Electric motor

An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy

into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction
between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding to
generate force in the form of torque applied on the motor's shaft. Electric
motors can be powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries,
or rectifiers, or by alternating current (AC) sources, such as a power grid,
inverters or electrical generators. An electric generator is mechanically
identical to an electric motor, but operates with a reversed flow of power,
converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Electric motors may be classified by considerations such as power source type,

internal construction, application and type of motion output. In addition to
AC versus DC types, motors may be brushed or brushless, may be of various
Animation showing operation of a
phase (see single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase), and may be either air- brushed DC electric motor.
cooled or liquid-cooled. General-purpose motors with standard dimensions
and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use.
The largest electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications
with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors are found in industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine
tools, household appliances, power tools and disk drives. Small motors may be found in electric watches. In
certain applications, such as in regenerative braking with traction motors, electric motors can be used in reverse as
generators to recover energy that might otherwise be lost as heat and friction.

Electric motors produce linear or rotary force (torque) intended to propel some external mechanism, such as a fan
or an elevator. An electric motor is generally designed for continuous rotation, or for linear movement over a
significant distance compared to its size. Magnetic solenoids are also transducers that convert electrical power to
mechanical motion, but can produce motion over only a limited distance.

Electric motors are much more efficient than the other prime mover used in industry and transportation, the
internal combustion engine (ICE); electric motors are typically over 95% efficient while ICEs are well below 50%.
They are also lightweight, physically smaller, are mechanically simpler and cheaper to build, can provide instant
and consistent torque at any speed, can run on electricity generated by renewable sources and do not exhaust
carbon into the atmosphere. For these reasons electric motors are replacing internal combustion in transportation
and industry, although their use in vehicles is currently limited by the high cost and weight of batteries that can
give sufficient range between charges.

Contents
History
Early motors
DC motors
AC motors
Components
Rotor
Bearings
Stator
Windings
Commutator
Motor supply and control
Motor supply
Motor control
Types
Self-commutated motor
Brushed DC motor
 Electronic commutator (EC) motor
Universal AC/DC motor
Externally commutated AC machine
Induction motor
Synchronous motor
Doubly-fed electric machine
Special magnetic motors
Rotary
Linear motor
Comparison by major categories
Electromagnetism
Force and torque
Power
Back emf
Losses
Efficiency
Goodness factor
Performance parameters
Torque capability of motor types
Continuous torque density
Continuous power density
Acoustic noise and vibrations
Standards
Non-magnetic motors
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links

History

Early motors

Before modern electromagnetic motors, experimental motors that

worked by electrostatic force were investigated. The first electric
motors were simple electrostatic devices described in experiments
by Scottish monk Andrew Gordon and American experimenter
Benjamin Franklin in the 1740s.[2][3] The theoretical principle
behind them, Coulomb's law, was discovered but not published, by
Henry Cavendish in 1771. This law was discovered independently Cutaway view through stator of induction motor.
by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb in 1785, who published it so that
it is now known with his name.[4] Due to the difficulty of
generating the high voltages they required, electrostatic motors were never used for practical purposes.

The invention of the electrochemical battery by Alessandro Volta in 1799[5] made possible the production of
persistent electric currents. Hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that an electric current creates a magnetic
field, which can exert a force on a magnet. It only took a few weeks for André-Marie Ampère to develop the first
formulation of the electromagnetic interaction and present the Ampère's force law, that described the production
of mechanical force by the interaction of an electric current and a magnetic field.[6] The first demonstration of the
effect with a rotary motion was given by Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of
mercury, on which a permanent magnet (PM) was placed. When a current was passed through the wire, the wire
rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular
magnetic field around the wire.[7] This motor is often demonstrated in physics
experiments, substituting brine for (toxic) mercury. Barlow's wheel was an early
refinement to this Faraday demonstration, although these and similar homopolar
motors remained unsuited to practical application until late in the century.

In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with

electromagnetic coils. After Jedlik solved the technical problems of continuous
rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices
"electromagnetic self-rotors". Although they were used only for teaching, in 1828
Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three main components of
practical DC motors: the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no
Faraday's electromagnetic
permanent magnets, as the magnetic fields of both the stationary and revolving
experiment, 1821[1]
components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their
windings.[9][10][11][12][13][14][15]

DC motors

The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was

invented by British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832.[16] Following Sturgeon's
work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor was built by American
inventor Thomas Davenport and his wife, Emily Davenport,[17] which he
patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and Jedlik's "electromagnetic self-
powered machine tools and a printing press.[18] Due to the high cost of primary rotor", 1827 (Museum of Applied
Arts, Budapest). The historic
battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and bankrupted
motor still works perfectly
Davenport. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC
today.[8]
motors, but all encountered the same battery cost issues. As no electricity
distribution system was available at the time, no practical commercial market
emerged for these motors.[19]

After many other more or less successful attempts with relatively weak
rotating and reciprocating apparatus Prussian/Russian Moritz von Jacobi
created the first real rotating electric motor in May 1834. It developed
remarkable mechanical output power. His motor set a world record, which
Jacobi improved four years later in September 1838.[20] His second motor
was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river. It was
also in 1839/40 that other developers managed to build motors with similar
An electric motor presented to
and then higher performance.
Kelvin by James Joule in 1842,
In 1855, Jedlik built a device using similar principles to those used in his Hunterian Museum, Glasgow
electromagnetic self-rotors that was capable of useful work.[9][15] He built a
model electric vehicle that same year.[21]

A major turning point came in 1864, when Antonio Pacinotti first described the ring armature (although initially
conceived in a DC generator, i.e. a dynamo).[6] This featured symmetrically-grouped coils closed upon themselves
and connected to the bars of a commutator, the brushes of which delivered practically non-fluctuating
current.[22][23] The first commercially successful DC motors followed the developments by Zénobe Gramme who,
in 1871, reinvented Pacinotti's design and adopted some solutions by Werner Siemens.

A benefit to DC machines came from the discovery of the reversibility of the electric machine, which was
announced by Siemens in 1867 and observed by Pacinotti in 1869.[6] Gramme accidentally demonstrated it on the
occasion of the 1873 Vienna World's Fair, when he connected two such DC devices up to 2 km from each other,
using one of them as a generator and the other as motor.[24]

The drum rotor was introduced by Friedrich von Hefner-Alteneck of Siemens & Halske to replace Pacinotti's ring
armature in 1872, thus improving the machine efficiency.[6]
The laminated rotor was introduced by Siemens &
Halske the following year, achieving reduced iron losses and increased induced voltages. In 1880, Jonas
Wenström provided the rotor with slots for housing the winding, further increasing the efficiency.

In 1886, Frank Julian Sprague invented the first practical DC motor, a non-sparking device that maintained
relatively constant speed under variable loads. Other Sprague electric inventions about this time greatly improved
grid electric distribution (prior work done while employed by Thomas Edison), allowed power from electric
motors to be returned to the electric grid, provided for electric distribution to trolleys via overhead wires and the
trolley pole, and provided control systems for electric operations. This allowed Sprague to use electric motors to
invent the first electric trolley system in 1887–88 in Richmond, Virginia, the electric elevator and control system
in 1892, and the electric subway with independently powered centrally-controlled cars. The latter were first
installed in 1892 in Chicago by the South Side Elevated Railroad, where it became popularly known as the "L".
Sprague's motor and related inventions led to an explosion of interest and use in electric motors for industry. The
development of electric motors of acceptable efficiency was delayed for several decades by failure to recognize the
extreme importance of an air gap between the rotor and stator. Efficient designs have a comparatively small air
gap.[25][a] The St. Louis motor, long used in classrooms to illustrate motor principles, is extremely inefficient for
the same reason, as well as appearing nothing like a modern motor.[26]

Electric motors revolutionized industry. Industrial processes were no longer limited by power transmission using
line shafts, belts, compressed air or hydraulic pressure. Instead, every machine could be equipped with its own
power source, providing easy control at the point of use, and improving power transmission efficiency. Electric
motors applied in agriculture eliminated human and animal muscle power from such tasks as handling grain or
pumping water. Household uses (like in washing machines, dishwashers, fans, air conditioners and refrigerators
(replacing ice boxes)) of electric motors reduced heavy labor in the home and made higher standards of
convenience, comfort and safety possible. Today, electric motors consume more than half of the electric energy
produced in the US.[27]

AC motors

In 1824, French physicist François Arago formulated the existence of rotating magnetic fields, termed Arago's
rotations, which, by manually turning switches on and off, Walter Baily demonstrated in 1879 as in effect the first
primitive induction motor.[28][29][30][31] In the 1880s many inventors were trying to develop workable AC
motors[32] because AC's advantages in long-distance high-voltage transmission were offset by the inability to
operate motors on AC.

