusoidal Waveforms for AC Capacitance

From the voltage and current waveforms and description above, we can see that the current is always
leading the voltage by 1/4 of a cycle or π/2 = 90o “out-of-phase” with the potential difference across the
capacitor because of this charging and discharging process.
Then the phase relationship between the voltage and current in an AC capacitance circuit is the exact
opposite to that of an AC Inductance we saw in the previous tutorial.
by using the voltage as our reference, we can also say that the current “LEADS” the voltage by one quarter
of a cycle or 90o as shown in the vector diagram below.

Phasor Diagram for AC Capacitance

So for a pure capacitor, VC “lags” IC by 90o, or we can say that IC “leads” VC by

90o.
Capacitive Reactance
Unlike a resistor where the opposition to current flow is its actual resistance, the
opposition to current flow in a capacitor is called Reactance.
Like resistance, reactance is measured in Ohm’s but is given the symbol X to distinguish it from a purely
resistive R value and as the component in question is a capacitor, the reactance of a capacitor is
called Capacitive Reactance, (Xc) which is measured in Ohms.
Since capacitors charge and discharge in proportion to the rate of voltage change across them, the faster the
voltage changes the more current will flow. Likewise, the slower the voltage changes the less current will
flow. This means then that the reactance of an AC capacitor is “inversely proportional” to the frequency of
the supply as shown.
Capacitive Reactance:

Where: XC is the Capacitive Reactance in Ohms, ƒ is the frequency in Hertz and C is the AC capacitance
in Farads, symbol F. When dealing with AC capacitance, we can also define capacitive reactance in terms
of radians, where Omega, ω equals 2πƒ.

The relationship between capacitive reactance and frequency is the exact opposite to that of
inductive reactance, (XL ) we saw in the previous tutorial. This means then that capacitive reactance is
“inversely proportional to frequency” and has a high value at low frequencies and a low value at higher
frequencies as shown.

In an AC circuit containing pure capacitance the current (electron flow) flowing into the capacitor is given
as:
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

and therefore, the rms current flowing into an AC capacitance will be defined as:

Where: IC = V/(1/ωC) (or IC = V/XC) is the current magnitude and θ = + 90o which is the phase difference
or phase angle between the voltage and current. For a purely capacitive circuit, Ic leads Vc by 90o,
or Vc lags Ic by 90o.

Phasor Domain
In the phasor domain the voltage across the plates of
an AC capacitance will be:

and in Polar Form this would be written as: XC∠-90o where:

13. Derive an expression for the current, impedance and average power for a series RC
circuit excited by a sinusoidal alternating voltage and also find the power factor of the
circuit.

AC Across a Series RC Circuit:

We have seen from above that the current flowing into a pure AC capacitance leads the voltage by 90o. But
in the real world, it is impossible to have a pure AC Capacitance as all capacitors will have a certain
amount of internal resistance across their plates giving rise to a leakage current.
Then we can consider our capacitor as being one that has a resistance, R in series with a
capacitance, C producing what can be loosely called an “impure capacitor”.
If the capacitor has some “internal” resistance then we need to represent the total impedance of the
capacitor as a resistance in series with a capacitance and in an AC circuit that contains both
capacitance, C and resistance, R the voltage phasor, V across the combination will be equal to the phasor
sum of the two component voltages, VR and VC.
This means then that the current flowing into the capacitor will still lead the voltage, but by an amount less
than 90o depending upon the values of R and C giving us a phasor sum with the corresponding phase angle
between them given by the Greek symbol phi, Φ.

