NOTES for 1,2,3https://www.electronicshub.

org/ic-741-
op-amp-basics/
PRACTICAL 1 :to study operational amplifiers
Operational amplifiers : it is also called as operational amplifiers called
as op-amp,they are integrated circuits primarily designed for
performing analogue computation.it has a very high voltage gain ,useed
to perform mathematical operations like add,sub,int,diff. p-Amp ICs
have become an integral part of almost all analogue circuitry-it is comples
combination of op amps ,resistors,capacitors,baic electronics components
application-voltage follower, active rectifier, Integrator, voltage comparator


Ic 741 op amp-it s monolithic integrated circuits monolithic integrated
circuits(manufactured in a single piece of silicon). he number 741 indicates that this
operational amplifier IC has 7 functional pins, 4 pins capable of taking input
and 1 output pin. his Op-amp IC comes in the following form factors:

 Power Supply: Requires a Minimum voltage of 5V and can withstand up

to 18V
 Input Impedance: About 2 MΩ input resistance-2mohm.
Infinity (ideal values) application;integrator,summing
amplifier,cpmparator,amplifier
 Output impedance: About 75 Ω output resistance-75 ohm
0(ideal value)
 Voltage Gain: 200,000 for low frequencies (200 V / mV) voltage gain -2
*10^5-infinity
 Maximum Output Current: 20 mA Bw-1mhz-infinity
 Recommended Output Load: Greater than 2 KΩ common mode
rate ratio-90db-infinity
  Input Offset: Ranges between 2 mV and 6 mV
 Slew Rate: 0.5V/µS (It is the rate at which an Op-Amp can detect voltage
changes)
imp-the high input impedance and very small output impedance makes IC 741 a
near ideal voltage amplifier

-the simplest way to use an operational amplifier is to operate it in the open loop
condition

-The gain of operational amplifier IC 741 is not constant and varies depending on
the frequency of input signal. The below graph illustrates the relation between
them

FEATURES OF OP AMP:

Very large bandwith, very low output impedance, high input impendence,

FEATURES OF AN IDEAL OP-AMP

Low power dissipation, it should have infinite voltage gain (open loop),it should
process infinite input impedance

PRACTICAL NO.2To design and test performance of an inverting amplifier using

IC µA741 (INVERTING)
this arrangement is named as inverting because it amplifies and reverses the polarity of
input signal (Observe the waveforms at the input and output). Resistor R2 is the
feedback resistor. Gain of the amplifier is given by the formula: Gain (AV) = -(R2 / R1) 

Negative sign indicates that the polarity of the output waveform is reversed. By
adjusting the values of R1 and R2 desired amplification can be achieved.This circuit we
can amplify both AC and DC. If voltage is AC then its phase also changes; it gets
inverted or is changed by 180 degree. Opamp is used to get high gains and can be
used as amplifier in any circuit.

PRACTICAL NO.3 to design and test performance using non-inverting amplifier

This arrangement is named as non-inverting because it amplifies the input signal,
while retaining the same polarity. Gain of the amplifier is given by the
formula: Gain (AV) = 1 + (R2 / R1) 

By adjusting the values of R1 and R2 desired amplification can be achieved.

If the value of feedback resistor R2 is made 0, the gain equals 1 and the Op-Amp
configuration behaves as a “unity gain buffer” or a voltage follower.