The first alternating-current commutatorless induction motor was invented by Galileo Ferraris in 1885. Ferraris
was able to improve his first design by producing more advanced setups in 1886.[33] In 1888, the Royal Academy
of Science of Turin published Ferraris's research detailing the foundations of motor operation, while concluding at
that time that "the apparatus based on that principle could not be of any commercial importance as
motor."[31][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45]

Possible industrial development was envisioned by Nikola Tesla, who invented independently his induction motor
in 1887 and obtained a patent in May 1888. In the same year, Tesla presented his paper A New System of
Alternate Current Motors and Transformers to the AIEE that described three patented two-phase four-stator-
pole motor types: one with a four-pole rotor forming a non-self-starting reluctance motor, another with a wound
rotor forming a self-starting induction motor, and the third a true synchronous motor with separately excited DC
supply to rotor winding. One of the patents Tesla filed in 1887, however, also described a shorted-winding-rotor
induction motor. George Westinghouse, who had already acquired rights from Ferraris (US$1,000), promptly
bought Tesla's patents (US$60,000 plus US$2.50 per sold hp, paid until 1897),[33] employed Tesla to develop his
motors, and assigned C.F. Scott to help Tesla; however, Tesla left for other pursuits in
1889.[31][39][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53] The constant speed AC induction motor was found not to be
suitable for street cars,[32] but Westinghouse engineers successfully adapted it to power a mining operation in
Telluride, Colorado in 1891.[54][55][56]
Westinghouse achieved its first practical induction motor in 1892 and
developed a line of polyphase 60 hertz induction motors in 1893, but these early Westinghouse motors were two-
phase motors with wound rotors. B.G. Lamme later developed a rotating bar winding rotor.[46]

Steadfast in his promotion of three-phase development, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the three-phase
induction motor in 1889, of both types cage-rotor and wound rotor with a starting rheostat, and the three-limb
transformer in 1890. After an agreement between AEG and Maschinenfabrik Oerlikon, Doliwo-Dobrowolski and
Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown developed larger models, namely a 20-hp squirrel cage and a 100-hp wound rotor
with a starting rheostat. These were the first three-phase asynchronous motors suitable for practical operation.[33]
Since 1889, similar developments of three-phase machinery were started Wenström.
At the 1891 Frankfurt
International Electrotechnical Exhibition, the first long distance three-phase system was successfully presented. It
was rated 15 kV and extended over 175  km from the Lauffen waterfall on the Neckar river. The Lauffen power
station included a 240 kW 86 V 40 Hz alternator and a step-up transformer while at the exhibition a step-down
transformer fed a 100-hp three-phase induction motor that powered an artificial waterfall, representing the
transfer of the original power source.[33]
The three-phase induction is now used for the vast majority of
commercial applications.[57][58] Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky claimed that Tesla's motor was not practical because
of two-phase pulsations, which prompted him to persist in his three-phase work.[59]
The General Electric Company began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891.[46] By 1896, General
Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for the bar-winding-rotor design, later called the
squirrel-cage rotor.[46] Induction motor improvements flowing from these inventions and innovations were such
that a 100-horsepower induction motor currently has the same mounting dimensions as a 7.5-horsepower motor
in 1897.[46]

Components
Electrically, a motor consists of two components which move relative to each
other and which together form a magnetic circuit:[60]

Field magnets - This part creates a magnetic field which passes through
the armature. It is usually a set of electromagnets surrounding the rotor,
consisting of wire windings on a ferromagnetic iron core which guides the
magnetic field. Alternatively it can be one or more permanent magnets.
Armature - This is the part through which the electric current flows which
develops the force. Like field coils, it consists of wire windings on a
Electric motor rotor (left) and stator
ferromagnetic core. When electric current passes through the wire the
(right)
magnetic field from the field magnet exerts a force on it, called the Lorentz
force, turning the rotor.

One of these components is mounted on the stator, the stationary part of the motor attached to the frame, the
other is on the rotor, the part that turns. The field magnet is usually on the stator and the armature on the rotor,
but in some types of motor these are reversed.

Mechanically, a motor consists of these parts

Rotor

In an electric motor, the moving part is the rotor, which turns the shaft to deliver the mechanical power. The rotor
usually has conductors laid into it that carry currents, which the magnetic field of the stator exerts force on to turn
the shaft. Alternatively, some rotors carry permanent magnets, and the stator holds the conductors.

There must be an air gap between the stator and rotor so it can turn. The width of the gap has a significant effect
on the motor's electrical characteristics. It is generally made as small as possible, as a large gap has a strong
negative effect on performance. It is the main source of the low power factor at which motors operate. The
magnetizing current increases and the power factor decreases with the air gap, so narrow gaps are better. Very
small gaps may pose mechanical problems in addition to noise and losses.

Bearings

The rotor is supported by bearings, which allow the rotor to turn on its axis. The bearings are in turn supported by
the motor housing. The motor shaft extends through the bearings to the outside of the motor, where the load is
applied. Because the forces of the load are exerted beyond the outermost bearing, the load is said to be
overhung.[61]

Stator

The stator is the stationary part of the motor's electromagnetic circuit surrounding the rotor, and usually consists
of the field magnets, which are either electromagnets consisting of wire windings around a ferromagnetic iron
core or permanent magnets. It creates a magnetic field which passes through the rotor armature, exerting force on
the windings. The stator core is made up of many thin metal sheets which are insulated from each other, called
laminations. Laminations are used to reduce energy losses that would result if a solid core were used. Resin-
packed motors, used in washing machines and air conditioners, use the damping properties of resin (plastic) to
reduce noise and vibration. These motors completely encapsulate the stator in plastic.[62]

Windings

Windings are wires that are laid in coils, usually wrapped around a laminated soft iron magnetic core so as to form
magnetic poles when energized with current.
Electric machines come in two basic magnetic pole configurations: salient-
and nonsalient-pole configurations. In the salient-pole machine the
ferromagnetic cores on the rotor and stator have projections called poles
facing each other, with a wire winding around each pole below the pole face,
which become north or south poles of the magnetic field when current flows
through the wire. In the nonsalient-pole, or distributed field, or round-rotor,
machine, the ferromagnetic core does not have projecting poles but is a
smooth cylinder, with the windings distributed evenly in slots about the Salient-pole rotor
circumference. The alternating current in the windings creates poles in the
core which rotate continuously.[63] A shaded-pole motor has a winding
around part of the pole that delays the phase of the magnetic field for that pole.

Some motors have conductors that consist of thicker metal, such as bars or sheets of metal, usually copper,
alternatively aluminum. These are usually powered by electromagnetic induction.

Commutator

A commutator is a rotary electrical switch in some motors that supplies

current to the rotor. It consists of a cylinder composed of multiple metal
contact segments on the rotating armature of the machine. Two or more
electrical contacts called "brushes" made of a soft conductive material like
carbon press against the commutator, making sliding contact with successive
segments of the commutator as it rotates, supplying the current to the rotor.
The windings on the rotor are connected to the commutator segments. The
commutator periodically reverses the current direction in the rotor windings Commutator in a universal motor
from a vacuum cleaner. Parts: (A)
with each half turn (180°), so the torque the magnetic field of the stator exerts
commutator, (B) brush
on the rotor is always in the same direction.[64][65] Without this current
reversal, the direction of torque on each rotor winding would reverse with
each half turn, so the rotor would stop. Commutators are inefficient and
commutated motors have been mostly replaced by brushless direct current motors, permanent magnet motors,
and induction motors.

Motor supply and control

Motor supply

A DC motor is usually supplied through a split ring commutator as described above. AC motors' commutation can
be achieved using either a slip ring commutator or external commutation, can be fixed-speed or variable-speed
control type, and can be synchronous or asynchronous type. Universal motors can run on either AC or DC.

Motor control

DC motors can be operated at variable speeds by adjusting the DC voltage applied to the terminals or by using
pulse-width modulation (PWM).

AC motors operated at a fixed speed are generally powered directly from the grid or through motor soft starters.

AC motors operated at variable speeds are powered with various power inverter, variable-frequency drive or
electronic commutator technologies.

The term electronic commutator is usually associated with self-commutated brushless DC motor and switched
reluctance motor applications.

Types
Electric motors operate on three distinct physical principles: magnetism, electrostatics and piezoelectricity.

In magnetic motors, magnetic fields are formed in both the rotor and the stator. The product between these two
fields gives rise to a force, and thus a torque on the motor shaft. One, or both, of these fields must change with the
rotation of the rotor. This is done by switching the poles on and off at the right time, or varying the strength of the
pole.

The main types are DC motors and AC motors,[66] with the latter replacing the former.

AC electric motors are either asynchronous or synchronous.[67]

Once started, a synchronous motor requires synchrony with the moving magnetic field's speed for all normal
torque conditions.

In synchronous machines, the magnetic field must be provided by means other than induction, such as from
separately excited windings or permanent magnets.

A fractional-horsepower motor either has a rating below about 1 horsepower (0.746 kW), or is manufactured with
a standard-frame size smaller than a standard 1 HP motor. Many household and industrial motors are in the
fractional-horsepower class.

Type of Motor Commutation[68][69][70][71][72][73][74]

Self-Commutated Externally Commutated
Electronic-

Mechanical-Commutator Asynchronous Synchronous2

Commutator[74][b]

AC[75][c] DC AC5,6 AC6

Three-phase:

SCIM 3, 8 WRSM, PMSM or

WRIM 4, 7,8
BLAC:[74]
Electrically

excited: IPMSM
PM rotor: SPMSM
Universal
Separately
Two-phase

(AC excited BLDC (condenser)

commutator
Series SyRM

series[73] or
Shunt Ferromagnetic rotor: Hysteresis

AC/DC[72])1 Single-phase: Hybrid:

Compound
Repulsion SRM
Auxiliary winding

PM SyRM-PM hybrid
(split-phase:

resistance or
Hysteresis-reluctance
capacitor start)
Shaded-pole Stepper
Asymmetrical stator

Rectifier,

Simple More elaborate

Most elaborate

linear transistor(s)

electronics electronics electronics (VFD), when provided

or DC chopper

Notes:

Rotation is independent of the frequency of the AC voltage.

Rotation is equal to synchronous speed (motor-stator-field speed).
In SCIM, fixed-speed operation rotation is equal to synchronous speed, less slip speed.
In non-slip energy-recovery systems, WRIM is usually used for motor-starting but can be used to vary load
speed.
Variable-speed operation.
Whereas induction- and synchronous-motor drives are typically with either six-step or sinusoidal-waveform
output, BLDC-motor drives are usually with trapezoidal-current waveform; the behavior of both sinusoidal and
trapezoidal PM machines is, however, identical in terms of their fundamental aspects.[76]
In variable-speed operation, WRIM is used in slip-energy recovery and double-fed induction-machine
applications.
A cage winding is a shorted-circuited squirrel-cage rotor, a wound winding is connected externally through slip
rings.
Mostly single-phase with some three-phase.

Abbreviations:

BLAC – Brushless AC
 BLDC – Brushless DC
BLDM – Brushless DC motor
EC – Electronic commutator
PM – Permanent magnet
IPMSM – Interior permanent-magnet synchronous motor
PMSM – Permanent magnet synchronous motor
SPMSM – Surface permanent magnet synchronous motor
SCIM – Squirrel-cage induction motor
SRM – Switched reluctance motor
SyRM – Synchronous reluctance motor
VFD – Variable-frequency drive
WRIM – Wound-rotor induction motor
WRSM – Wound-rotor synchronous motor
LRA – Locked-Rotor Amps: The current you can expect under starting conditions when you apply full voltage.
It occurs instantly during start-up.
RLA – Rated-Load Amps: The maximum current a motor should draw under any operating conditions. Often
mistakenly called running-load amps, which leads people to believe, incorrectly, that the motor should always
pull these amps.
FLA – Full-Load Amps: Changed in 1976 to "RLA – Rated-Load Amps".

Self-commutated motor

Brushed DC motor

By definition, all self-commutated DC motors run on DC electric power. Most DC motors are small permanent
magnet (PM) types. They contain a brushed internal mechanical commutation to reverse motor windings' current
in synchronism with rotation.[77]

Electrically excited DC motor

A commutated DC motor has a set of rotating windings wound on an armature

mounted on a rotating shaft. The shaft also carries the commutator, a long-
lasting rotary electrical switch that periodically reverses the flow of current in the
rotor windings as the shaft rotates. Thus, every brushed DC motor has AC
flowing through its rotating windings. Current flows through one or more pairs
of brushes that bear on the commutator; the brushes connect an external source
of electric power to the rotating armature.

The rotating armature consists of one or more coils of wire wound around a
laminated, magnetically "soft" ferromagnetic core. Current from the brushes
flows through the commutator and one winding of the armature, making it a
Workings of a brushed electric
temporary magnet (an electromagnet). The magnetic field produced by the
motor with a two-pole rotor and
armature interacts with a stationary magnetic field produced by either PMs or
PM stator. ("N" and "S"
another winding (a field coil), as part of the motor frame. The force between the designate polarities on the inside
two magnetic fields tends to rotate the motor shaft. The commutator switches faces of the magnets; the
power to the coils as the rotor turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from outside faces have opposite
ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor polarities.)
never stops (as a compass needle does), but rather keeps rotating as long as
power is applied.

Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to press against the
commutator. This creates friction. Sparks are created by the brushes making and breaking circuits through the
rotor coils as the brushes cross the insulating gaps between commutator sections. Depending on the commutator
design, this may include the brushes shorting together adjacent sections—and hence coil ends—momentarily while
crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its
circuit is opened, increasing the sparking of the brushes. This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine,
as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density per unit area of the
brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the output of the motor. The making and breaking of electric
contact also generates electrical noise; sparking generates RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and require
replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on
small motors). The commutator assembly on a large motor is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of
many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into the rotor, so replacing it
usually requires replacing the whole rotor.

While most commutators are cylindrical, some are flat discs consisting of several segments (typically, at least
three) mounted on an insulator.

Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output, but small brushes are desired
for low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor can run without the brushes excessively bouncing and
sparking. (Small brushes are also desirable for lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make brushes
of a given mass work at a higher speed, but at the cost of greater friction losses (lower efficiency) and accelerated
brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brush design entails a trade-off between output power, speed,
and efficiency/wear.

DC machines are defined as follows:[78]

Armature circuit – A winding where the load current is carried, such that can be either stationary or rotating
part of motor or generator.
Field circuit – A set of windings that produces a magnetic field so that the electromagnetic induction can take
place in electric machines.
Commutation: A mechanical technique in which rectification can be achieved, or from which DC can be
derived, in DC machines.

There are five types of brushed DC motor:

DC shunt-wound motor
DC series-wound motor
DC compound motor (two configurations):
Cumulative compound A: shunt B: series C: compound f = field coil
Differentially compounded
PM DC motor (not shown)
Separately excited (not shown).

