INTRODUCTION Module 1

(Definition, sources, classification and characterization of air pollutants, effects of air pollution on health,

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vegetation & materials, types of inversion, photochemical smog)

Air is the homogeneous mixture of gaseous substances like nitrogen, oxygen and smaller amounts of other
substances, in the earth’s atmosphere. Clean and dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen and 20.94% oxygen. The
remaining 0.97% is composed of a gaseous mixture of carbon dioxide, helium, argon, krypton, xenon, as

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well as very small amounts of some other organic and inorganic gases whose amount in the atmosphere vary
with time and place. Such substances enter in to the atmosphere in various quantities from both natural and
human activities. Some of these substances which interact with environment to cause toxicity, disease,

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aesthetic distress, physiological effects or environmental decay, have been labelled as ‘Pollutants’.

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Definition of Air pollution

Air pollution is basically the presence of foreign substances in air. Some specific definitions are given below.
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Engineer’s joint council of USA defines air pollution as “Presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or
more contaminants, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke, or vapour, in quantities, with
characteristics, and of durations such as to be injurious to human, plant or animal life or to property, or
which unreasonably interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property.”
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According to bureau of Indian standards, IS-4167(1966), “Air pollution is the presence in ambient
atmosphere of substances, generally resulting from the activity of man, in sufficient concentration, present
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for a sufficient time and under circumstances which interfere significantly with the comfort, health or
welfare of persons or with the full use or enjoyment of property.”

According to the American medical association, “Air pollution is the excessive concentration of foreign
matter in the air which adversely affects the well being of the individual or causes damage to the property.”

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 1
Identification of Air pollution
The Air pollution in the surroundings can be identified by following three methods.
1. Sensory recognition
Basically, Sensory perception may provide the first indication of the presence of contaminants in the air.
At first, an air pollution problem is identified through effects on the individuals. These are
a) Strong or unusual odours

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b) Reduction in visibility
c) Eye irritation
d) Acid taste in the mouth
e) Feel of grit under foot
These effects are highly subjective phenomena and vary from one to the others

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2. Physical measurement of pollution
It is often not possible to detect trace quantities of many air-borne toxic substances or the presence of
radioactive matter through the senses. Their identification requires physical measurement by standard
methods of sampling and analysis.

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3. Effects on plants, animals and buildings
Plants, animals and buildings act to some extent as indicators of certain atmospheric impurities. Effects
of air pollution can be observed on the growth of plants and health of animals. Similarly its adverse
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effect on buildings can also be observed.

Classification of Air pollutants

Air pollutants can be classified as follows,
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1. Natural contaminants (e.g., natural fog, pollen grains, bacteria, and products of volcanic eruptions)
2. Aerosols (Particulates) (e.g., dust, smoke, mists, fog and fumes)
3. Gases and vapours
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1. Natural contaminants
The first and foremost source of air pollution is nature itself. Some naturally produced contaminants are
also there to pollute the air. The quantities of artificial pollutants released into the atmosphere are very less
compared to the quantities of natural pollutants. However, large the natural pollutants may be they are
evenly distributed over the entire globe whereas the artificial pollutants are concentrated only in highly
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industrialised and urbanised areas.

Among those pollen is important because of its strange properties irritating to some people. Pollen grains
(usually 10 to 50µ and also 5 to 100µ) are the male gametophytes of gymnosperms and angiosperms and
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they are discharged into the atmosphere from weeds, grasses and trees. Because of wind pollination,
thousands of pollen grains are liberated. These produce allergic problems in sensitive people. Many people
suffer from asthma or hay fever, bronchitis, dermatitis.
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The water vapours present in the atmosphere cause isnophelia, asthma and other respiratory problems and
bring electrical storms.
Temperature which decreases with elevation, intensifies the chemical actions of various other air pollutants
on materials. Being the main meteorological factor it plays vital role in controlling the concentrations of
pollutants in atmosphere.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 2
Usually salt particles are emanated from the sea. These sea sprays are highly corrosive, as a result structures
in the coastal areas have less life. In addition, the abrasive action of sea breezes damage the building
materials and art treasures.

2. Aerosols
It is a colloidal system in which finely divided solid or liquid particles of microscopic size suspended
and dispersed in a gas (i.e., dispersion medium) or in atmosphere as in the case of dust, mist, fog, haze or

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smoke. The term Aerosol is used only when the particle is suspended in the air. The term no longer be used
once the particle settles down on a solid or liquid surface. Thus that particle is an air pollutant only when it
is an aerosol. However it is a nuisance both as an aerosol (visibility reduction) and as settled or deposited
matter (soiling of surfaces, corrosion). Sizes of aerosol in the atmosphere range from 0.01µ to 100µ.

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Dusts
These are small solid particles generated by crushing, grinding, blasting, processing or handling of organic or
inorganic materials such as coal, cement or grains. Their size ranges from 1 to 200µ. They remain

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temporarily in suspension and do not diffuse but they settle down by the action of gravity. Most of the dusts
settle on the ground as dust-fall but particles less than 5µ in size become stable substances in the
atmosphere.

Smoke
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Smoke consists of finely divided particles produced by incomplete combustion of fuels. It mainly consists of
carbon and other combustible material. Generally the size of the particles is less than 1µ. The size of the
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coal smoke particles range from 0.2-0.01µ and oil smoke particles from 1.0-0.03µ.

Mists
Mist means a light dispersion (low concentration dispersion) of minute water droplets suspended in the
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atmosphere. Natural mist particles formed from water vapour in the atmosphere range from 500 – 40µ in
size. The term mist usually applied to water droplets in air where visibility is more than 1 km.

Fog
Fog is a visible aerosol consisting of minute water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air (i.e., dispersed
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phase is liquid) at or near the earth’s crust. Fog implies reduction of visibility to less than 1 km. Size of the
particles in natural fog ranges from 40 – 1.0µ. Fog can be considered a type of low-lying cloud and is heavily
influenced by nearby water bodies, topography and wind conditions.
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Fumes
These are very fine solid or liquid particles, 0.001 to 1µ in diameter. Often, they are metallic oxides like zinc
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oxide and lead oxide, formed by the condensation of vapours of solid materials. They are formed by
sublimation, distillation, calcinations or molten metal processes. They may flocculate, coalesce and settle out.
The word fumes is commonly used to imply unpleasant and smelling airborne effluents.

Smog
Fog intensified by smoke is called smog. It is the term derived from smoke and fog (Smoke + Fog = Smog).

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 3
This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, ozone, smoke or dirt
particles and also less visible particles such as CFC’s. Human made smog is derived from coal emissions,
vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these
emissions.

3. Gases
Sulphur Dioxide

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The oxides of sulphur (SO2 or SO3) are principal constituents of air pollution. SO2 is a colourless gas, non
flammable and non explosive. SO2 has a suffocating odour. It is moderately soluble in water forming weak-
acidic sulphurous acid (H2SO3). It is oxidized slowly in clean air to sulphur trioxide (SO3). In a polluted
atmosphere, SO2 reacts photochemically and catalytically with other pollutants at normal atmospheric
temperatures to form SO3, H2SO4 and salts of H2SO4.

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Sources: The main source of sulphur dioxide is the combustion of fuels, especially coal. Therefore its
concentration in the atmosphere depends upon the sulphur content of the fuel used for heating and power
generation. The other sources of SO2 are boilers, ore processing, roasting and heating of non-metallic
minerals, sulphuric acid plants, fertilizer manufacturing, plastics, paints and varnish manufacturing,

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oxidation towers, volcanoes, oceans and biological decay by sulphide bacteria.
Effects: SO2, is an irritant gas, when inhaled, affects our mucous membranes, causes irritation of respiratory
tract. It causes effects on breathing rate and oxygen deficit in the body leading to bronchial-spasms. SO2 is
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responsible for acidity in fogs, smokes and in rains. SO2 causes interveinal chlorotic bleaching of leaves,
necrosis in interveinal areas and skeletonised leaves. SO2 is the major pollutant which is responsible for
corrosion and deterioration of different materials.
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Oxides of Nitrogen
Out of seven oxides of nitrogen (N2O, NO, NO2, NO3, N203, N2O4, N2O5) only nitric oxide (NO) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) arise from many human activities and are classified as pollutants. In atmospheric
analysis they are usually reported as NOx. N2O (nitrous oxide) is a colourless , odourless, non toxic gas
present in the natural atmosphere.
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Sources: Sources of NOx production and emission are fuel combustion from both stationary and mobile
sources, heating of no-metallic minerals, processing of cement, glass refractories, Lightning and electrical
storms, bacterial action in soil, fossil fuels, biomass burning etc. Major source of N 2O in the atmosphere is
the biological activity of the soil and there are no anthropogenic sources.
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NO (Nitric oxide) is a colourless, odourless gas produced largely by fuel combustion. It is oxidized to NO2
through photochemical – secondary reactions. NO2 is a reddish brown gas with irritating odour. It absorbs
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sunlight and initiates a series of photo chemical reactions. NO 2 is emitted by fuel combustion and nitric acid
plants.
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Effects: NO at low levels relatively harmless, but high concentrations cause asphyxiation and respiratory
discomfort. NO2 causes eye and nasal irritation. Long time exposure to larger concentrations of NO 2 may
cause emphysema, increased susceptibility to pneumonia, lung cancer and even death.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 4
 Asphyxiation – The loss of consciousness due to the interruption of breathing. The loss of
consciousness due to the extreme decrease in the concentration of oxygen in the body, because NO
combines about 3lakh times faster with haemoglobin than oxygen.