 Amplifiers: 741 IC is mostly used to amplify signals of varying frequencies

ranging from DC to higher radio frequencies. It is also used in frequency
selective amplifiers which filter out signals of unwanted frequencies, E.g.
tone control systems in stereo and Hi Fi systems.
 Computational: Many electronic circuits that perform mathematical
operations like integration, differentiation, summers etc. use 741 Op-Amp.
 Rectifiers: Ordinary diodes used in rectifiers have voltage drop across
them which makes it unsuitable for high accuracy signal rectifiers. The 741
IC can be configured to perform as an ideal diode i.e., with no voltage drop
at all and can be used in precise rectifier circuits.
 Oscillators: Op-Amp IC 741 is used as an oscillator in function generators
to create different output waveforms like sinusoidal, square, triangular etc.
It is also used in Pulse Width Modulators (PWM generators)
 Comparators: The 741 IC can be used to compare voltage signals and
determine if they are almost of the same voltage. This can be used in
voltage regulators and signal comparators.
 ADCs / DACs: 741 Op-Amp can be used to create Digital to Analogue
Converters that can take digital binary input from computers or
microcontrollers and create a corresponding analogue signal. Similarly, it is
can also used in Analogue to Digital circuits.
Exp 4 SIGNAL
Signal-  Any time varying physical phenomenon that can convey information is
called signal. Some examples of signals are human voice, electrocardiogram, sign language,
videos etc. There are several classification of signals such as Continuous time signal, discrete
time signal and digital signal, random signals and non-random signals.
Continous-A continuous-time signal is a signal that can be defined at every instant of time. A
continuous-time signal contains values for all real numbers along the X-axis. It is denoted
by x(t). Figure 1(a) shows continuous-time signal.
Discrete-time Signal:Signals that can be defined at discrete instant of time is called discrete
time signal. Basically discrete time signals can be obtained by sampling a continuous-time
signal. It is denoted as x(n).Figure 1(b) shows discrete-time signal.
Digital SignalThe signals that are discrete in time and quantized in amplitude are called digital
signal. The term "digital signal" applies to the transmission of a sequence of values of a discrete-
time signal in the form of some digits in the encoded form.
Digital Signal:The signals that are discrete in time and quantized in amplitude are called digital
signal. The term "digital signal" applies to the transmission of a sequence of values of a discrete-
time signal in the form of some digits in the encoded form.
Periodic and Aperiodic Signal: A signal is said to be periodic if it repeats itself after some
amount of time x(t+T)=x(t), for some value of T. The period of the signal is the minimum value
of time for which it exactly repeats itself. Signal which does not repeat itself after a certain
period of time is called aperiodic signal. The periodic and aperiodic signals are shown in Figure
2(a) and 2(b) respectively.
Random and Deterministic Signal:A random signal cannot be described by any mathematical
function, where as a deterministic signal is one that can be described mathematically. A common
example of random signal is noise
  
Pratical 5- ic 555
 Astable mode

This means there will be no stable level at the output. So the output will be
swinging between high and low. This character of unstable output is used as
a clock or square wave output for many applications.

Mono-stable mode

This configuration consists of one stable and one unstable state. The stable
state can be chosen either high or low by the user. If the stable output is set
at high (1), the output of the timer is high (1). At the application of an
interrupt, the timer output turns low (0). Since the low state is unstable it
goes to high (1) automatically after the interrupt passes. Similar is the case
for a low stable monostable mode.
Pin Name Purpose

Ground reference voltage, low level (0

1 GND
V)

The OUT pin goes high and a timing

interval starts when this input falls
below 1/2 of CTRL voltage (which is
typically 1/3 Vcc, CTRL being 2/3 Vcc by
default if CTRL is left open). In other
2 TRIG
words, OUT is high as long as the
trigger low. Output of the timer totally
depends upon the amplitude of the
external trigger voltage applied to this
pin.

This output is driven to approximately

3 OUT
1.7 V below +Vcc, or to GND.

A timing interval may be reset by

4
driving this input to GND, but the
timing does not begin again until
RESET RESET rises above approximately 0.7
volts. Overrides TRIG which overrides
features threshold.

 t operates from a wide CTRL Provides “control” access to the

range of power ranging
internal voltage divider (by default,
from +5 Volts to +18 Volts
 supply voltage.
 Sinking or sourcing 200 mA
of load current.
 The external components
should be selected
properly so that the timing
intervals can be made into
several minutes along with
the frequencies exceeding
several hundred kilohertz.
 The output of a 555 timer
can drive a transistor-
transistor logic (TTL) due to
its high current output. 2/3 Vcc).
 It has a temperature
stability of 50 parts per
million (ppm) per degree
Celsius change in
temperature which is
equivalent to 0.005 %/ °C.
 The duty cycle of the timer
is adjustable.
 Also, the maximum power
dissipation per package is
600 mW and its trigger and
reset inputs has logic
compatibility.
5
6 THR The timing (OUT high) interval ends
when the voltage at threshold is
greater than that at CTRL (2/3 Vcc if
 CTRL is open).

Open collector output which may

discharge a capacitor between
7 DIS
intervals. In phase with output.

Positive supply voltage, which is

usually between 3 and 15 V
8 Vcc
depending on the variation.

ADC and DAC- Digital-to-Analog converters

(DACs) and Analog-to-Digital converters (ADC) are important building blocks which interface
sensors (e.g. temperature, pressure, light, sound, cruising speed of a car) to digital systems such
as microcontrollers or PCs. An ADC takes an analog signal and converts it into a binary one,
while a DAC converts a binary signal into an analog value. Figure 1 gives a block diagram of
such a system. An example of such a system is a PC sound card.