Permanent magnet DC motor

A PM (permanent magnet) motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on PMs to
provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque. Compensating windings in
series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under load. Because this field is
fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate
the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator
windings. Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were
more practical to obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and
difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.

To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets made with neodymium
or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With their higher flux density, electric
machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all optimally designed singly-fed synchronous and
induction electric machines. Miniature motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at
least three rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that
magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.

Electronic commutator (EC) motor

Brushless DC motor

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the BLDC design. In this motor, the mechanical
"rotating switch" or commutator is replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position.
BLDC motors are typically 85–90% efficient or more. Efficiency for a BLDC motor of up to 96.5% have been
reported,[79] whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 75–80% efficient.
The BLDC motor's characteristic trapezoidal counter-electromotive force (CEMF) waveform is derived partly from
the stator windings being evenly distributed, and partly from the placement of the rotor's permanent magnets.
Also known as electronically commutated DC or inside out DC motors, the stator windings of trapezoidal BLDC
motors can be with single-phase, two-phase or three-phase and use Hall effect sensors mounted on their windings
for rotor position sensing and low cost closed-loop control of the electronic commutator.

BLDC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer disk drives or in video
cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products, such as
fans, laser printers and photocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors:

Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, running much cooler than the
equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of the fan's bearings.
Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a BLDC motor can be significantly longer compared to a DC
motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF
noise; without a commutator or brushes, a BLDC motor may be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio
equipment or computers.
The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a convenient tachometer signal
for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a
"fan OK" signal as well as provide running speed feedback.
The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to precise speed control.
BLDC motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them better suited to environments
with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking generates ozone, which can accumulate in poorly ventilated
buildings risking harm to occupants' health.
BLDC motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally used in fans to get rid
of unwanted heat.
They are also acoustically very quiet motors, which is an advantage if being used in equipment that is affected
by vibrations.

Modern BLDC motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger BLDC motors up to
about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance electric model
aircraft.

Switched reluctance motor

The SRM has no brushes or permanent magnets, and the rotor has no electric
currents.
Instead, torque comes from a slight misalignment of poles on the
rotor with poles on the stator.
The rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field of
the stator, while the stator field windings are sequentially energized to rotate
the stator field.

The magnetic flux created by the field windings follows the path of least
magnetic reluctance, meaning the flux will flow through poles of the rotor that
are closest to the energized poles of the stator, thereby magnetizing those
poles of the rotor and creating torque. As the rotor turns, different windings
will be energized, keeping the rotor turning.

SRMs are used in some appliances[80] and vehicles.[81] 6/4 pole switched reluctance motor

Universal AC/DC motor

A commutated electrically excited series or parallel wound motor is referred to as a universal motor because it can
be designed to operate on AC or DC power. A universal motor can operate well on AC because the current in both
the field and the armature coils (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) in
synchronism, and hence the resulting mechanical force will occur in a constant direction of rotation.

Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are often found in a range less than 1000 watts.
Universal motors also formed the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in electric railways. In this
application, the use of AC to power a motor originally designed to run on DC would lead to efficiency losses due to
eddy current heating of their magnetic components, particularly the motor field pole-pieces that, for DC, would
have used solid (un-laminated) iron and they are now rarely used.
An advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on
motors that have some characteristics more common in DC motors,
specifically high starting torque and very compact design if high running
speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life
problems caused by the commutator. Such motors are used in devices, such as
food mixers and power tools, that are used only intermittently, and often have
high starting-torque demands. Multiple taps on the field coil provide
(imprecise) stepped speed control. Household blenders that advertise many
speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can
be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave Modern low-cost universal motor,
rectified AC). Universal motors also lend themselves to electronic speed from a vacuum cleaner. Field
control and, as such, are an ideal choice for devices like domestic washing windings are dark copper-colored,
machines. The motor can be used to agitate the drum (both forwards and in toward the back, on both sides. The
reverse) by switching the field winding with respect to the armature. rotor's laminated core is gray
metallic, with dark slots for winding
Whereas SCIMs cannot turn a shaft faster than allowed by the power line the coils. The commutator (partly
frequency, universal motors can run at much higher speeds. This makes them hidden) has become dark from use;
useful for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers it is toward the front. The large
where high speed and light weight are desirable. They are also commonly used brown molded-plastic piece in the
in portable power tools, such as drills, sanders, circular and jig saws, where foreground supports the brush
the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed guides and brushes (both sides), as
trimmer motors exceed 10,000 rpm, while many similar miniature grinders well as the front motor bearing.
exceed 30,000 rpm.

Externally commutated AC machine

The design of AC induction and synchronous motors is optimized for operation on single-phase or polyphase
sinusoidal or quasi-sinusoidal waveform power such as supplied for fixed-speed application from the AC power
grid or for variable-speed application from VFD controllers. An AC motor has two parts: a stationary stator having
coils supplied with AC to produce a rotating magnetic field, and a rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a
torque by the rotating field.

Induction motor

Cage and wound rotor induction motor

An induction motor is an asynchronous AC motor where power is transferred

to the rotor by electromagnetic induction, much like transformer action. An
induction motor resembles a rotating transformer, because the stator
(stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the
rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Polyphase induction motors are
widely used in industry.
Large 4,500 HP AC Induction Motor.
Induction motors may be further divided into Squirrel Cage Induction Motors
and Wound Rotor Induction Motors (WRIMs). SCIMs have a heavy winding
made up of solid bars, usually aluminum or copper, electrically connected by rings at the ends of the rotor. When
one considers only the bars and rings as a whole, they are much like an animal's rotating exercise cage, hence the
name.

Currents induced into this winding provide the rotor magnetic field. The shape of the rotor bars determines the
speed-torque characteristics. At low speeds, the current induced in the squirrel cage is nearly at line frequency and
tends to be in the outer parts of the rotor cage. As the motor accelerates, the slip frequency becomes lower, and
more current is in the interior of the winding. By shaping the bars to change the resistance of the winding portions
in the interior and outer parts of the cage, effectively a variable resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit. However,
the majority of such motors have uniform bars.

In a WRIM, the rotor winding is made of many turns of insulated wire and is connected to slip rings on the motor
shaft. An external resistor or other control devices can be connected in the rotor circuit. Resistors allow control of
the motor speed, although significant power is dissipated in the external resistance. A converter can be fed from
the rotor circuit and return the slip-frequency power that would otherwise be wasted back into the power system
through an inverter or separate motor-generator.
The WRIM is used primarily to start a high inertia load or a load that requires a very high starting torque across
the full speed range. By correctly selecting the resistors used in the secondary resistance or slip ring starter, the
motor is able to produce maximum torque at a relatively low supply current from zero speed to full speed. This
type of motor also offers controllable speed.

Motor speed can be changed because the torque curve of the motor is effectively modified by the amount of
resistance connected to the rotor circuit. Increasing the value of resistance will move the speed of maximum
torque down. If the resistance connected to the rotor is increased beyond the point where the maximum torque
occurs at zero speed, the torque will be further reduced.

When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the motor will operate at the speed where
the torque developed by the motor is equal to the load torque. Reducing the load will cause the motor to speed up,
and increasing the load will cause the motor to slow down until the load and motor torque are equal. Operated in
this manner, the slip losses are dissipated in the secondary resistors and can be very significant. The speed
regulation and net efficiency is also very poor.

Torque motor

A torque motor is a specialized form of electric motor that can operate indefinitely while stalled, that is, with the
rotor blocked from turning, without incurring damage. In this mode of operation, the motor will apply a steady
torque to the load (hence the name).

A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up reel motors in a tape drive. In this
application, driven from a low voltage, the characteristics of these motors allow a relatively constant light tension
to be applied to the tape whether or not the capstan is feeding tape past the tape heads. Driven from a higher
voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the torque motors can also achieve fast-forward and rewind operation
without requiring any additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer gaming world, torque
motors are used in force feedback steering wheels.