Emphysema – swelling due to air in body tissues.

Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a colourless gas, odourless gas, has its origin in the incomplete combustion of

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carbonaceous materials. It is a toxic gas, chemically inert under normal conditions.
Sources: The chief source of CO in the atmosphere is combustion. Vehicular exhausts are the largest
source of CO as the number of vehicles have increased around the world. Certain industrial operations, such
as electric and blast furnaces, some petroleum refining operations, gas manufacturing plants, and coal mines
are potential contributors of CO to the atmosphere.

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Effects: CO reacts with the haemoglobin (Hb) of blood to give carboxy haemoglobin (COHb). This reduces
the capability of blood to carry oxygen. CO inhalation causes headache, dizziness, nausea, abnormal heart
beat, difficulty in breathing. At higher levels of CO, if the half of the haemoglobin is used in forming the
COHb, death occurs.

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Hydrogen sulphide
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a foul smelling gas. It is evolved naturally due to anaerobic biological decay
processes on land, in marshes and oceans.
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Sources: Major source of H2S is Kraft pulp industry as it uses sulphide process for manufacturing of paper.
Other sources of H2S are petroleum refineries, coke-oven plants, viscouse rayon plants, industrial waste
disposal ponds, sewage treatment plants and some chemical operations.
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Effects: Even at low concentrations, hydrogen sulphide causes headaches, conjuctivitis, sleeplessness, and
pain in the eyes. High concentrations can lead to blockage of O 2 transfer, act as cell and enzyme poison and
damage nerve tissues. Young plant tissues are easily damaged by H2S. Scorching of young roots is observed
when plants are exposed to H2S. It discolourates and tarnishes paints, copper, zinc and silver.
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Hydrogen fluoride
HF is a colourless and toxic gas, it is non-flammable having pungent smell and forms corrosive and
penetrating hydrofluoric acid upon contact with moisture.
Sources: The major sources of hydrogen fluoride are the manufacture of phosphate fertilisers, the
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aluminium industry, brick plants, pottery, and ferro-enamel works. Small amounts are also emitted from zinc
foundries, open hearth steel furnaces, burning of coal.
Effects: The exposed cattle and children can suffer from fluorosis. Causes irritation of eyes, nose and throat.
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HF gas can attach itself to particles in the air, which gets deposited on the surfaces and plants causing
corrosion of metallic surfaces and harmful effects on plant functioning.
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Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are the group of compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Nature releases
hydrocarbons from swamps, marshes and water bodies. ‘Methane’ known as natural gas evolved due to
anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. Hydrocarbons are washed out of the air when it rains and join
surface water bodies.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 5
Sources: HCs are evaporated into the atmosphere from petroleum supplies (petrol, diesel, etc), and emitted
out from the automobiles as unburnt remnants. HCs may also be contained in the smokes of incinerators
using petroleum fuels and also in the fumes of oil refineries.
Effects: HCs in higher concentration cause irritation of eyes, and respiratory tract, and atleast eight of them
have been responsible for causing chronic body cancers. HCs are responsible for formation of
photochemical smog.

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Aldehydes and Ketones may also be considered under hydrocarbons because they are formed by the
photochemical oxidation of hydrocarbons, as secondary pollutants, although they may also be released from
the automobiles and incinerators along with hydrocarbons. Aldehydes are produced by combustion of
gasoline, diesel oil, fuel oil and natural gas. Incomplete combustion of motor fuel and lubricating oils leads
to the formation of aldehydes. Substances like formaldehydes cause irritation of eyes, skins and lungs, and

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hence quite injurious to health.

Ozone
Ozone is a colourless gas. Ozone is poisonous and odorous at ground levels. It exists in great abundance

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under natural conditions in the upper atmosphere, it is known as ozone blanket or ozone layer. It does not
allow the dangerous incoming UV rays.
Sources: The origin of the ozone at ground level has not been yet clarified, but it is likely that combustion
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and sunlight are involved in its production. It is a secondary pollutant, created by chemical reactions
between oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight.
Effects: Breathing of ozone can trigger a variety of health problems including chest pain, coughing, throat
irritation and congestion. It can worsen bronchitis and asthma. Ozone at ground level interferes with the
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ability of sensitive plants to produce and store food. It damages leaves of the plants, negatively impacting
the appearance of urban vegetation (decorative plants in the urban cities).

Primary and secondary air pollutants

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Air pollutants can also be classified as primary and secondary air pollutants based upon their origin.
Primary air pollutants are those emitted directly into the atmosphere from identifiable (and definite)
sources. Important primary pollutants are,
1) Particulate matter: Coarse particles (>100µ) and finer particles (<100µ) including particles of metal,
carbon, tar, resin, pollen, bacteria etc.
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2) Sulphur compounds
3) Oxides of nitrogen
4) Carbon monoxide
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5) Halogen compounds
6) Organic compounds
7) Radioactive compounds
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Secondary air pollutants are those which are produced in the air by the interaction among two or more
primary pollutants, or by reaction with normal atmospheric constituents like sunlight, water vapour etc.,
with or without photoactivation. Important secondary air pollutants are,
1) Ozone
2) Formaldehyde

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 6
 3) PAN (Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate)
4) Photochemical smog
5) Formation of acid mists (SO2+Moisture = H2SO4)

Stationary and mobile sources

Sources of air pollution are categorised as stationary and mobile sources based on the position of the

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sources. Stationary sources are the sources of air pollutants which are located at a fixed place.
Mobile sources are the sources of air pollutants which are mobile or non-stationary, which are not located at
any fixed place.
Another method of classifying emission sources is by
1) Point sources - Large stationary sources
2) Line sources - mobile sources with definite routes

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3) Area sources - small stationary sources and mobile sources with indefinite routes

Total sources

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Stationary sources Mobile sources
Point sources Area sources Line sources Area sources
Motor vehicles – light,
Industrial processing Domestic burning Highway lines
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Power plants Open burning Trains Railyard locomotives
Solid waste disposal –
Evaporative losses Channel vessels Port vessels
municipal incinerators
- - - Aircrafts (airports)
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Sources of Air Pollution
No. Class Aerosols Gases and Vapours
Combustion processes (Domestic
Burning, thermal power plants, Dust, fumes, SO2, NO2, CO, organic vapours,
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cars, trucks, aeroplanes, railways smoke odours

and also refuse burning)
Chemical processes (Paper mills, Dust, fume, Process-dependent (SO2, NO2, CO,
2
cement, fertilisers etc.) mist NH3, NO2, organic vapours, odours)
SO2, H2S , NH3 , CO, hydrocarbons,
3 Petroleum operations Dust, mist
mercaptans
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Metallurgical Processes
4 Dust, fume SO2, CO, fluorides, organic vapours
(Aluminium refineries, Steel plants)
Process dependent (SO2, CO,
5 Mineral processing Dust, fume
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fluorides, organic vapours)

6 Food and feed operations Dust, mist Odourous materials
Agricultural activities Organic phosphates, chlorinated
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7 1. Crop spraying Dust, mist hydrocarbons, sulphur oxides, organic

2. Field burning Smoke, Fly ash vapours
Nuclear energy programmes Flourides
1. Fuel fabrication Iodine-131 and Argon-41
8 Dust
2. Ore preparation Radioactive gases (Sr-90, Cs-137, C-14,
3. Bomb explosion etc.)

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 7
Effects of air pollution on human health
All the impurities in the inhaled air do not necessarily cause harm. It affects human health depending upon
the following prime factors.
1. Nature of the pollutants
2. Concentration of the pollutants
3. Duration of exposure

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4. State of health of the receptor
5. Age group of the receptor
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Effects of air pollution on human health occur after the contact of air pollutants with the body. Generally
bodily contact occurs at the surface of skin and exposed membranes. Pollutants may cause irritation of the

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membranes of the eyes, nose, throat, larynx, tracheo-bronchial tree and lungs. Contact with exposed
membranous surface is most important because of their high absorptive capacity as compared to the skin.
Some pollutants even reach the mucosa of the digestive tract.
Respiratory system is affected more than any part of the body because basic function of the respiratory

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system involves inhaling oxygen present in the air and exhaling CO 2. Pollutants enter the body through
respiratory system consisting of nasal and oral cavity, trachea, bronchial trees and lungs. At the entrance to
the lungs, the trachea divides in to two bronchial trees. At the end of the bronchioles, there is large
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collection of tiny sacs called alveoli. It is across alveolar membranes that oxygen diffuses from the air in the
sacs to the pulmonary capillaries and CO2 diffuses in the opposite direction.
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Health effects
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1. Eye irritation.
2. Nose and throat irritation
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3. Irritation of the respiratory tract

4. Gases like hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), mercaptans cause odour nuisance even at low
concentrations.
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5. Increase in the mortality rate and morbidity rate.

6. A variety of particulates like pollens, initiate asthmatic attacks.
7. Chronic pulmonary diseases like bronchitis and asthma are aggravated by a high concentration of SO 2,
NO2, particulate matter and photochemical smog.
8. CO combines with the haemoglobin in the blood and consequently increases stress on those suffering
from cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 8
9. Hydrogen fluoride causes diseases of the bone (fluorosis) and mottling of teeth.
10. Carcinogenic agents cause cancer.
11. Dust particles cause respiratory diseases. Diseases like silicosis, asbestosis etc, are caused from specific
dusts.
12. Certain heavy metals like lead may enter the body through the lungs and cause poisoning.
13. The biological effect of radiation may be somatic or genetic damage. Radioactive fallout causes cancer,
shortening of life span and genetic effects or mutation.

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Effects induced in man by toxic substances
Skin Altered appearance, irritation, sensitization, corrosion
Eye Irritation, corneal opacity, retinal damage, cataract
Irritation, sensitization, pneumoconiosis, fibrosis,

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Lung adenoma, carcinoma, neoplasis, mesothelemia,
asphyxiation
Germ cell mutation, embryotoxicity, teratogenesis
Reproductive
infertility, abortion, malformation of foetus, neonatal
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death, developmental defects
Behavioural changes, peripheral neuropathy, mental
Nervous system depression, ataxia, narcosis, parkinsonism, stupor,
vomiting and drowsiness
Immune system
Musculoskeletal
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Suppression, modulation
Osteoporosis, dystrophy
system
Bone marrow depression, leukemia, aplastic anemia,
Hemopolisis
methamoglobinamia
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Liver MFO induction, neoplasis, cirrhosis, necrosis
Kidney Uremia, lithiasis, aminoacidurea

Susceptibility to the effects of air pollution is more in case of infants (pre-school and school children) and
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also elder people and those who are suffering from diseases. Those people with chronic diseases of lungs
and heart are thought to be at great risk. The effect of air pollution on human health is worst during the
winter seasons, when pollution levels reach a maximum.

Effects of air pollution on vegetation

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Air pollution has a damaging effect on plants also. The effect of air pollutants on vegetation depends upon
their chemical nature, level of concentration and duration of exposure. The most obvious damage caused by
air pollutants to vegetation occurs in leaf structure. A cross section of a leaf shows four principal layers, the
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upper epidermal cells, the palisade parenchyma, the spongy parenchyma and the lower epidermal cells. The
surface of the leaf is covered by a waxy layer known as cuticle. Between the waxy layers, epidermis is
present, which is a single layer of cells forming the surface skin of the leaf. The leaf surface has a large
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number of openings called stomata, which are bounded by guard cells which also control the opening and
closing of stomata to allow gases to enter or leave the leaf. Such gases ofcourse include pollutants which
cause damage to the leaf in many forms.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 9
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Damage to the leaves takes place in several forms.
1. Necrosis – It is the killing or collapse of tissue. Tissue injured by phytotoxicants often has a

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characteristic colour. For example, bleaching is associated with SO2, yellowing with NH3, browning with
fluoride and silvering or bronzing of under surfaces of some leaves with PAN.
2. Chlorosis – It is the loss or reduction of the green plant pigment, chlorophyll. The loss of chlorophyll
usually results in pale green or yellow patterns. Chlorosis generally indicates a deficiency of some

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nutrients required by the plant.
3. Abscission – Leaf abscission is dropping of leaves.
4. Epinasty – Leaf epinasty is a downward curvature of the leaf due to higher rate of growth on the upper
surface.
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5. Pigmented lesions – may result with dark brown, black, purple or red spots appearing on the leaf
surface.
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Air pollutants affecting plants
1. Sulphur dioxide
2. Fluoride compounds (like HF)
3. Ozone
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4. Hydrogen chloride
5. Nitrogen oxides ( NO, NO2 etc.)
6. Ammonia
7. Hydrogen sulphide
8. Hydrogen cyanide
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9. Mercury
10. Ethylene
11. PAN
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12. Herbicides (sprays of weed killers)

13. Smog
Effect of some specific air pollutants on plants
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Pollutant Dose Effect

1. Sulphur dioxide Mild Interveinal chlorotic bleaching of leaves
Necrosis in interveinal areas and skeletonised
sever
leaves
Flecks on upper surfaces, premature aging and
2. Ozone (O3) Mild
suppressed growth

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 10
 sever Collapse of leaf, necrosis and bleaching
3. Fluorides Cumulative effect Necrosis at leaf tip
4. nitrogen dioxide mild Suppressed growth, leaf bleaching
5. ethylene (CH2) mild Epinasty, leaf abscission
Bronzing of lower leaf surface, suppressed
6. PAN mild
growth. Young leaves are more susceptible.
The epidermis and mesophyll of plants will be
0.10 ppm for at

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7. Chlorine (Cl2) affected by bleaching between veins, tip and
least 2 hours
margin burn and leaf abscission.
8. Hydrogen chloride 50 ppm Browning of tips of grasses
5 ppm Interveinal bronzing of tomato leaves
Leaf burning of broad leaf plants, bleaching and
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necrosis
Greenhouse crops and floral parts of all

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9. Mercury (Hg) - vegetation are affected; abscission and growth
reduction occur in most of the plants
Defoliation, dwarfing, curling, twisting, growth

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10. Pesticides and reduction and killing of plants may occur. If
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herbicides necessary precautions are not taken taste and
flavour of plants and cotton also are affected.
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11. Particulates - and interferes with photosynthesis due to plugging
of leaf stomata and blocking of light.

Kinds of injury to plants

Acute injury –
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It results from short time exposure to relatively high concentrations. The effects are noted within a few
hours to a few days and may result in visible markings on the leaves due to a collapse or death of cells. This
leads to necrotic patterns i.e., areas of dead tissues.
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Chronic injury –
It results from long-term low level exposure and usually causes chlorosis or leaf abscission.

Growth or yield retardation –

Here the injury is in the form of an effect on growth without visible markings (invisible injury). Usually a
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suppression of growth or yield occurs.

Effects of air pollution on materials

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Air pollution damage to the property is a very important economic aspect of pollution. Air pollution damage
to property covers a wide range – corrosion of metals, soiling and eroding of building surfaces, fading of
dyed materials, rubber cracking. Following are the processes which account for the effects of air pollution
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on materials.

Mechanism of deterioration by air pollutants

1. Abrasion: solid particles of considerable size travelling with higher speeds can cause abrasive action.
Large sharp edged particles embedded in fabrics can accelerate wear.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 11
2. Chemical action: Some pollutants react directly and irreversibly with materials to cause deterioration.
SO2 bleaches marble, hydrogen sulphide tarnishes silver and acidic mists cause etching of metallic
surfaces.
3. Absorption (Indirect chemical action) – Some materials absorb pollutants and get damaged when the
pollutants undergo chemical action. SO2 absorbed by leather will be converted to sulphuric acid which
deteriorates the leather.
4. Corrosion: Action of air pollutants in the presence of moisture causes corrosion. The atmospheric

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deterioration of ferrous metal is due to corrosion by an electrochemical process.
5. Deposition and removal: Solid and liquid particles deposited on a surface may damage the material by
spoiling its appearance. The removal of these particles may cause deterioration as in the case of washing
of soiled clothes i.e., it needs rough rubbing action to clean the clothes which spoils its appearance.

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Factors influencing the effect on materials
1. Temperature affects the rate of a chemical reaction and consequently it affects the rate of deterioration.
Most of the chemical reactions are accelerated at higher temperatures.

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2. The presence of moisture in the atmosphere greatly helps in the process of corrosion. Without
moisture in the atmosphere, there would be little atmospheric corrosion, if any, even in the most
severely polluted environments. Rate of corrosion of metals will increase as the relative humidity
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(moisture) in the air increases.
3. Sunlight may directly damage materials as in case of fading of dyes and cracking of rubber. Moisture
present on the materials becomes the host of several organisms like algae and fungi in the presence of
light. Sunlight is indirectly responsible for damage of materials as many secondary pollutants like PAN
and O3 are formed in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight.
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4. Precipitation in the form of fog may fill the pores of materials, especially building materials and later
may freeze and expand. Due to this or due to alternate wetting and drying, the materials may be
damaged.
5. Wind direction plays a very important role as it drives the air pollutants from the sources. Damage to
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the crops in the vicinity of the factories is caused by air movement only. Wind speed is also an
important factor in determining the impact of air pollutants on materials pollutants present in the wind
travelling at high speeds will cause more abrasive effects.
6. Stability of atmosphere- In highly stable atmospheres pollutant dispersion is restricted, leading to very
high ground level concentrations. Unstable atmospheres are favourable for dispersion, causing less
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damage to the materials.

7. Concentration and duration- Material damage is directly related to concentration of the pollutants
and exposure time. For example, the effect of 260µg/m3 of particulates on a material for 24hours may
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be the same as the effect of 75µg/m3 for one year. Usually the concentration of pollutants changes
from time to time depending upon the meteorological conditions.
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 12
 Effect of Air Pollutants on Materials
Sl. Influencing
Material Air Pollutants Effects
No. Parameter
Metals and Tarnishing of surfaces, corrosion of
SO2, NO2,
alloys Moisture and metals
acid gases.
temperature

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Cl2, H2S,
Particulates H2S tarnishes silver.
Chromium,
1 Silver
HCl

Etching of surfaces by acid mists,

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Etching of glass by H2S,
Ferrous metals, loss of metal and loss of strength
SO2, acids,
zinc, aluminium, Moisture due to reaction of acids formed by
CO2, NOx, P

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copper and glass SOx, CO2, phosphorous etc.
Building Moisture, Soiling discolouration and damage
SO2, acids &
materials wind, sea due to abrasion, alternate wetting
gases pa sprays and and drying.
oily particles

Bricks and Deterioration by carbonic acid

CO2
stones formed due to (CO2 + moisture)
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2
Limestone, sand Indirect chemical action,
stone, marble, Moisture Formation of loose surfaces that
SOx, NOx
roofing slate, flake off.
mortar, statues.
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Softening;
Wood, fibre Moisture and stress corrosion of carbon steel due
glass, rubber, temperature to NH3.
NH3
PVC.
Soiling, reduction in life due to
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SO2, acids,
abrasive action during washing,
gases,
Loss of tensile strength in cotton
O3, NO2, NH3,
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Moisture and curtains and nylon drapes, oxidation

3 Textiles
sunlight of dyes turing white fabrics into
yellow.
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chromium, iron
Staining due to formation of their
and manganese
oxides.
SO3, H2S and Microbial attack on organic
Paints and particulates, Moisture, constituents of paints,
4
warnishes Iron, NH3, Cl2, fungus, discolouration, deposition of
chromium, particulate matter.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 13
 microorganisms
SO2, acidic Embrittlement and discolouration,
5 Paper gases, Sunlight Decrease in folding resistance of the
Chromium paper.
Cracking of rubber by O3 attack,
Plastics,
Oxidants like Sunlight, Decrease in molecular weight and
elastomers
6 O3, NH3, NO2, weather increase in rigidity of polymers
(rubbers), tyres,

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PAN inversions making them more brittle and less
insulators
resilient.
Backery and
Biological Saprophytic bacteria and fungi cause
7 other food Moisture
aerosols food spoilation
products
Leather SO2, Temperature, Embrittlement,
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products microorganisms humidity Bacteriological degradation

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Photochemical smog
It was first observed in Los angeles, USA in 1940s and now has been detected as a common phenomenon
in most of the metropolitan cities. Photochemical air pollution occurs in highly motorized areas and when
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inversion conditions occur in the atmosphere. The formation of photochemical smog is due to action of
sunlight on the two pollutants- Hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen. The major source of these two
pollutants is the exhaust gases from automobiles. The conditions for the formation of photochemical smog
are air stagnation, abundant sunlight and high concentrations of hydrocarbons and NO x in the atmosphere.
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Due to complex photochemical reactions secondary pollutants such as ozone, aldehydes, ketones and PAN
are formed.

It has been found that photochemical smog normally occurs in the morning and evening time.
The conditions which prevail for this are lower temperatures in the morning and evening,
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presence of sunlight, occurrence of natural fog in the morning and evening.

It has been found that at the time of photochemical smog formation, there is a considerable
increase in the amounts of ozone in the atmosphere. But the ozone is not found in appreciable
amounts at night, but only during the day. These facts clearly indicate formation of
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photochemical smog takes place due to the action of sunlight.

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In the beginning, light energy is absorbed by NO2. The highly energized molecule (NO2*) then decomposes
into nitric oxide and atomic oxygen. The atomic oxygen reacts quickly with molecular oxygen to form
ozone. A stable ozone molecule is formed when a third body (X) is present otherwise ozone decomposes
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rapidly. If nitric oxide is present, it reacts with ozone to form NO 2 and an oxygen molecule.

𝑁𝑂2 + ℎ𝑣 → 𝑁𝑂∗ 2

𝑁𝑂∗ 2 → 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 14
 𝑂 + 𝑂2 + 𝑋 → 𝑂3 + 𝑋

𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑂 → 𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑂2

If ozone is present in excess, then

2𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑂3 → 𝑁2 𝑂5 + 𝑂2

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In presence of water vapour,

𝑁2 𝑂5 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐻𝑁𝑂3

Ozone may be formed in the atmosphere as a byproduct during the photochemical oxidation of sulphur

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dioxide to sulphuric acid. The reaction takes place as follows,

𝑆𝑂2 + ℎ𝑣 → 𝑆𝑂∗ 2

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𝑆𝑂∗ 2 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂4

𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂3 + 𝑂3
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𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

Further in the presence of certain hydrocarbons, other reactions take place. Some of the atomic oxygen,
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ozone and nitric oxide react with hydrocarbons to form a variety of compounds.

𝑅𝐶𝑂 ∗ + 𝑂2 → 𝑅𝐶𝑂3 ∗

𝑅𝐶𝑂3 ∗ + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑠 → 𝑅𝐶𝐻𝑂 (𝐴𝑙𝑑𝑒ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑒𝑠), 𝑅2 𝐶 = 𝑂 (𝐾𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠)

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𝑅𝐶𝑂3 ∗ + 𝑁𝑂 → 𝑅𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑁𝑂2

𝑅𝐶𝑂3 ∗ + 𝑂2 → 𝑂3 + 𝑅𝐶𝑂2
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𝑅𝐶𝑂3 ∗ + 𝑁𝑂2 → 𝑅𝐶𝑂3 𝑁𝑂2 (𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑦 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠)

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With the other reactions, 𝑅𝐶𝑂3 𝑁𝑂2 may be

CH3 (CO)O2 NO2 – Peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN)

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H (CO)O2 NO2 – Peroxy formyl nitrate (PFN)

C6H5 (CO)O2 NO2 – Peroxy benzyl nitrate (PBzN)

In presence of sunlight aldehydes produce organic free radicals.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 15
Effects of Photochemical smog

1. The compounds of formaldehyde, acrolein, PAN, and PBzN are highly irritant to eyes.
2. O3, NO2, PAN present in the photochemical smog cause necrosis and silvering or bronzing of the
upper side of the leaves. Vegetation is badly affected by photochemical smog.
3. Carbon, sulphur and halides present in the smog cause visibility problems. The usual size of the
aerosols present is about 0.3 µ.

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4. Ozone present in the smog is responsible for cracking of rubber, if anti-ozonants are not used in
production of rubber materials.
5. Fading of dyes is also another important economic effect of photochemical smog.

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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 16
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 17
 METEOROLOGY
(Temperature lapse rate & stability, wind velocity & turbulence, plume behaviour, measurement of
Module 2

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meteorological variables, wind rose diagrams, plume rise, estimation of effective stack height and mixing
depths. Development of air quality models – Gaussian dispersion model)

2.1 Structure of the atmosphere

The gaseous layer surrounding the earth up to a height of about 700km is called atmosphere. As we go
higher and higher, the characteristics and composition of the atmosphere changes. On the basis of altitude,
the atmosphere is divided into 4 important spheres and 3 pauses. They are 1. Troposphere with tropopause

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2. Stratosphere with stratopause 3. Mesosphere with mesopause and Ionosphere or thermosphere. The
different zones of the atmosphere with variations in temperature and pressure are shown in figures below.

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Troposphere: this is the lowest gaseous layer of the atmosphere and extends to a height about 10 to 20km
from the earth’s surface. It contains nearly 2/3rd mass of the atmosphere and this is the zone of rapid
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weather changes and clouds. In this region, temperature decreases with increase in altitude. The higher we
go, cooler it is.
Tropopause joins the troposphere with the upper stratosphere.
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Stratosphere: it is a 30km thick layer that lies above the tropopause. This layer is free from violent weather
changes. In the stratosphere, temperature rises as the altitude increases. This is due to the presence of ozone
layer at a height of 25-30km above the earth’s surface. Ozone absorbs the UV radiation from the sun and
converts it into heat and chemical energy. Due to this temperature rises significantly.
Stratopause joins the stratosphere with the upper mesopause.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 1
Mesosphere: it is a relatively quite region where few energy releasing reactions occur. Here again the
temperature decreases with the altitude. This layer and zones above have no significance in the air pollution
studies.
Ionosphere: it is also known as thermosphere because of the very high temperatures – as much as 870 ºC
to 1430 ºC. almost all the atoms in this region are ionised. Large number of free electrons flash about in this
area. It is the highest and vastest zone of the atmosphere starting from 115km above the earth up to 700km.
The region above 700km is termed as exosphere and as yet very little known about it. It is believed to be a

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low-density, high temperature region.

2.2 Meteorology and Air Pollution

Air pollutants emitted from a source must first be transported and diluted in the atmosphere before these
undergo various physical, photochemical transformations and at last reach their receptors. Otherwise, the
pollutant concentrations reach dangerous levels near the source of emission. Hence, it is important that to
understand the natural processes that are responsible for their dispersion. Effective dispersion of pollutants

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in the atmosphere depends primarily on the degree of stability of the atmosphere and on its turbulent
structure. In the broadest sense, dispersion is controlled by meteorological conditions prevailing in the
atmosphere. Thus, even if the emissions are same in different places, it is the weather that can lead it to an

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air pollution episode in a place.
The important meteorological parameters that influence air pollution can be classified into primary and
secondary parameters.
Primary parameters are, pa
1. Wind direction, speed and turbulence
2. Temperature
3. Atmospheric stability
4. Mixing height
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Secondary parameters are,
1. Precipitation
2. Humidity
3. Solar radiation
4. Visibility
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2.2.1 Wind Direction, Speed and Turbulence

The moving air is known as wind. Such a movement in the air is caused by the unequal distribution of
atmospheric temperature and pressure over the earth’s surface and is largely influenced by the rotation of
the earth. The direction of winds is always from higher pressure areas to low pressure areas. Regional and
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local, geographical and topographical features may also affect the direction and speed of the winds.
The direction and speed of the surface winds govern the drift and diffusion of air pollutants discharged
near the ground level. The higher the wind speed at or near the point of discharge of pollution, the more
rapidly are the pollutants carried far away from the source. The pollutants so dispersed will not exist at the
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same concentration but will rapidly be diluted with greater and greater volumes of air. On the other hand,
when wind speeds are low, pollutants tend to be concentrated near the area of discharge and longer the
periods of such light winds, greater will be the concentration of pollutants.
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Differential solar heating of the earth’s surface produces pressure and temperature gradients. As a result, the
atmosphere is practically in continuous motion with air movement, being always turbulent. The motion of
the air near the earth’s surface is retarded by friction which varies with surface roughness. Again this adds
up some amount of the turbulence in it. This friction can affect the wind up to 1 km above the surface (in
planetary boundary layer).

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 2
It is also influenced by time of the day. During the day time, solar heating causes thermal turbulence, it
sets up convective currents because of which turbulent mixing is increased. This results in a steeper
velocity profile in the day than that at night. The typical velocity profiles are shown in the figure. Thermal
turbulence also depends upon the thermal stability of the atmosphere. It is maximum on a clear sunny day
in the afternoon and minimum at night or in the early morning.

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The second type of turbulence is the mechanical turbulence which is produced by shearing stress
generated by air movement over the earth’s surface – the greater the surface roughness, the greater will be
the turbulence. The effect of terrain on the wind velocity profiles is shown in the figure. For smooth
surfaces, the air velocity profile becomes very steep near the ground. For rougher surfaces such as those in
urban areas, more mechanical turbulence is generated and the velocity profile becomes less steep and
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reaches deeper into the atmosphere.
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 3
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2.2.2 Temperature Lapse Rate and Atmospheric Stability
In the troposphere, the temperature of the ambient (surrounding) air normally decreases with an increase in
the altitude (height). This rate of change of temperature with altitude is called Lapse rate. This rate will

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differ from place to place, and from time to time even at the same place.
“The normal rate of decrease of temperature with altitude in the stationary atmosphere at a given time and
location is called as Environmental Lapse rate (ELR) (Normal or natural)”. That is the natural change in
temperature of the local environment at different heights. In the troposphere, the value of normal or

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environmental Lapse rate is averaged to about 6.5 ºC/km.
Under normal environmental conditions, when a parcel of air which is hotter and lighter than the
surrounding air is released, then naturally it tends to rise up, until of course, it reaches to a level at which its
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own temperature and density becomes equal to that of surrounding air. Hence, when a pocket of artificially
heated air (eg. from an industrial stack) is emitted in the environment, it rises up and expands in the broad
atmosphere and gets cooled without exchange of heat. The rate at which temperature of this parcel of air
decreases is somewhat different from natural lapse rate. This internal decrease of temperature with height
which occurs in the rising parcel of air, can be theoretically calculated, by assuming the cooling process to be
adiabatic. In other words, as the air parcel moves up its temperature decreases as its own heat energy is
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expanded due to increase in the volume of air parcel as shown in figure. This rate of decrease of
temperature with height is called adiabatic lapse rate (ALR). “Adiabatic lapse rate is the rate of change of
temperature of an air parcel as it moves upwards through the atmosphere rapidly”.
−dT
Mathematically, γ =
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dz

If the dry air is expanding and cooling adiabatically (normally cools @ 9.8 ºC/km), it is called as the Dry
adiabatic lapse rate (DALR). In saturated (wet) air, this rate is calculated to be 6 ºC/km, and is known as
Wet adiabatic lapse rate (WALR).
On a comparison, depending upon the relative positions of the ELR and DALR lines on the graph sheet,
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the stability of the environment is determined.

a) When ELR is greater than the DALR (For example, from the below figure, the ELR is 15 ºC/km and
DALR is 8 ºC/km), the lapse rate of the local atmosphere is said to be Super adiabatic lapse rate
(SALR). On a clear sunny day, rapid heating of the earth by the sun warms the air near the surface, to
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the point where lapse rate is super adiabatic. Under this condition the atmosphere is said to be in
unstable equilibrium, and vertical mixing of the air results. This is a condition in which pollutants are
dispersed rapidly.
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b) In reverse case, when ELR is less than the ALR, as shown in below figure, the environment is said to be
stable, and this lapse rate of the local atmosphere is called as Sub-adiabatic lapse rate.
c) The third case would be the one, when ELR equals the ALR, and both the lines coincide. The
environment in such a case is said Neutral (may be 1 ºC/km).

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 4
 Lapse- Gradual change
Adiabatic – A process occurring without the addition of outside heat or loss of its own internal
heat. (Not by exchanging)
Rapid condition means that the air parcel moves fast enough that there is no considerable
exchange of heat with the surrounding air.
The change in temperature is due to the fact that as you move upwards through the atmosphere,
the atmospheric pressure decreases, causing the air parcel to expand. Since this expansion is

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adiabatic, the wok required for expansion is taken from the internal energy of the air parcel,
causing it to cool down.

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Negative lapse rate or Inversion

In an unusual case, when the temperature of the environment (i.e., ambient air) increases with altitude, then
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the lapse rate becomes inverted or negative from its normal state. Negative lapse rate curve would be of the
type as shown in the below figure.
When the reverse or negative lapse rate occurs, a cold layer of the air at ground level gets covered by a
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warmer air layer at higher levels.

“A phenomenon in the atmosphere, when the reverse or negative lapse rate occurs, in which a dense cold
stratum of the air at ground level gets covered by a lighter warmer air at higher level is known as inversion.”
During inversion, vertical air movement is stopped and the pollutants will be concentrated beneath the
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inversion layer (i.e. the dispersion of pollutants is retarded). This condition of the atmosphere is said to be
stable as very little turbulence or mixing takes place. Inversion is a frequent occurrence in the autumn and
winter months.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 5
 During the inversion, the accumulation of smoke and other contaminants further increases the pollution
level by preventing the sun’s rays from warming the ground and the adjacent air. Fog is commonly
associated with inversions. At the time of inversions, visibility is greatly reduced and contaminants are at
a maximum.

Inversions may be of the following types,

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1) Radiation inversion
2) Subsidence inversion
3) Double inversion

Radiation inversion
This type of inversion usually occurs in the night as the earth loses its heat and cools the air layer which is in
contact with it. After sunset, the ground is cooled by losing its heat by radiation, thus the air in contact

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with it cools down. Then the cool air stratum is covered by the warmer air layer restricting the vertical
movement of the air. This formation will continue until the sun warms the lower air, next morning. If the air
is moist and its temperature is below the dew point, fog will be formed.

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Radiation inversion is more common in the winter season than in summer, because of longer nights. In the
valley area, this type of inversion occurs more frequently because of restriction in the horizontal air
movement by high level ground in the surrounding. In India, because of intense solar heating of the ground,
inversions are broken within few hours after sunrise. However, simultaneous occurrence of fog or mist
increases the duration of inversion by blocking the sunlight reaching the ground.
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Subsidence inversion
It is one of the most common types which occurs at modest altitudes and often remains for several days. It
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is caused by sinking or subsiding of air in anticyclones (high pressure areas surrounded by low pressure
areas). The air circulating around the area descends slowly at the rate of about 1000m per day. As the air
sinks, it is compressed and gets heated to form a warm layer hotter than the air present at ground level. This
acts as a lid which stops the upward movement of contaminants. The inversion height may vary from
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ground surface to 1600m. When this drops to less than 200m, extreme pollution occurs.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 6
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Double inversion
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Radiation and subsidence inversions both may occur simultaneously, some times. Such a phenomenon is
known as double inversion.
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2.2.3 Mixing Height or Maximum Mixing Depth (MMD)

The fourth primary meteorological parameter is the mixing height.
It is defined as, that height above the earth’s surface to which pollutants will rise in the atmosphere,
primarily by the action of atmospheric turbulence. It is importantly dependent upon the three factors: wind

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 7
direction, wind speed and wind turbulence. The vertical extent to which the mixing takes place varies
diurnally (from day to day), seasonally (from season to season), and it is also affected by topographical
features. The greater the vertical extent, larger will be the volume of atmosphere available to dilute the
pollutants.
In practice, MMD is determined with the help of temperature profile of the actual atmosphere for several
kilometres above the earth’s surface. Mean MMD value for a location is found for period of 1 month. The
values of the MMD are usually lower at night and higher during the day time. If inversion occurs at ground

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level then MMD value will be zero. And in the day time, the MMD values may vary from 2000m to 5000m.
On a seasonal basis, the average MMD will be minimum in winter season and maximum in the summer
season.

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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 8
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2.2.4 Precipitation pa
Rainfall or precipitation has a two-fold cleansing action on the pollutants discharged into the atmosphere. It
accelerates removal of the particulate matter from the atmosphere and hence its deposition on the ground.
It also helps to remove the concentration of the gaseous pollutants which are soluble in water. The washout
of air-borne radioactive wastes by precipitation is a matter of particular concern.

2.2.5 Humidity
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Humidity is a measure of water vapour in the atmosphere. The moisture content of the atmosphere
influences the corrosive action of the air pollutants. If the air is moist and its temperature is below the dew
point, fog will be formed and visibility is reduced. Moisture indicates the potentiality for fog formation. The
relative humidity is most frequently used in air pollution studies.
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2.2.6 Solar radiation

The solar radiation has a pronounced effect on the type and rate of chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
Earth’s surface is the prime absorber of solar heat energy. Thus the air stratum near to the earth gets
warmed by the transfer of heat energy. And it leads to temperature variations with the altitude which has a
great influence on the dilution and dispersion of the pollutants once they are released.
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2.2.7 Visibility
Just as the weather affects the severity of air pollution, air pollution may in turn affect the weather
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conditions. Air pollution may influence the weather in several ways. Once the fog is formed, the incoming
solar radiation may be decreased and the pollutants will be concentrated. The visibility is greatly reduced.
Therefore duration of the fog and its frequency will be increased.
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 9
Plume behaviour
Plume is defined as the path taken by continuous discharge of gaseous pollutants emitted from a stack or
chimney. The behavior of the plume emitted from any stack depends on local air stability. The different
forms are generally seen at lower atmosphere (<300m above ground). The shape of the path or
concentration distribution of the plumes depends upon diurnal (day-to-day) and seasonal (season to season)
variations in the atmospheric stability.

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The behavior or travel of air pollutants in the atmosphere once they are released is very important
aspect to understand the atmospheric stability and to design the industrial stack heights. Diffusion of
pollutants into the atmosphere is governed by ELR as well as ALR. By comparing these two lapse
rates, it is possible to predict as to what will happen to gases emitted from a stack. Once they are
emitted, how do they travel in the atmosphere, in what direction, what will be the shape of their path
of travel, this all depends upon stability of the atmosphere, wind direction, wind speed and

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turbulence.

Seven types of plumes are usually detected in the different environmental conditions, characterized by

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different relative positions of ELR and ALR lines, are explained below. The spread of the plume is directly
related to the vertical temperature gradient as shown on the left hand side of the figure.
1) Looping plume: This is the common type of plume behavior which occurs under super adiabatic lapse
rate (SALR) (when ELR>ALR) conditions with turbulent air in warm seasons with clear skies. The
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plume has wave type behavior since it occurs in a highly unstable atmosphere. High turbulence helps in
rapid dispersion of the plume, but high concentrations may occur near the stack if the plume touches
the ground.
2) Neutral plume: It is the upward vertical rise of the plume from the stack as shown in figure, which
occurs when the ELR is equal to or very near to ALR, and under light winds and clear skies. The
upward lifting of the plume will continue till it reaches an air of density similar to that of the plume
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itself.
3) Coning plume: It is a type of plume which is shaped like a cone (roughly 10⁰ with a horizontal axis).
This occurs when wind velocity is greater than 32km/h, under sub-adiabatic or slightly stable (or say
near neutral atmosphere) conditions. This occurs under wet and cloudy climate. There is limited vertical
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mixing, thereby increasing the probability of air pollution in the area. However the plume reaches the
ground at greater distance from the stack as compared to looping.
4) Fanning plume: A fanning plume occurs under a large inversion condition, in the presence of light
winds with very little turbulence. This usually occurs at night and in the early morning condition when
earth is cooled by outgoing radiations. This type of plume may appear as a narrow horizontal fan
without any vertical spreading for several kilometers downwind. In some cases, If the plume is extremely
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hot, it rises vertically a little and then drifts horizontally. The dispersion of the plume is very slow.
5) Lofting: Lofting occurs when there is a strong SALR above a surface inversion. In such conditions,
downward motion and mixing is prevented by surface inversion, thus the plume is rapidly dispersed in
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the upward direction. Lofting occurs in the evening time with clear skies and under moderate winds. In
these conditions, emission will not reach the ground surface, thus lofting is a favourable plume.
6) Fumigation: when an inversion layer occurs above the top of the stack, and super adiabatic conditions
exist below the stack, then plume is said to be fumigating. In such a case, the plume will not escape
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above the stack because of presence of inversion layer, but it will be brought down to the ground
surface. This represents quite a bad case of atmospheric conditions for dispersion. Fumigation occurs
usually under clear skies and light winds in the morning times of summer season.
7) Trapping plume: This is achieved when the plume is caught between two inversion layers. Hence the
emitted plume neither can go up nor down and will be trapped in between. It occurs in a stable

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 10
 atmosphere, both above and below the stack height, with unstable atmosphere trapped in between both.
It may occur at any time of the day in any season.

Plume rise and Height of the stack

The dilution of pollutants from heighted stacks is considered to occur in two stages, namely, plume rise

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and dispersion. In the first stage, the hot plume from the stacks goes up to a certain height above stack
exit due to buoyancy and momentum. Subsequently in second stage, the plume spreads both vertically
and horizontally by the dispersion process. The second stage is described by the mathematics of
diffusion.
The height of the stack and the plume rise play a major role in the ground level concentrations
expected on the downwind side. The plume rise typically increases the H by a factor of 2 to 10 times
and can reduce maximum ground level concentration of pollutants by a factor of as much as 100.

.c
Because of momentum and buoyancy, the plume released from the stack rises vertically up to a certain
height and then gets dispersed by the wind. This height is called as the plume rise (∆h).

ul
Total plume rise (∆h) = ∆hbuoyancy + ∆hmomentum

The height of the stack is an important factor in determining the level of pollution at a given location. The
effective height of the stack (H) is the sum total of actual height (h) of the stack and plume rise (∆h) as
shown in the figure.
pa
The plume rise ∆h depends upon many factors such as stack gas exit velocity, wind speed, diameter of stack,
temperature of plume, lapse rate in the area etc. the several empirical formulae are there to predict it.
jin
.re
w
w
w

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 11
(i) General equation
In general, plume rise can be given by,
𝑸𝜶𝑯
∆𝒉 = 𝑲 𝜷
𝒖
Where, QH = heat emission rate
u = average wind velocity

om
α, β and K are constants, and according to Canadian combustion research laboratory formula of the above
form, their values be α=0.25, β=1 and K=66.4 when Q is expressed in kcal/s and u in m/s.

(ii) Moses and Carson’s equation

𝟏⁄
𝑽𝒔 ∙ 𝒅 𝑸 𝟐
∆𝒉 = 𝑪𝟏 ∙ + 𝑪𝟐 ∙ 𝑯
𝒖 𝒖

.c
Where, Vs = Stack gas exit velocity (m/s)
u = wind speed (m/s)
d = diameter of the stack (m)

ul
QH = heat emission rate (kcal/s)
C1 and C2 = plume rise regression coefficients which depend on atmospheric stability
As per the above equations, ∆h is inversely proportional to wind speed u, in the sense, higher the wind
speed lower will be the plume rise, and ∆h is directly proportional with stack gas velocity and heat
pa
release, in the sense, higher the stack gas velocity and its temperature higher will be the plume rise.

(iii) Holland’s equation

𝑽𝒔 ∙ 𝒅 𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻𝒂
∆𝒉 = [𝟏. 𝟓 + (𝟐. 𝟔𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ) ∙ 𝒑 ∙ 𝒅 ( )]
𝒖 𝑻𝒔
jin
Where, p = atmospheric pressure in millibars (mbars)
Ts = stack gas temperature (K)
Ta = air temperature (K)
This equation is applicable for neutral conditions.
For unstable conditions, the above value of ∆h should be increased by 10 – 20%.
.re

For stable conditions, ∆h should be decreased by 20-10%.

(iv) Davidson and Bryant’s equation

𝑽𝒔 𝟏.𝟒 𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻𝒂
∆𝒉 = 𝒅 ∙ ( ) (𝟏 + )
𝒖 𝑻𝒔
w

(v) Brigg’s formulae recommended by ISI

The bureau of Indian standards has suggested the use of Brigg’s formulae (IS: 8829-1978).
w

a) For hot effluents (with heat release of order of 106 cal/s or more)
𝟏⁄
𝑸𝑯 𝟒
(
∆𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒 𝟏𝟐. 𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝒉 )
𝒖
w

Where, QH = heat emission rate (cal/s)

h = height of the stack (m)
u = wind speed (m/s)
b) For not very hot releases (momentum is only the dominant factor here)
𝟑 ∙ 𝑽𝟎 ∙ 𝒅
∆𝒉 =
𝒖

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 12
 Where, Vo is afflux velocity (m/s)

Design of stack height

The basic function of a stack is to provide natural draft for the gases released from combustion process.
Stacks are designed to fulfill two additional requirements (i) that the pollutants should be sufficiently
dispersed and (ii) that the smoke should not re-enter the industrial plant under adverse wind conditions.
The ratio of stack gas exit velocity to wind velocity (V s/u) should be greater than 1.5 to allow the effluent to

om
get exit cleanly from the stack. For design purposes, maximum local wind velocities should be determined
and stack gas exit velocities should be set according to that in proportions.
Higher the stack gas velocity higher will be the plume rise. Thus, to obtain same H, one can reduce h and
increase ∆h keeping higher exit velocities. This may reduce the initial cost for installment of stack. But to
maintain such higher velocities, high capacity blowers are needed, that increases the running costs. And also
if any buildings are present near to the stack, it may cause mechanical turbulence and may bring down all the
pollutants. Hence the stack height should be at least 2 – 2.5 times the height of the surrounding building.

.c
The diameter of the stack at exit end can be determined on the basics of stack gas flow rate and on the exit
velocity required.

ul
If h is more, H will also be more and better dispersion is possible. Smaller stacks may lead to higher ground
level concentrations. The maximum concentration is usually inversely proportional to the square of the
effective stack height. Central pollution control board (CPCB) has given the following recommendations for
the minimum height of the chimney. pa
a) For chimney emitting particulate matter
hmin = 74 (Qp)0.27
where Qp is the PM emission rate (tones/hour)
jin
b) For chimney emitting SO2
hmin = 14 (Qs)1/3
where Qs is the SO2 emission rate (kg/hour)

In India, the concentrations of other gases like NOx, HC, CO etc. are generally very much less than the
.re

concentration of SO2 and PM from various industries. Hence, CPCB has made only SO 2 and PM as the
criterion for the design.

c) Minimum values
For any industry (except thermal power plants): hmin = 30m
For thermal power plants of 200MW-500MW capacity: hmin = 220m
w

For thermal power plants above 500MW capacity: hmin = 275m

w

Problem 2.1: Determine the effective height of a stack, with the following given data:
Physical stack is 180m tall with 0.95m inside diameter, wind velocity is 2.75m/s, air temperature is
20⁰C, barometric pressure is 1000mbars, stack gas velocity is 11.12m/s, stack gas temperature is
w

160⁰C.
Soln: Given h= 180m, D=0.95m, u=2.75m/s, Ta=20⁰C=20+273=293 K.
p=1000mbars, Vs=11.12m/s, Ts= 160⁰C=160+273=433 K.

𝑉𝑠 ∙ 𝑑 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎
∆ℎ = [1.5 + (2.68 × 10−3 ) ∙ 𝑝 ∙ 𝑑 ( )]
𝑢 𝑇𝑠

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 13
 11.12×0.95 433−293
∆ℎ = [1.5 + (2.68 × 10−3 × 1000 × 0.95 ( )]
2.75 433

∆ℎ = 8.92𝑚

Effective height of the stack H = h + ∆h

H = 180+8.92 = 188.92m

om
Problem 2.2: An industry burns 0.3Ml of oil fuel per month. The quantities of various pollutants
emitted are given as: PM = 2.9t/Ml/yr, SO2 = 60t/Ml/yr, NOx = 8t/ML/yr, HC = 0.4t/Ml/yr, CO =
0.5t/Ml/yr. Calculate the height of the chimney required to be provided for safe dispersion of the
pollutants.
Soln:

.c
Industry is burning the oil 0.3Ml/month.
Fuel burnt per year 0.3 × 12𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑠 = 3.6 Ml

PM that may be emitted if 1Ml/yr oil is burnt = 2.9tonnes,

ul
10.44
Then Qp (for burning 3.6Ml/yr) = 3.6 × 2.9 = 10.44 𝑡⁄𝑦𝑟 = 300×24 = 1.45 × 10−3 𝑡/ℎ𝑟
(Assuming 300 working days)
pa
SO2 that may be emitted if 1Ml/yr oil is burnt = 60tonnes,
216×1000
Then Qs (for burning 3.6Ml/yr) = 3.6 × 60 = 216 𝑡⁄𝑦𝑟 = 300×24 = 30𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟

a) Height of the chimney on the basis of PM emission

jin
hmin = 74 (Qp)0.27
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 74 × (1.45 × 10−3 )0.27
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 12.67𝑚
.re

b) Height of the chimney on the basis of SO2 emission

hmin = 14 (Qs)1/3
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 14 × 301/3 = 43.45𝑚
Since 43.45m is more than minimum requirement (i.e., 30m)
h = 43.5m approx.
w

Problem 2.3: A thermal power plant daily burns 100tonnes of coal with 5.5% sulphur content.
Calculate minimum stack height required. The particulate concentration in flue gases is 8000mg/m 3
and the gas flow rate is 20m3/sec.
w

Soln:
Coal burnt = 100tonnes/day
Means Sulphur content of 100 tonnes coal is 5.5 tonnes/day
w

𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2
32𝑔𝑚 + (16𝑔𝑚 × 2) → 64𝑔𝑚

Since every 32gm of sulphur releases 64gm of SO2,

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 14
 11000
SO2 emission rate = 5.5 × 64⁄32 = 11𝑡/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 11000kg/day = = 458.33𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
24
64
{𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 (𝑆𝑂2 = 𝑆 × ) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑢𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡}
32

Height of the chimney on the basis of SO2 emission,

hmin = 14 (Qs)1/3
hmin = 14 x 458.331/3 = 107.94m = 108m

om
Height of the chimney on the basis of PM emission,
PM concentration = 8000mg for 1m3 volume = 8 g/m3
Discharge rate is 20m3/s
PM emitted for 20m3/s discharge = 8 x 20 =160 g/s = 160 x 3600 = 576000 g/hr = 0.576t/hr

.c
hmin = 74 (Qp)0.27
hmin = 74 x 0.5760.27
hmin = 63.76m

ul
The minimum stack height to be provided is the maximum of 30m, 108m and 63.76m.
Thus, h = 108m

Air quality modeling

pa
Pollutants emitted in to the atmosphere are mixed thoroughly with the surrounding air and diluted in
the atmosphere. This dispersion is primarily due to turbulent diffusion and bulk air flow with high
velocities. This understanding of dispersion theory of air pollutants is needed to know the
jin
concentration of pollutants at any point in the atmosphere after they are discharged.
This quantitative information of the pollutants at any point is essential for installing the control
measures so that good air quality could be maintained.
Mathematical modeling – prediction of any parameter by using mathematical approach
.re

“It is the mathematical simulation technique used to predict the dispersion and concentration of air
pollutants in the atmosphere.”
“Air pollution modeling is the term used to describe using mathematical theory to understand or predict the
way pollutants behave in the atmosphere.”
“It is the mathematical relationship between emissions and air quality that incorporates the transport,
w

dispersion and transformation of compounds emitted into the air”

Mathematical approach has been applied for understanding the dispersion of pollutants into the
atmosphere, and this dispersion is considered generally in three directions i.e., x, y and z.
w

For this, dispersion models are developed based on Fick’s law of molecular diffusion. Using such
mathematical relationships we can predict or determine the pollutant concentration at any distance in x, y
and z directions i.e., horizontal downwind direction, horizontal cross wind direction and vertical direction
w

respectively.
For continuous point source, the dispersion models are based on plume behavior, turbulent diffusion, wind
speed, amount of dilution etc. because the continuous emission of pollutants results in a plume which is
carried by the wind speed and spreads by the turbulence of wind.
Based on stability classification in the field of atmospheric diffusion the three well known models in use are,
1. Pasquill model

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 15
 2. ASME model (American society of mechanical engineers model)
3. McElroy model

The variety of existing models may be classified according to the different attributes of a model as,
1. Eulerian grid model
2. Lagrangian trajectory model
3. Gaussian plume model

om
Gaussian plume model
Consider a point source somewhere in the air where a pollutant is released at a constant rate Q (g/s).
The wind is blowing continuously in a direction x (measured in metres from the source) with a speed u
(m/s). The plume spreads as it moves in the x direction such that the local concentrations C(x,y,z) (g/m3 )
at any point in space form distributions which have shapes that are “Gaussian” or “normal” in planes
normal to the x direction. As it moves in the x direction, on the centre line of the plume, concentration will

.c
be maximum, and it decreases because of lateral dispersion along y axis and z axis (on left side & right side
as well as upside & downside of the center line of plume). This type of curve is known as Gaussian curve
(shown in following figures).

ul
The parameters σy and σz (m) are the standard deviations of these Gaussian distributions, which indicate the
spread of the plume in the y and z directions, respectively. They increase with the distance x from the
source.
This distribution measures y and z normally from the x-axis (the x-axis may also be considered to be the
pa
direction of the centre-line of the plume.
jin
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 16
 om
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pa
jin
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w
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w

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 17
 om
.c
ul
pa
jin
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w
w
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 18
Gaussian developed following simple statistical equation to compute turbulent transport of plume,
1 𝑦 2 1 𝑧−𝐻 2 1 𝑧+𝐻 2
𝑄 − ( )
2 𝜎𝑦 − ( ) − ( )
𝐶𝑥,𝑦,𝑧 = ∙𝑒 ∙ [𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧 + 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧 ]
2𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
Cx,y,z = concentration of pollutant at any point (x,y,z) in space (g/m 3)
Q = pollutant emission rate (g/s)
u = wind speed at stack height (m/s)
H = effective stack height (m)

om
If only concentrations at ground level are required (for example in assessing the exposure of crops or
humans to the pollutant) then we can simplify the equation by setting z=0. This gives
1 𝑦 2 1 𝐻 2
𝑄 − ( )
2 𝜎𝑦 − ( )
𝐶𝑥,𝑦,0 = ∙𝑒 ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

.c
If only concentrations at ground level on the centre-line of the plume (along the x-axis direction) are
required then the equation is simplified further since both z=0 and y=0. This gives

ul
1 𝐻 2
𝑄 − ( )
𝐶𝑥,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
pa 𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

Using the basic equation, if we know the rate of emission from the source (Q), the prevailing wind speed
(U) and direction (x) and the height of the centre-line of the plume above ground (H), we can determine the
concentration (C) at any point (x,y,z). Values for σy and σz are obtained with respect to x value from the
graphs given below.
jin
Maximum ground level concentration Cmax should be substantially below the requirement of the ambient
air quality standards and the stack height should be increased if this is not so.
𝐻
It should be noted that the maximum ground level concentration occurs where 𝜎𝑧 =
√2
σz / σy is constant with downwind distance x.
.re

2𝑄 𝜎𝑧
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
∙
𝜋𝑢𝑒𝐻 𝜎𝑦
w
w
w

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 19
 om
.c
ul
pa
jin
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 20
Assumptions of Gaussian model
1. The plume has Gaussian distribution in both horizontal and vertical planes with σy and σz as the
standard deviations of the concentrations of the plume in crosswind and vertical directions
respectively.
2. u is the wind speed at the stack exit which uniform all the time.
3. Uniform and continuous emission of Q (g/s) of pollutants takes place.
4. Diffusion of pollutant in x direction is negligible compared to diffusion in cross-wind direction. This

om
is true if emission continuous and if wind speed is more than 1m/s.
5. Parameters governing the diffusion of pollutants do not change in space and time i.e., steady – state
conditions prevail.
6. The terrain underlying the plume is flat.

Limitations
1. It does not consider the various stability layers at different heights in the atmosphere.

.c
2. It does not consider the change in stability with time.
3. It does not consider the terrain characteristics such as terrain roughness, existence of mountains,
valleys, distribution of lands and water masses.
4. It does not consider the strong wind shears like change of wind directions and wind speed.

ul
5. It can be applied only for shorter distances and of shorter travel time.

pa
jin
.re
w

Problem 2.4: A thermal power plant burns coal at the rate of 8tonnes per hour and discharges the flue
gases through a chimney having effective height of 90m. The coal has a sulphur content of 4.5%. The wind
velocity at stack exit is 7.5m/s. The atmospheric conditions are slightly unstable. Determine the maximum
w

ground level concentration of SO2 and the distance from the stack at which this occurs
Soln: Coal burnt per hour = 8tonnes= 8000kg
Sulphur content of 8tonnes coal = 8000 x 0.045= 360kg
w

𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2
32𝑔𝑚 + (16𝑔𝑚 × 2) → 64𝑔𝑚
64
𝑆𝑂2 = 𝑆 × = 360 x 64/32 = 720kg SO2 produced per hour
32
720 ×1000
Thus, SO2 emission rate = = 200𝑔/𝑠
3600

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 21
 𝐻
Maximum ground level concentration occurs at a point where 𝜎𝑧 = = 0.707H
√2
90
𝜎𝑧 = = 63.64𝑚
√2
For slightly unstable condition, we have stability class C.
From graph σz Vs x , for σz = 63.64m we can obtain xmax = 900m

om
From gragh σy Vs x , for x = 900m we can obtain σy = 100m for C class stability.

Now,
2𝑄 𝜎𝑧
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
∙
𝜋𝑢𝑒𝐻 𝜎𝑦
2 × 200 63.64

.c
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
×
𝜋 × 7.5 × 2.7183 × 90 100

Cmax = 4.9 x 10-4 g/m3

Problem 2.5: A thermal power plant burns coal at the rate of 8tonnes per hour and discharges the flue

ul
gases through a chimney having effective height of 90m. The coal has a sulphur content of 4.5%. The wind
velocity at stack exit is 7.5m/s. The atmospheric conditions are slightly unstable. Determine GLC at a
distance 2000m downwind at a) centre line of the plume and b) at a cross wind distance of 400m on either
pa
side of the centre line.
Soln: Coal burnt per hour = 8tonnes= 8000kg
Sulphur content of 8tonnes coal = 8000 x 0.045= 360kg

𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2
jin
32𝑔𝑚 + (16𝑔𝑚 × 2) → 64𝑔𝑚
64
𝑆𝑂2 = 𝑆 × 32 = 360 x 64/32 = 720kg SO2 produced per hour
720 ×1000
Thus, SO2 emission rate = = 200𝑔/𝑠
3600
.re

we have x = 2000m
Then σz = 130m
σy = 210m for C class stability
a) GLC at a distance 2000m downwind at centre line of the plume
𝑄 1 𝐻 2
w

− ( )
𝐶𝑥,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
200 1 90 2
𝐶2000,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 −2(130 )
w

𝜋 × 7.5 × 130 × 210

𝐶2000,0,0 = 2.45 × 10−4 𝑔/𝑚3

w

b) GLC at a distance 2000m downwind and at a cross wind distance of 400m

2 2
1 𝑦 1 𝐻
𝑄 − ( )
2 𝜎𝑦 − ( )
𝐶𝑥,𝑦,0 = ∙𝑒 ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 22
 200 1 400 2 1 90 2
𝐶2000,400,0 = ∙ 𝑒 −2(210) ∙ 𝑒 −2(130 )
𝜋 × 7.5 × 210 × 130

𝐶2000,400,0 = 0.4 × 10−4 𝑔/𝑚3

Problem 2.6: For the data given in above problem, compute the concentration at x = 1000m, y = 100m

om
and z = 20m.
Soln:
we have x = 1000m
Then σz = 68m
σy = 115m for C class stability
2

.c
1 𝑦 1 𝑧−𝐻 1 𝑧+𝐻 2 2
𝑄 − ( ) − ( ) − ( )
𝐶𝑥,𝑦,𝑧 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑦 ∙ [𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧 + 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧 