EEEE2201: Electrical and Electronic Measurement

Lecture notes

Chap 5: AC Bridges

I- Introduction

Alternating current bridges are most popular, convenient and accurate instruments for measurement of
unknown inductance, capacitance and some other related quantities. In its simplest form, ac bridges are
similar to Wheatstone bridge in which D.C. source is replaced by an A.C. source and galvanometer with
head phone/null detector. An ac bridge, in its basic form, consists of four arms, an alternating power
supply, and a balance detector.
II- Sources and Detectors in ac bridges

For measurements at low frequencies, bridge power supply can be obtained from the power line itself.
Higher frequency requirements for power supplies are normally met by electronic oscillators since they
have highly stable, accurate yet adjustable frequencies.

When working at a single frequency, a tuned detector is preferred, since it gives maximum sensitivity at
the selected frequency and discrimination against harmonic frequencies. Vibration galvanometers are
most commonly used as tuned detectors in the power frequency and low audio-frequency ranges.

Head phones or audio amplifiers are popularly used as balance detectors in ac bridges at frequencies of
250 Hz and above, up to 3 to 4 kHz. Transistor amplifier with frequency tuning facilities can be very
effectively used as balance detectors with ac bridges. They can operate over a frequency range of 10 Hz to
100 kHz.

III- General balance equation for four arm bridge

An ac bridge in its general form is shown in Figure1, with
the four arms being represented by four unspecified
impedances Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4.

At balance, no current flows through the detector, i.e.,

there is no potential difference across the detector, or in
other words, the potentials at points B and C are the same.
This will be achieved if the voltage drop from A to B
equals the voltage drop from A to C, both in magnitude
and phase.
Figure 1: General 4-arm bridge configuration

Thus we can write in terms of complex quantities:

 V1  V2  I1Z1  I 2 Z 2 (1)

Also at balance, since no current flows through the detector

V V
I1  I 3  and I 2  I 4  (2)
Z1  Z3 Z2  Z4

Combining Eq. (2) into Eq. (1), we have

Z1Z 4  Z 2 Z3 (3)

Re-writing the expressions in polar form, impedances can be expressed as Z  Z   Z cos  jZ sin 
where Z represents the magnitude and θ represents the phase angle of the complex impedance.

We obtain Z11  Z44  Z22  Z33

Thus for balance we get Z1Z4 1  4   Z2 Z3 2  3 

Balance conditions in ac bridge

- Magnitude balance Z1Z 4  Z 2 Z3

- Phase balance  1  4    2  3 

Z  R  jX where X is the reactance

 IV- Measurement of self-inductance

4.1 Maxwell bridge

It measures an unknown inductance in terms of a known
capacitance.

We have:

At balance condition Z1Z x  Z 2 Z3

or

Equating real part and imaginary part yields to

and or

The Quality Factor or the Q-Factor of an inductor is used to indicate how closely the real inductor comes
to behave as as ideal inductor. It is defined as the ratio of its inductive reactance to its resistance at a given
frequency. The higher the value of Q-factor, the closer it approaches the behavior of an ideal, loss less
inductor.
 Lx C1 R2 R3
So we have Q   C1 R1
Rx R3
R2 
R1

Maxwell’s bridge is limited to measurement of low Q inductors (1<Q < 10)

Example:

A Maxwell’s bridge is used to measure an unknown inductive impedance. The bridge constants at bridge
balance are: Pure resistance arms = 2.5 kΩ and 50 kΩ. In between these two resistors, the third arm has a
capacitor of value 0.012 μF in parallel with a resistor of value 235 kΩ. Find the series equivalent of the
unknown impedance.

Solution

L1 and R1 are the unknow values

4.2 Hay’s bridge

Hay’s bridge is a modification of Maxwell’s bridge. This method of measurement is particularly suited for
high Q inductors
 Lx 1
Q  Thus the unknown inductance can rewritten as
Rx C1R1

V- Measurement of Capacitance

Bridges are used to make precise measurements of unknown capacitances and associated losses in terms
of some known external capacitances and resistances. Thus, whereas an ideal capacitor will not have any
losses, a real capacitor will have some losses associated with its operation. This loss is equivalently
represented by a series resistance.

The quantifying parameters often used to describe performance of a capacitor are ESR (equivalent series
resistance), its dissipation factor (DF), Quality Factor (Q-factor) and Loss Tangent (tan d).

The most commonly used bridges for capacitance measurement are De Sauty’s bridge and Schering Bridge.

5.1 De Sauty’s bridge

The unknown capacitor C1 in the branch AB is compared with the

standard known standard capacitor C2 on arm AC. The bridge can be
balanced by varying either of the non-inductive resistor R3 or R4.

Phasor diagram

R4
At balance C1  C2
R3

5.2 Schering Bridge

Schering bridges are most popularly used these days in industries for measurement of capacitance,
dissipation factor, and loss angles.
 VI- Measurement of Frequency
- Wien Bridge

Wien bridge is primarily used for determination of an unknown frequency. However, it can be used for
various other applications including capacitance measurement, in harmonic distortion analysers, where it
is used as notch filter, and also in audio and HF oscillators.
 VII- Wagner earthing device

A serious problem encountered in sensitive ac bridge circuits is that due to stray capacitances. Stray
capacitances may be formed in an ac bridge between various junction points within the bridge
configuration and nearest ground (earthed) object. These stray capacitors affect bridge balance in severe
ways since these capacitors carry leakage current when the bridge is operated with ac, especially at high
frequencies.

Example: The four arms of a bridge are connected as follows:

Arm AB: A capacitor C1 with an equivalent series resistance r1

Arm BC: A noninductive resistance R3

Arm CD: A noninductive resistance R4

Arm DA: A capacitor C2 with an equivalent series resistance r2 in series with a resistance R2

A supply of 500 Hz is given between terminals A and C and the detector is connected between nodes B
and D. At balance, R2 = 5 Ω, R3 =1000 Ω, R4 = 3000 Ω, C2 = 0.3 μF and r2 = 0.25 Ω. Calculate the
values of C1 and r1, and also dissipation factor of the capacitor.

Solution

and
Example : The four arms of a bridge supplied from a sinusoidal source are configured as follows:

Arm AB: A resistance of 100 Ω in parallel with a capacitance of 0.5 μF

Arm BC: A 200 Ω noninductive resistance

Arm CD: A 800 Ω noninductive resistance

Arm DA: A resistance Rx in series with a 1μF capacitance

Determine the value of Rx and the frequency at which the bridge will balance.

Supply is given between terminals A and C and the detector is connected between nodes B and D.