Consider the series RC circuit below where an ohmic resistance, R is connected in series with a pure
capacitance, C.
Series Resistance-Capacitance Circuit
In the RC series circuit above, we can see that the current
flowing into the circuit is common to both the resistance and
capacitance, while the voltage is made up of the two
component voltages, VR and VC. The resulting voltage of these
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
o
two components can be found mathematically but since vectors VR and VC are 90 out-of-phase, they can
be added vectorially by constructing a vector diagram.
To be able to produce a vector diagram for an AC capacitance a reference or common component must be
found. In a series AC circuit, the current is common and can therefore be used as the reference source
because the same current flows through the resistance and into the capacitance. The individual vector
diagrams for a pure resistance and a pure capacitance are given as:
Vector Diagrams for the Two Pure Components

Both the voltage and current vectors for an AC Resistance are

in phase with each other and therefore the voltage vector VR is
drawn superimposed to scale onto the current vector. Also we
know that the current leads the voltage ( ICE ) in a pure AC
capacitance circuit, therefore the voltage vector VC is drawn
90o behind ( lagging ) the current vector and to the same scale
as VR as shown.
Vector Diagram of the Resultant Voltage

In the vector diagram above, line OB represents the

horizontal current reference and line OA is the voltage
across the resistive component which is in-phase with
the current. Line OC shows the capacitive voltage
which is 90o behind the current therefore it can still be
seen that the current leads the purely capacitive
voltage by 90o. Line OD gives us the resulting supply
voltage.
As the current leads the voltage in a pure capacitance
by 90o the resultant phasor diagram drawn from the individual voltage drops VR and VC represents a right-
angled voltage triangle shown above as OAD. Then we can also use Pythagoras theorem to mathematically
find the value of this resultant voltage across the resistor/capacitor (RC) circuit.
As VR = I.R and VC = I.XC the applied voltage will be the vector sum of the two as follows.

The quantity represents the impedance, Z of the circuit.

The Impedance of an AC Capacitance:

Impedance, Z which has the units of Ohms, Ω is the “TOTAL”
opposition to current flowing in an AC circuit that contains both
Resistance, (the real part) and Reactance (the imaginary part). A purely
resistive impedance will have a phase angle of 0o while a purely
capacitive impedance will have a phase angle of -90o.
However, when resistors and capacitors are connected together in the
same circuit, the total impedance will have a phase angle somewhere
between 0o and 90o depending upon the value of the components used.
Then the impedance of our simple RC circuit shown above can be found
by using the impedance triangle.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

The RC Impedance Triangle

Then: (Impedance )2 = (Resistance )2 + ( j Reactance )2 where j represents the 90o phase shift.
This means then by using Pythagoras theorem the negative phase angle, θ between the voltage and current
is calculated as.

Phase Angle

❖ Average Power P avg = I rms Vrms cos ϕ

14. Derive an expression for the current, impedance and average power for a series RLC
circuit excited by a sinusoidal alternating voltage and also find the power factor of the
circuit.
❖ (Similar to answer Series Resonance)

The combined effect of resistance R, inductive

reactance XL, and capacitive reactance XC is defined to be impedance, an AC analogue to resistance in a
DC circuit. Current, voltage, and impedance in an RLC circuit are related by an AC version of Ohm’s law:
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝑠 =
𝑍

Here Is is the RMS current, Vs the RMS source voltage, and Z is the impedance of the circuit. The units of
impedance are ohms, and its effect on the circuit is as you might expect: the greater the impedance, the
smaller the current. To get an expression for Z in terms of R , XL, and XC, we will now examine how the
voltages across the various components are related to the source voltage. Those voltages are labeled VR, VL,
and VC in Figure 1.

There is a phase angle ϕ between the source voltage V and the current I, which can be found from

Cos φ =R/Z

For example, at the resonant frequency or in a purely resistive circuit Z = R, so that cosφ=1cos⁣φ=1. This
implies that ϕ = 0º and that voltage and current are in phase, as expected for resistors. At other frequencies,
average power is less than at resonance. This is both because voltage and current are out of phase and
because Irms is lower. The fact that source voltage and current are out of phase affects the power delivered
to the circuit. It can be shown that the average power is

P avg = I rms Vrms cos ϕ

Thus, cos ϕ is called the power factor, which can range from 0 to 1. Power factors near 1 are desirable
when designing an efficient motor, for example. At the resonant frequency, cos ϕ = 1.