Another common application is the control of the throttle of an internal combustion engine in conjunction with an
electronic governor. In this usage, the motor works against a return spring to move the throttle in accordance with
the output of the governor. The latter monitors engine speed by counting electrical pulses from the ignition system
or from a magnetic pickup and, depending on the speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current
applied to the motor. If the engine starts to slow down relative to the desired speed, the current will be increased,
the motor will develop more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle. Should the engine
run too fast, the governor will reduce the current being applied to the motor, causing the return spring to pull back
and close the throttle.

Synchronous motor

A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at the
same rate as the AC and resulting in a magnetic field that drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero
slip under usual operating conditions. Contrast this with an induction motor, which must slip to produce torque.
One type of synchronous motor is like an induction motor except the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and
brushes are used to conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same
speed hence the name synchronous motor. Another type, for low load torque, has flats ground onto a conventional
squirrel-cage rotor to create discrete poles. Yet another, such as made by Hammond for its pre-World War II
clocks, and in the older Hammond organs, has no rotor windings and discrete poles. It is not self-starting. The
clock requires manual starting by a small knob on the back, while the older Hammond organs had an auxiliary
starting motor connected by a spring-loaded manually operated switch.

Finally, hysteresis synchronous motors typically are (essentially) two-phase motors with a phase-shifting capacitor
for one phase. They start like induction motors, but when slip rate decreases sufficiently, the rotor (a smooth
cylinder) becomes temporarily magnetized. Its distributed poles make it act like a permanent magnet synchronous
motor (PMSM). The rotor material, like that of a common nail, will stay magnetized, but can also be demagnetized
with little difficulty. Once running, the rotor poles stay in place; they do not drift.

Low-power synchronous timing motors (such as those for traditional electric clocks) may have multi-pole
permanent magnet external cup rotors, and use shading coils to provide starting torque. Telechron clock motors
have shaded poles for starting torque, and a two-spoke ring rotor that performs like a discrete two-pole rotor.

Doubly-fed electric machine

Doubly fed electric motors have two independent multiphase winding sets, which contribute active (i.e., working)
power to the energy conversion process, with at least one of the winding sets electronically controlled for variable
speed operation. Two independent multiphase winding sets (i.e., dual armature) are the maximum provided in a
single package without topology duplication. Doubly-fed electric motors are machines with an effective constant
torque speed range that is twice synchronous speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is twice the constant
torque speed range as singly-fed electric machines, which have only one active winding set.

A doubly-fed motor allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of the rotor winding and slip rings may
offset the saving in the power electronics components. Difficulties with controlling speed near synchronous speed
limit applications.[82]

Special magnetic motors

Rotary

Ironless or coreless rotor motor

Nothing in the principle of any of the motors described above requires that the
iron (steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate. If the soft magnetic material
of the rotor is made in the form of a cylinder, then (except for the effect of
hysteresis) torque is exerted only on the windings of the electromagnets.
Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC motor, a
specialized form of a permanent magnet DC motor.[77] Optimized for rapid
acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron
core. The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-
supporting structure comprising only the magnet wire and the bonding
material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically soft A miniature coreless motor
stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a return path for the stator
magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor winding basket
surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a magnetically soft cylinder that can serve as
the housing for the motor, and likewise provides a return path for the flux.

Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed from copper windings on
steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under
one millisecond. This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because
there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless motors must often be cooled by forced
air. Overheating might be an issue for coreless DC motor designs. Modern software, such as Motor-CAD, can help
to increase the thermal efficiency of motors while still in the design stage.

Among these types are the disc-rotor types, described in more detail in the next section.

The vibrating alert of cellular phones is sometimes generated by tiny cylindrical permanent-magnet field types,
but there are also disc-shaped types that have a thin multipolar disc field magnet, and an intentionally unbalanced
molded-plastic rotor structure with two bonded coreless coils. Metal brushes and a flat commutator switch power
to the rotor coils.

Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed between the poles of high-flux thin
permanent magnets. These are the fast head positioners for rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives. Although the
contemporary design differs considerably from that of loudspeakers, it is still loosely (and incorrectly) referred to
as a "voice coil" structure, because some earlier rigid-disk-drive heads moved in straight lines, and had a drive
structure much like that of a loudspeaker.

Pancake or axial rotor motor

The printed armature or pancake motor has the windings shaped as a disc running between arrays of high-flux
magnets. The magnets are arranged in a circle facing the rotor with space in between to form an axial air gap.[83]
This design is commonly known as the pancake motor because of its flat profile. The technology has had many
brand names since its inception, such as ServoDisc.
The printed armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) in a printed armature motor is made from
punched copper sheets that are laminated together using advanced composites to form a thin rigid disc. The
printed armature has a unique construction in the brushed motor world in that it does not have a separate ring
commutator. The brushes run directly on the armature surface making the whole design very compact.

An alternative manufacturing method is to use wound copper wire laid flat with a central conventional
commutator, in a flower and petal shape. The windings are typically stabilized with electrical epoxy potting
systems. These are filled epoxies that have moderate, mixed viscosity and a long gel time. They are highlighted by
low shrinkage and low exotherm, and are typically UL 1446 recognized as a potting compound insulated with
180 °C, Class H rating.

The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is the absence of cogging (torque variations caused by changing
attraction between the iron and the magnets). Parasitic eddy currents cannot form in the rotor as it is totally
ironless, although iron rotors are laminated. This can greatly improve efficiency, but variable-speed controllers
must use a higher switching rate (>40 kHz) or DC because of decreased electromagnetic induction.

These motors were originally invented to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives, where minimal time to
reach operating speed and minimal stopping distance were critical. Pancake motors are widely used in high-
performance servo-controlled systems, robotic systems, industrial automation and medical devices. Due to the
variety of constructions now available, the technology is used in applications from high temperature military to
low cost pump and basic servos.

Another approach (Magnax) is to use a single stator sandwiched between two rotors. One such design has
produced peak power of 15  kW/kg, sustained power around 7.5  kW/kg. This yokeless axial flux motor offers a
shorter flux path, keeping the magnets further from the axis. The design allows zero winding overhang; 100
percent of the windings are active. This is enhanced with the use of rectangular-section copper wire. The motors
can be stacked to work in parallel. Instabilities are minimized by ensuring that the two rotor discs put equal and
opposing forces onto the stator disc. The rotors are connected directly to one another via a shaft ring, cancelling
out the magnetic forces.[84]

Magnax motors range in size from .15–5.4 metres (5.9 in–17 ft 8.6 in) in diameter.[84]

Servo motor

A servomotor is a motor, very often sold as a complete module, which is used within a position-control or speed-
control feedback control system. Servomotors are used in applications such as machine tools, pen plotters, and
other process systems. Motors intended for use in a servomechanism must have well-documented characteristics
for speed, torque, and power. The speed vs. torque curve is quite important and is high ratio for a servo motor.
Dynamic response characteristics such as winding inductance and rotor inertia are also important; these factors
limit the overall performance of the servomechanism loop. Large, powerful, but slow-responding servo loops may
use conventional AC or DC motors and drive systems with position or speed feedback on the motor. As dynamic
response requirements increase, more specialized motor designs such as coreless motors are used. AC motors'
superior power density and acceleration characteristics compared to that of DC motors tends to favor permanent
magnet synchronous, BLDC, induction, and SRM drive applications.[83]

A servo system differs from some stepper motor applications in that the position feedback is continuous while the
motor is running. A stepper system inherently operates open-loop—relying on the motor not to "miss steps" for
short term accuracy—with any feedback such as a "home" switch or position encoder being external to the motor
system.[85] For instance, when a typical dot matrix computer printer starts up, its controller makes the print head
stepper motor drive to its left-hand limit, where a position sensor defines home position and stops stepping. As
long as power is on, a bidirectional counter in the printer's microprocessor keeps track of print-head position.

Stepper motor

Stepper motors are a type of motor frequently used when precise rotations are required. In a stepper motor an
internal rotor containing permanent magnets or a magnetically soft rotor with salient poles is controlled by a set of
external magnets that are switched electronically. A stepper motor may also be thought of as a cross between a DC
electric motor and a rotary solenoid. As each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field
produced by the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, in its application, the stepper motor may
not rotate continuously; instead, it "steps"—starts and then quickly stops again—from one position to the next as
field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn
forwards or backwards, and it may change direction, stop, speed up or slow down arbitrarily at any time.
Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field
windings, leading the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions; more
sophisticated drivers can proportionally control the power to the field
windings, allowing the rotors to position between the cog points and thereby
rotate extremely smoothly. This mode of operation is often called
microstepping. Computer controlled stepper motors are one of the most
versatile forms of positioning systems, particularly when part of a digital
servo-controlled system.
A stepper motor with a soft iron
Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps with ease, rotor, with active windings shown. In
and hence stepper motors are used for read/write head positioning in 'A' the active windings tend to hold
computer floppy diskette drives. They were used for the same purpose in pre- the rotor in position. In 'B' a different
gigabyte era computer disk drives, where the precision and speed they offered set of windings are carrying a
was adequate for the correct positioning of the read/write head of a hard disk current, which generates torque and
drive. As drive density increased, the precision and speed limitations of rotation.
stepper motors made them obsolete for hard drives—the precision limitation
made them unusable, and the speed limitation made them uncompetitive—
thus newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based head actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this connection is
historic; it refers to the structure in a typical (cone type) loudspeaker. This structure was used for a while to
position the heads. Modern drives have a pivoted coil mount; the coil swings back and forth, something like a
blade of a rotating fan. Nevertheless, like a voice coil, modern actuator coil conductors (the magnet wire) move
perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force.)

Stepper motors were and still are often used in computer printers, optical scanners, and digital photocopiers to
move the optical scanning element, the print head carriage (of dot matrix and inkjet printers), and the platen or
feed rollers. Likewise, many computer plotters (which since the early 1990s have been replaced with large-format
inkjet and laser printers) used rotary stepper motors for pen and platen movement; the typical alternatives here
were either linear stepper motors or servomotors with closed-loop analog control systems.

So-called quartz analog wristwatches contain the smallest commonplace stepping motors; they have one coil, draw
very little power, and have a permanent magnet rotor. The same kind of motor drives battery-powered quartz
clocks. Some of these watches, such as chronographs, contain more than one stepping motor.

Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors, stepper motors and SRMs are classified as
variable reluctance motor type.[86] Stepper motors were and still are often used in computer printers, optical
scanners, and computer numerical control (CNC) machines such as routers, plasma cutters and CNC lathes.

Linear motor

A linear motor is essentially any electric motor that has been "unrolled" so that, instead of producing a torque
(rotation), it produces a straight-line force along its length.

Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper motors. Linear motors are commonly found in
many roller-coasters where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is controlled by the rail. They are also used in
maglev trains, where the train "flies" over the ground. On a smaller scale, the 1978 era HP 7225A pen plotter used
two linear stepper motors to move the pen along the X and Y axes.[87]

Comparison by major categories

 Comparison of motor types
Type Advantages Disadvantages Typical application Typical drive, output
Self-commutated motors
Maintenance
Steel mills

Simple speed (brushes)

Rectifier, linear transistor(s) or DC
Paper making machines

Brushed DC control Medium lifespan

Treadmill exercisers
chopper controller.[88]
Low initial cost Costly commutator
Automotive accessories
and brushes
Brushless
Rigid ("hard") disk drives
Synchronous; single-phase or three-
Higher initial cost

DC motor
Long lifespan
CD/DVD players
phase with PM rotor and trapezoidal
Requires EC
(BLDC)
Low maintenance
Electric vehicles
stator winding; VFD typically VS PWM
controller with closed-
or
High efficiency RC Vehicles

loop control inverter type.[83][89][90]

(BLDM) UAVs
Mechanical resonance

Long lifespan
possible

Low maintenance
High iron losses

Switched
Appliances

High efficiency
Not possible:
PWM and various other drive types,
reluctance
Electric Vehicles

No permanent * Open or vector which tend to be used in very

motor
Textile mills

(SRM)
magnets
control
Aircraft applications specialized / OEM applications.[91][92]
Low cost
* Parallel operation

Simple construction Requires EC

controller[86]
Maintenance
(brushes)
Variable single-phase AC, half-wave or
Handheld power tools,
High starting Shorter lifespan
full-wave phase-angle control with
Universal blenders, vacuum
torque, compact, Usually acoustically triac(s); closed-loop control
motor cleaners, insulation
high speed. noisy

blowers optional.[88]
Only small ratings are
economical
AC asynchronous motors
Fixed-speed, traditionally,
SCIM the world's
workhorse especially in
AC
low-performance Fixed-speed, low-performance
polyphase

Self-starting
applications of all types
applications of all types.

squirrel-cage

Low cost
Variable-speed, Variable-speed, traditionally, WRIM
or
High starting current

Robust
traditionally, low- drives or fixed-speed V/Hz-controlled
wound-rotor
Lower efficiency

Reliable
performance variable- VSDs.

induction due to need

Ratings to 1+ MW
torque pumps, fans, Variable-speed, increasingly, vector-
motor
for magnetization.
Standardized blowers and compressors.
controlled VSDs displacing DC, WRIM
(SCIM)

types. Variable-speed, and single-phase AC induction motor

or

increasingly, other high- drives.

(WRIM)
performance constant-
torque and constant-power
or dynamic loads.
AC SCIM
Speed slightly below
split-phase
High power
synchronous
Appliances

capacitor- high starting torque Starting switch or Stationary Power Tools

start relay required
Moderate power

AC SCIM
High starting torque
Speed slightly below
Industrial blowers

split-phase
No starting switch
synchronous

Industrial machinery Fixed or variable single-phase AC,

capacitor-run Comparatively long Slightly more costly
life variable speed being derived, typically,
by full-wave phase-angle control with
AC SCIM
Speed slightly below triac(s); closed-loop control
split-phase,
Moderate power
synchronous
Appliances
optional.[88]
auxiliary
Low starting torque Starting switch or Stationary power tools
start winding relay required
Speed slightly below
AC induction synchronous

Low cost
Fans, appliances, record
shaded-pole
Low starting torque

Long life players

motor Small ratings

low efficiency
AC synchronous motors
Wound-rotor
Synchronous More costly Industrial motors Fixed or variable speed, three-phase;
synchronous
speed
VFD typically six-step CS load-
motor
Inherently
commutated inverter type or VS PWM
(WRSM) more efficient
inverter type.[88][90]
 induction motor,

low power factor

Accurate speed
control Clocks, timers, sound Single-phase AC, two-phase
Hysteresis
Low noise
producing or recording capacitor-start, capacitor run
Very low efficiency
motor No vibration
equipment, hard drive,
motor[93][94]
High starting
capstan drive
torque
Equivalent to SCIM

except more
robust, more
efficient, runs
Synchronous
Appliances

cooler, smaller Requires a controller

VFD can be standard DTC type or VS
reluctance
Electric vehicles

footprint
Not widely available

motor
Textile mills
inverter PWM type.[95]
Competes with PM High cost
(SyRM) Aircraft applications
synchronous motor
without
demagnetization
issues
Specialty motors
Pancake

Compact design
Office Equip

or axial
Medium cost
Drives can typically be brushed or
Simple speed Fans/Pumps, fast industrial
rotor

control
Medium lifespan
and military servos brushless DC type.[83]
motors[83]
Precision Positioning in printers and Not a VFD. Stepper position is
Stepper
Some can be costly

positioning
floppy disc drives;
motor Require a controller determined by pulse counting.[96][97]
High holding torque industrial machine tools

Electromagnetism

Force and torque

The fundamental purpose of the vast majority of the world's electric motors is to electromagnetically induce
relative movement in an air gap between a stator and rotor to produce useful torque or linear force.

According to Lorentz force law the force of a winding conductor can be given simply by:

or more generally, to handle conductors with any geometry:

The most general approaches to calculating the forces in motors use tensors.[98]

Power

Where rpm is shaft speed and T is torque, a motor's mechanical power output Pem is given by,[99]

in Imperial units with T expressed in foot-pounds,

(horsepower), and,

in SI units with shaft angular speed expressed in radians per second, and T expressed in newton-meters,

(watts).

For a linear motor, with force F expressed in newtons and velocity v expressed in meters per second,

(watts).

In an asynchronous or induction motor, the relationship between motor speed and air gap power is, neglecting
skin effect, given by the following:
 , where

Rr – rotor resistance
Ir2 – square of current induced in the rotor
s – motor slip; i.e., difference between synchronous speed and slip speed, which provides the relative
movement needed for current induction in the rotor.

Back emf

Since the armature windings of a direct-current or universal motor are moving through a magnetic field, they have
a voltage induced in them. This voltage tends to oppose the motor supply voltage and so is called "back
electromotive force (emf)". The voltage is proportional to the running speed of the motor. The back emf of the
motor, plus the voltage drop across the winding internal resistance and brushes, must equal the voltage at the
brushes. This provides the fundamental mechanism of speed regulation in a DC motor. If the mechanical load
increases, the motor slows down; a lower back emf results, and more current is drawn from the supply. This
increased current provides the additional torque to balance the new load.[100]

In AC machines, it is sometimes useful to consider a back emf source within the machine; as an example, this is of
particular concern for close speed regulation of induction motors on VFDs.[100]

Losses

Motor losses are mainly due to resistive losses in windings, core losses and mechanical losses in bearings, and
aerodynamic losses, particularly where cooling fans are present, also occur.

Losses also occur in commutation, mechanical commutators spark, and electronic commutators and also dissipate
heat.

Efficiency

To calculate a motor's efficiency, the mechanical output power is divided by the electrical input power:

where is energy conversion efficiency, is electrical input power, and is mechanical output power:

where is input voltage, is input current, is output torque, and is output angular velocity. It is possible to
derive analytically the point of maximum efficiency. It is typically at less than 1/2 the stall torque.

Various regulatory authorities in many countries have introduced and implemented legislation to encourage the
manufacture and use of higher-efficiency electric motors. Electric motors have efficiencies ranging from at least
15% for shaded pole motors, up to 98% for permanent magnet motors,[101][102] with efficiency also being
dependent on load. Peak efficiency is usually at 75% of the rated motor load. So (as an example) a 10 HP motor is
most efficient when driving a load that requires 7.5 HP.[103] Efficiency also depends on motor size; larger motors
tend to be more efficient.[104] Some motors can not operate continually for more than a specified period of time
(e.g. for more than an hour per run) [105]

Goodness factor

Eric Laithwaite[106] proposed a metric to determine the 'goodness' of an electric motor:[107]

Where:
 is the goodness factor (factors above 1 are likely to be efficient)
are the cross sectional areas of the magnetic and electric circuit
are the lengths of the magnetic and electric circuits
is the permeability of the core
is the angular frequency the motor is driven at

From this, he showed that the most efficient motors are likely to have relatively large magnetic poles. However,
the equation only directly relates to non PM motors.

Performance parameters

Torque capability of motor types

All the electromagnetic motors, and that includes the types mentioned here derive the torque from the vector
product of the interacting fields. For calculating the torque it is necessary to know the fields in the air gap. Once
these have been established by mathematical analysis using FEA or other tools the torque may be calculated as the
integral of all the vectors of force multiplied by the radius of each vector. The current flowing in the winding is
producing the fields and for a motor using a magnetic material the field is not linearly proportional to the current.
This makes the calculation difficult but a computer can do the many calculations needed.

Once this is done a figure relating the current to the torque can be used as a useful parameter for motor selection.
The maximum torque for a motor will depend on the maximum current although this will usually be only usable
until thermal considerations take precedence.

When optimally designed within a given core saturation constraint and for a given active current (i.e., torque
current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and air-gap flux density, all
categories of electric motors or generators will exhibit virtually the same maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e.,
operating torque) within a given air-gap area with winding slots and back-iron depth, which determines the
physical size of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque beyond the maximum operating
torque, such as short bursts of torque to accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic
core saturation or safe operating temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the
maximum operating torque differs significantly between categories of electric motors or generators.

Capacity for bursts of torque should not be confused with field weakening capability. Field weakening allows an
electric machine to operate beyond the designed frequency of excitation. Field weakening is done when the
maximum speed cannot be reached by increasing the applied voltage. This applies to only motors with current
controlled fields and therefore cannot be achieved with permanent magnet motors.

Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as that of WRSMs or PMSMs, cannot realize bursts
of torque higher than the maximum designed torque without saturating the magnetic core and rendering any
increase in current as useless. Furthermore, the permanent magnet assembly of PMSMs can be irreparably
damaged, if bursts of torque exceeding the maximum operating torque rating are attempted.

Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such as induction machines, induction doubly-fed electric
machines, and induction or synchronous wound-rotor doubly-fed (WRDF) machines, exhibit very high bursts of
torque because the emf-induced active current on either side of the transformer oppose each other and thus
contribute nothing to the transformer coupled magnetic core flux density, which would otherwise lead to core
saturation.

Electric machines that rely on induction or asynchronous principles short-circuit one port of the transformer
circuit and as a result, the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit becomes dominant as slip increases,
which limits the magnitude of active (i.e., real) current. Still, bursts of torque that are two to three times higher
than the maximum design torque are realizable.

The brushless wound-rotor synchronous doubly-fed (BWRSDF) machine is the only electric machine with a truly
dual ported transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port).[108]
The dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be unstable and requires a multiphase slip-ring-brush
assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means were available to
instantaneously control torque angle and slip for synchronous operation during motoring or generating while
simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotor winding set, the active current of the BWRSDF machine
would be independent of the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of torque significantly
higher than the maximum operating torque and far beyond the practical capability of any other type of electric
machine would be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times operating torque have been calculated.
Continuous torque density

The continuous torque density of conventional electric machines is determined by the size of the air-gap area and
the back-iron depth, which are determined by the power rating of the armature winding set, the speed of the
machine, and the achievable air-gap flux density before core saturation. Despite the high coercivity of neodymium
or samarium-cobalt permanent magnets, continuous torque density is virtually the same amongst electric
machines with optimally designed armature winding sets. Continuous torque density relates to method of cooling
and permissible period of operation before destruction by overheating of windings or permanent magnet damage.

Other sources state that various e-machine topologies have differing torque density. One source shows the
following:[109]

Electric machine type Specific torque density (Nm/kg)

SPM – brushless ac, 180° current conduction 1.0
SPM – brushless ac, 120° current conduction 0.9–1.15
IM, asynchronous machine 0.7–1.0
IPM, interior permanent magnet machine 0.6–0.8
VRM, doubly salient reluctance machine 0.7–1.0

where—specific torque density is normalized to 1.0 for the SPM—brushless ac, 180° current conduction, SPM is
Surface Permanent Magnet machine.

Torque density is approximately four times greater for electric motors which are liquid cooled, as compared to
those which are air cooled.

A source comparing direct current (DC), induction motors (IM), permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSM)
and switched reluctance motors (SRM) showed:[110]

Characteristic dc IM PMSM SRM

Torque density 3 3.5 5 4
Power density 3 4 5 3.5

Another source notes that permanent-magnet synchronous machines of up to 1 MW have considerably higher
torque density than induction machines.[111]

Continuous power density

The continuous power density is determined by the product of the continuous torque density and the constant
torque speed range of the electric machine. Electric motors can achieve densities of up to 20KW/KG, meaning 20
Kilowatts of output power per Kilogram of weight.[112]

Acoustic noise and vibrations

Acoustic noise and vibrations of electric motors are usually classified in three sources:

mechanical sources (e.g. due to bearings)

aerodynamic sources (e.g. due to shaft-mounted fans)
magnetic sources (e.g. due to magnetic forces such as Maxwell and magnetostriction forces acting on stator
and rotor structures)

The latter source, which can be responsible for the "whining noise" of electric motors, is called electromagnetically
induced acoustic noise.

Standards
The following are major design, manufacturing, and testing standards covering electric motors:
 American Petroleum Institute: API 541 Form-Wound Squirrel Cage Induction Motors – 375 kW (500
Horsepower) and Larger
American Petroleum Institute: API 546 Brushless Synchronous Machines – 500 kVA and Larger
American Petroleum Institute: API 547 General-purpose Form-Wound Squirrel Cage Induction Motors – 250
Hp and Larger
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: IEEE Std 112 Standard Test Procedure for Polyphase
Induction Motors and Generators
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: IEEE Std 115 Guide for Test Procedures for Synchronous
Machines
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: IEEE Std 841 Standard for Petroleum and Chemical Industry
– Premium Efficiency Severe Duty Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled (TEFC) Squirrel Cage Induction Motors – Up
to and Including 370 kW (500 Hp)
International Electrotechnical Commission: IEC 60034 Rotating Electrical Machines
International Electrotechnical Commission: IEC 60072 Dimensions and output series for rotating electrical
machines
National Electrical Manufacturers Association: MG-1 Motors and Generators (http://www.nema.org/Standards/
Pages/Information-Guide-for-General-Purpose-Industrial-AC-Small-and-Medium-Squirrel-Cage-Induction-Moto
r-Standards.aspx)
Underwriters Laboratories: UL 1004 – Standard for Electric Motors
Indian Standard: IS:12615-2018 – Line Operated Three Phase a.c. Motors (IE CODE) “Efficiency Classes and
Performance Specification” (Third Revision)

Non-magnetic motors
An electrostatic motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are
the dual of conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high-voltage power supply, although very
small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and
repulsion, and require high current at low voltages. In the 1750s, the first electrostatic motors were developed by
Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Today, the electrostatic motor finds frequent use in micro-electro-
mechanical systems (MEMS) where their drive voltages are below 100 volts, and where moving, charged plates are
far easier to fabricate than coils and iron cores. Also, the molecular machinery that runs living cells is often based
on linear and rotary electrostatic motors.

A piezoelectric motor or piezo motor is a type of electric motor based upon the change in shape of a piezoelectric
material when an electric field is applied. Piezoelectric motors make use of the converse piezoelectric effect
whereby the material produces acoustic or ultrasonic vibrations to produce linear or rotary motion.[113] In one
mechanism, the elongation in a single plane is used to make a series of stretches and position holds, similar to the
way a caterpillar moves.[114]

An electrically powered spacecraft propulsion system uses electric motor technology to propel spacecraft in outer
space, most systems being based on electrically powering propellant to high speed, with some systems being based
on electrodynamic tethers principles of propulsion to the magnetosphere.[115]

See also
Electric generator
Regenerative brake
Goodness factor
Motor capacitor
Traction motor

Notes
a. Ganot provides a superb illustration of one such early electric motor designed by Froment.[25]
b. The term 'electronic commutator motor' (ECM) is identified with the heating, ventilation and air-conditioning
(HVAC) industry, the distinction between BLDC and BLAC being in this context seen as a function of degree of
ECM drive complexity with BLDC drives typically being with simple single-phase scalar-controlled voltage-
regulated trapezoidal current waveform output involving surface PM motor construction and BLAC drives
tending towards more complex three-phase vector-controlled current-regulated sinusoidal waveform involving
interior PM motor construction.[74]
 c. The universal and repulsion motors are part of a class of motors known as AC commutator motors, which also
includes the following now largely obsolete motor types: Single-phase – straight and compensated series
motors, railway motor; three-phase – various repulsion motor types, brush-shifting series motor, brush-shifting
polyphase shunt or Schrage motor, Fynn-Weichsel motor.[75]

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200. doi:10.1109/IEMDC.2003.1210392 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIEMDC.2003.1210392). Archived (https://
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[Synchronous] Doubly-Fed Machine. Sensorless Control for Electrical Drives – SLED 2012. IEEE. pp. 1–6.
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Bibliography
Fink, Donald G.; Beaty, H. Wayne (2000). Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=bmfgtgEACAAJ). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-022005-8.
Houston, Edwin J.; Kennelly, Arthur, Recent Types of Dynamo-Electric Machinery (https://archive.org/details/re
centtypesdyna00kenngoog), American Technical Book Company 1897, published by P.F. Collier and Sons
New York, 1902
Kuphaldt, Tony R. (2000–2006). "Chapter 13 AC Motors" (http://www.ibiblio.org/obp/electricCircuits/AC/AC_13.
html). Lessons In Electric Circuits – Volume II. Retrieved 2006-04-11.
Rosenblatt, Jack; Friedman, M. Harold (1984). Direct and Alternating Current Machinery (https://books.google.
com/books?id=xxOgQgAACAAJD). C.E. Merrill Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-675-20160-5.
Knowlton, A.E., ed. (1949). Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Stölting, Hans-Dieter D.; Kallenbach Eberhard; Amrhein, W., eds. (2008). Handbook of Fractional-Horsepower
Drives (https://books.google.com/books?id=VCHumncaeAAC&pg=PA134). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-73128-
3.
Hameyer, Kay (2001). "Electrical Machine I: Basics, Design, Function, Operation" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20130210003139/http://materialy.itc.pw.edu.pl/zpnis/electric_machines_I/ForStudents/Script_EMIHanneberg
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rialy.itc.pw.edu.pl/zpnis/electric_machines_I/ForStudents/Script_EMIHanneberger.pdf) (PDF) on 10 February
2013. Retrieved 11 January 2013.

Further reading
Bedford, B.D.; Hoft, R.G. (1964). Principles of Inverter Circuits (https://books.google.com/books?id=iyZTAAAA
MAAJ). New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-06134-2.
Bose, Bimal K. (2006). Power Electronics and Motor Drives : Advances and Trends (https://books.google.com/
books?id=ywiBVSnYm6IC). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-088405-6.
Chiasson, John (2005). Modeling and High-Performance Control of Electric Machines (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=cq6RPPsOyt8C&pg=PA14) (Online ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-68449-7.
Fitzgerald, A.E.; Kingsley, Charles, Jr.; Umans, Stephen D. (2003). Electric Machinery (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=YBKk4kWSle0C) (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 688 pages. ISBN 978-0-07-366009-7.
Pelly, B.R. (1971). Thyristor Phase-Controlled Converters and Cycloconverters : Operation, Control, and
Performance (https://books.google.com/books?id=l9YiAAAAMAAJ). Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-
67790-1.

External links
An Animated Explanation of How AC & DC Motors Work (https://www.wecanfigurethisout.org/VL/Motors.htm)
WeCanFigureThisOut.org
SparkMuseum: Early Electric Motors (http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM)
The Invention of the Electric Motor 1800 to 1893 (http://www.eti.kit.edu/english/1376.php), hosted by
Karlsrushe Institute of Technology's Martin Doppelbauer
Electric Motors and Generators (http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/HSCmotors.html), a U. of NSW Physclips
multimedia resource
An animated explanation of how AC & DC motors work (https://www.wecanfigurethisout.org/VL/Motors.htm)
WeCanFigureThisOut.org
MAS.865 2018 How to Make Something that Makes (almost) Anything (http://fab.cba.mit.edu/classes/865.18/
motion/brushless/index.html), slow motion gifs and oscillograms for many kinds of motors.

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