Welcome to Pre-Calculus/Trigonometry!

Precalculus Introduction

What is precalculus?

That's a good question to ask as your start this course. One answer is that precalculus is
the math class that comes before calculus. While that is a technically correct answer, it
doesn't really answer the question. To give a more specific answer, let's take a step back
and answer a related question: What is calculus?

Calculus is an area of advanced mathematics that focuses in part on rates of change and
limits. It is broken down into two main branches—differential calculus and integral
calculus.

 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Differential calculus is an in-depth study of rates of change. Consider the curve graphed.
What is the rate of change (or slope) of the curve? From studying algebra, you know that
you can only find the slopes of straight lines. Differential calculus uses the concept of
limits to allow the slope of curves to be calculated. By considering a very small piece of
the curve, as shown in the large red circle, the curve becomes straight, and the slope of
this straight portion can be calculated.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS

One aspect of integral calculus is the study of areas. The focus is specifically on areas
under curves. How would you find the area under the curve in the image shown? From
studying geometry, you know that there are specific area formulas for shapes, such as
rectangles, circles, and triangles. However, there is no formula for finding the area of a
shape such as the one shown in the graph. Integral calculus uses the concept of limits. In
integral calculus, a shape such as the one shown is broken down into infinitely narrow
rectangles until the area of each rectangle can be found.

Who Invented Calculus?

The invention of calculus emerged in the second half of the seventeenth century. While
some math historians disagree about who first discovered its basic concepts, calculus is
generally credited to both Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.

  
      
    

Newton and Leibniz separately and simultaneously arrived at the concepts which formed
the basis for modern calculus. Both men are credited with conceptualizing the ideas that
became the fundamental theorem of calculus, building upon a foundation of
mathematical knowledge that began in ancient times.

Why Is Calculus Important?

Calculus plays a vital role in countless applications in the fields of science, technology,
and engineering. These links highlight some of its scientific applications.

Biology 
 Biologists use calculus to calculate the rate of change in the growth of bacteria in a Petri
dish.
Aerospace Engineering

Aeronautical engineers use calculus in the planning of space missions. For example, they
use it to calculate the values of variables, such as velocity and acceleration.
What Is Precalculus?

All of this brings us back to the original question: What is precalculus?

Precalculus is a culminating mathematics course which gives students the chance to

investigate concepts of calculus and their wide-ranging impacts. It brings together
algebra, geometry, and trigonometry and expands students' knowledge and skills learned
in earlier courses.
Believe it or not, the fundamental ideas and theorems of calculus are straightforward and
typically easy to understand.

However, calculus requires strong algebra skills and a firm understanding of

trigonometry. These skills will be developed in this course. As you work through this
course, maintain a healthy awareness of how concepts relate to one another.
Concentrate on the why of operations performed in different situations.

Memorizing math is never a good idea. You need to understand how concepts are
related and how new concepts are extensions of previous knowledge.

  

  

By studying in increasing detail mathematical topics such as polynomial, exponential,

logarithmic, and sequential functions, you will be better prepared to study more
advanced topics in mathematics.

Solve Quadratic, Rational and Radical Equations

Solving Quadratic, Rational, and Radical Equations

It is important to be comfortable solving a variety of types of equations as you move into

higher mathematics. Sometimes, the idea or concept in mathematics will be easily
understood, but performing the required algebra to solve a problem may be complex.
Proficiency with the many different families of equations and functions is essential to
success in the study of higher mathematics.

Let’s review what you know about quadratic, rational, and radical equations.

Quadratic equations are second degree polynomials. Those that are factorable may be

solved using the zero product property and always yield rational solutions to the
equation. Any quadratic equation may be solved by completing the square or by using
the quadratic formula, regardless of whether the solutions are rational, irrational, or
imaginary.

Quadratic equations in the form ax2+bx+c=0, where a≠0a must first be divided

by a before employing the completing the square process.

Example

Solve 2x2−10x+3=02x2-10x+3=0  by completing the square.

Solution

Divide the equation by 2, and move the constant to the right side of the equation.

x2−5x=−3/2

Next, add (1/2b)2 to each side of the equation. By adding this value, you create the
equivalence of a squared binomial on the left side of the equation.

Square root both sides of the equation and simplify

The irrational solutions to the quadratic equation indicate that the quadratic expression
is non-factorable.

The solutions are  x=−10x=-10 or x = 2. These rational solutions indicate the zero

product property could have been used as a method to solve the quadratic equation.

Begin by dividing by 2.

The irrational solutions indicate that the zero product property would not have worked
as a method to solve the quadratic equation.
Divide by 2. Be careful with the fractions throughout the process.

Remember that the square root of a negative number results in an imaginary number.
This quadratic equation could not be solved using the zero product property.

The Discriminant

What if you would like to know the nature of the roots of a quadratic equation but don't
necessarily need to find the roots? The nature of the roots falls into one of these three
categories:

1. Two distinct real roots (rational or irrational)

2. One real double root (rational or irrational)
3. No real roots (imaginary)

To find the nature of the roots of a quadratic equation, you can use the discriminant.
The quadratic formula is

The discriminant is defined as the radicand of the quadratic formula, or  b2 – 4acb2 – 4ac

. There are three possibilities for the value of the discriminant:
Possibility 1

b2−4ac>0

When the discriminant is greater than zero, the quadratic equation will have two real
roots. The graph of the related function will have two x-intercepts.

Possibility 2

b2−4ac=0
When the discriminant is equal to zero, there will only be one unique solution, and that
solution will be a double root. The graph of the related function will have one x-
intercept.

Possibility 3

b2−4ac<0

When the discriminant is less than zero, by the definition of imaginary numbers, two
imaginary roots are produced. The graph of the related function will not have any x-
intercepts.
Imaginary roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients always occur in conjugate
pairs (a + bi,  a−bi). Therefore, if one root is 2 + 3i, then the other root will be 2−3i

Let’s look at an example.

Example

What is the nature of the roots to the equation  4x2 =x+2?

The equation must first be written in standard quadratic form, ax2+bx+c=0, to identify

the values of a, b, and c.

4x2−x−2=0

Here, a = 4, b=−1, c=-2 .

Next, evaluate the discriminant.

b2−4ac=(−1)2−4(4)(−2)=1+32=33
Because the discriminant is 33, you know that the solutions (roots) to the equation are
irrational.

Practice: Using the Discriminant

Now it’s your turn. Answer the questions. Choose Reveal Answer to check your work.
Solving Rational Equations

Another type of equation you have seen before is rational equations. Rational equations
are made up of one or more rational expressions. For example,

Because any term in a rational equation may contain a polynomial

expression in the denominator, you need to be aware of the possibility
of extraneous solutions when solving rational equations. An
extraneous solution is a solution that does not satisfy the original
equation.

In the equation , potential extraneous solutions are x = 2 and x=−5x=-5 . Either of

these values would yield 0 in the denominator of two of the terms of the equation when
substituted back into the original equation. If either of these values occur as potential
solutions, they would be deemed extraneous and not included in the solutions of the
equation.

Work through the example to review how to solve rational equations.

Solve the rational equation.

Step 1

Factor each polynomial expression found in the equation. In this problem the only
polynomial is already factored. It is located in the third denominator.

Identify the least common denominator of all the expressions together.

In this example the least common denominator is (x − 2)(x + 5)

Step 2

Next, multiply each expression in the equation by the LCD (shown in red). Doing so will allow
you to cancel all of the denominators in the equation.
Step 3

Finally, solve the resulting equation. Notice that all of the fractions have been removed.

Use the correct order of operations to solve the equation.

Step 4

The last step in solving a rational equation is to check your solution(s). You are primarily
concerned with solutions that would make any of the denominators equal to 0. In this
case, since the solution  will not result in a 0 denominator, the solution is valid.

The final solution is x = 6

Let’s look at solving another rational equation.

Example

Solve the equation

Solution

The least common denominator of the terms in the equation is  (x+1)(x−1).

Begin by multiplying each term of the equation by this LCD. In multiplying the equation
by the LCD, the denominator of each of the terms of the equation will divide out,
resulting in a denominator of 1 in each case.
Next, multiply the binomials on the left side of the equation and then
combine like terms. Solve the equation.

But, a solution of x = 1 is extraneous since it results in a denominator of 0 for terms of

the equation. Therefore, the equation has no solution.

Note: If in solving a rational equation, two solutions are found and one of the solutions is
extraneous, then there is still one solution (the solution that did not result in 0 in the
denominator of at least one of the terms of the equation).

Practice: Solve Rational Equations

Give it a try! Answer the questions. Choose Reveal Answer to check your work.

Solve each of the rational equations. When you think you know the answer, click Reveal
Answer to reveal the solution.

1. Solve the rational equation.

The least common denominator is 6x. Multiply the entire equation by

6x. This will eliminate all fractions. Solve the linear equation that
results.
2. Solve the rational equation.

After factoring each denominator, identify the least common

denominator as x (x−1)(x+1)

Multiply the entire equation by this LCD. All fractions will be

eliminated. Solve the resulting equation.

Radical Equations

A radical equation is an equation where the radicand contains a variable.

These are the general steps to solving a radical equation with one radical.

1. Isolate the radical.

2. Raise each side of the equation to the power of the index of the radical. For example, if
you have a square root, you would raise the equation to the second power. If you have a
cube root, you would raise your equation to the third power, and so on.

After solving, it is important to check your answers for any extraneous solutions. These
solutions do not check when substituted back in the original equation. Again, be sure to
always check your work.
Example

Solve the following radical equation

When a square root equation contains two radical terms, isolate one of
the radical terms, and then square both sides of the equation.

For example, to solve the equation 

, begin by isolating one of the radical terms and then square both sides
of the equation.

Be careful when squaring the right side of the equation. This is a binomial squared. Use FOIL to expand
the product, then isolate the radical term again, and square both sides of the equation.
Solve the resulting quadratic equation using the zero product property. Then be sure to check both
solutions in the original equation. Extraneous solutions should be eliminated.

Notice that when  x=−2is checked in the original equation, the result is not a true statement. So,
x=−2  is an extraneous solution.

X=  = 3 does check in the original equation and is therefore the only

solution.
Practice: Solving Radical Equations

Now you try. Answer the questions. Choose Reveal Answer to check your work.
Solve the radical equation: 
Conclude that x = 3 or x = 7.
x = 7 is extraneous since it does not check in the original equation. The
only solution is x = 3.

Long Division and Synthetic Division

Old Concept, New Application

The long division algorithm used to divide whole numbers is the model used to divide
polynomials. Consider this problem, for example.

The activity walks through the steps of dividing polynomials with long division.

Synthetic Division

After working a few of these long-division problems,

you may find yourself thinking that all those x's seem
redundant. Surely there must be a more efficient
process, right? Right!

This new process is called synthetic division It allows

you to divide a polynomial of any degree by a linear
binomial — of the form (x−a) using only
coefficients and no variables.
This is not a "fake" process, as you might have assumed, based on a common definition
of the word synthetic.

Rather, this is just a quick, efficient procedure that accomplishes the same result as long
division, but takes much less time and space.

Practice: Long Division and Synthetic Division

Try these problems. Answer the questions. Choose Reveal Answer to check your work.

1.

2.

3.