REFERENCE
1) D. P. Kothari and I. J. Nagrath, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, Tata McGraw Hill, 2010
2) E. Hughes, “Electrical and Electronics Technology”, Pearson, 2010.
3) Vincent Del Toro, “Electrical Engineering Fundamentals”, Pearson, 2015.
4) https://www.electrical4u.com/electrical-engineering-articles/circuit-theory/
5) https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. How the simple AC waveform is represented? Define time period, frequency and Amplitude of AC
sinusoidal waveform.
2. Define (i) Average value (ii) RMS value (iii) Form factor (iv) Peak factor
3. What is a phasor? How a simple sinusoidal waveform is represented in phasor representation?
4. Determine the average and rms values of simple sine wave v(t) = Vm sint.
5. What is the impedance? Draw the impedance triangle and explain its significance.
6. Define the power factor and Explain its significance.
7. Define apparent power, real power, and reactive power and explain the power angle triangle.
8. What is resonance and explain the conditions to achieve the resonance.
9. Explain the behaviour of impedance (Z), voltage (V), current (I) with respect to change in
frequency in series resonance condition.
10. Describe about the 3-phase system and draw the 3-phase waveforms.
11. Define the line voltage and phase voltage and prove that VL = √3VPh in star connection using
phasor diagram.
12. Define the line current and phase current and prove that IL = √3IPh in delta connection using phasor
diagram.
13. Derive an expression for the current, impedance and average power for a series RL circuit excited
by a sinusoidal alternating voltage and also find the power factor of the circuit.
14. Derive an expression for the current, impedance and average power for a series RC circuit excited
by a sinusoidal alternating voltage and also find the power factor of the circuit.
15. Derive an expression for the current, impedance and average power for a series RLC circuit excited
by a sinusoidal alternating voltage and also find the power factor of the circuit.
16. Find the RMS value of the current waveform shown below

17. If v(t) = 160 cos 50t V and i(t) = -20 sin (50t – 30o) A, calculate the instantaneous power and
average power.
18. In the circuit shown below, VR = 30-53.13oV, VL =7036.87oV. What is the value of voltage VC
across capacitor?
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

19. Determine Vo/Vi in the circuit shown below.

20. An impedance of (6-j6) is connected in parallel with another impedance (4+j4) . If the applied
voltage is 2010oV, find the branch currents and total current.

Important Questions: (3 Marks)

1. Find the current io in the circuit shown below

2. Calculate the resonant frequency and current at resonant frequency in the following circuit

3. For the circuit shown below, find the power factor.

4. Determine the average and RMS value of sinusoid given by i(t) = 50 sin100t.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
5. An industrial load is modeled as a series combination of a capacitance and resistance as shown below.
Calculate the value of an inductance L across the series combination so that the net impedance is resistive
at a frequency of 50kHz

6. The circuit shown in the figure below is used in television receiver. What is the total impedance of the
circuit.

7. A power transmission system is modeled as shown in the following figure. Given the following
Source Voltage Vs = 11500

Source Impedance Zs = (2+j)

Line Impedance Z = (0.8+j0.6) 

Load Impedance ZL = (46.4+j37.8) 

Find the Load current

8. The voltage across a load is v(t) = 60 cos(t – 10o)V and current through the element in the direction of
voltage drop is i(t) = 1.5 cos(t + 50o)A. Find the complex and apparent power.
9. Calculate the resonant frequency for the circuit shown below

10. Given i1(t) = 4 cos(t + 30o) and i2(t) = 5 cos(t – 20o). Find the sum of i1(t) & i2(t). Express the answer in
phasor as well as time domain representation.
11. A two-element series circuit with R = 20 and L = 20mH has an impedance of 40. Determine the angle
and frequency.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

12. Determine the elements in a series RL circuit for the given voltage and current
I = 10 cos (5000t – 23.13o) A
V = 50 cos (5000t + 30o) V
13. Determine the phase sequence of the set of voltages Van = 200 cos (t + 10o)V, Vbn = 200 cos (t - 230o)V,
Vcn = 200 cos (t - 110o)V
14. For a  - connected load, the time domain expressions for three line to neutral voltages at terminals are
given by
Van = 150 cos (t + 32o) V
Vbn = 150 cos (t - 88o) V
Vcn = 150 cos (t + 152o) V

Write the time domain expressions for line to line voltages Vab, Vbc, Vca.

15. In a three phase three wire system, find the phasor line currents to a balanced star load in which phase
impedance is ZY = 20300. Also, Van = 120200V.
16. Find the phasor line currents to a balanced three phase  load of 200-550 impedances if the phase
sequence is ABC and one phase voltage VCA = 208-600V.
17. Given VAB = 480300 V in an ABC three phase circuit, find the phasor line currents to a balanced load that
absorbs 5kW at 0.6 power factor lagging.
18. A balanced Y of 20200 impedances and a parallel connected balanced  of 42300 impedances are
connected by three wires to the secondary of a three-phase transformer. If VBC = 480100 V and if the
phase sequence is ABC, find the total phasor line currents.
19. Transform the  shown in the figure to  for R1 = 8, R2 = 10, R3 = 12.

20. Transform the  shown in the figure to  for RA = 12, RB = 10, RC = 8.
UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
Application Level Questions (2 MARKS)

1. What is the current i1 in the circuit below?

2. The sinusoidal voltage applied to the circuit below is Vs(t) = 10cos(2t) V. The voltage VL(t) across the
inductor is

3. An alternating voltage is given by (t) = 20 cos (5t – 30o) V. Use phasors to find

4. Using phasors determine i(t) in the following equations

5. A series RL circuit is connected to a 110V source. If the voltage across the resistance is 85V, find
the voltage across the Inductor.
6. The effective value of a sinusoid with an angular frequency of 5rad/sec is 5. Express the sinusoid in
time domain representation.
7. The average value of a sinusoid with an angular frequency of 12 rad/ sec is 3. Express the sinusoid
in time domain representation.
8. A linear network has a current input of 4 cos(t + 20o)A and a voltage output of 10cos(t +
110o)V. Determine the associated impedance.
9. What value of ‘’ will cause forced response vo in the following figure to be zero.

10. Determine the admittance  of the following circuit.

UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS
11. How much inductance is needed to resonate at 5kHz with a capacitance of 12nF.

12. Calculate the resonant frequency for the following circuit

13. Calculate the resonant frequency for the following circuit

14. Determine the amplitude of the line current in a three-phase system with a 300V line voltage that supplies
1200W to a Y – connected load at 0.8pf lagging. Also find the phase impedance
15. Determine the amplitude of the line current in a three-phase system with a 300V line voltage that supplies
1200W to a  – connected load at 0.8pf lagging. Also find the phase impedance
16. If Vab = 400V in a balanced Y – connected three phase generator, find the phase voltages, assuming the
phase sequence is ‘abc’.
17. What is the phase sequence of a balanced three phase circuit in which Vbn = 2081300V and Vcn =
208100V. Obtain Van.
18. The current i(t) in the following circuit is _________A

19. Find the value of Vo in the circuit shown below.

20. Find the value of current Io in the circuit shown below.

UNIT-2 AC CIRCUITS

APPENDIX

J operator:
J operator is a mathematical tool in electrical engineering which is used to rotate any vector in
counter clockwise direction by 900 from its previous position.

On every operation of ‘j’ on vector, vector is rotated by 90 0 anticlockwise direction.

Representation of Sinusoidal wave:

1. Instantaneous form 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 ∓ ∅)
2. Polar form 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 /_∅
3. Rectangular form 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 (𝐶𝑜𝑠 ± 𝑖𝑆𝑖𝑛∅)
4. Exponential form 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑖∅

A complex number can be represented in one of three ways:

a. Z = x + jy » Rectangular Form
b. Z = A ∠Φ » Polar Form
c. Z = A e jΦ » Exponential Form

Advantages:

1. In many case algebraic operations are needed while analysing the circuit, at that time those
operations with instantaneous forms is difficult.
2. Addition and subtraction are easily can done with rectangular form, Multiplication and division can
be done with polar form and exponential form.
3. These forms can be changed from one form to other.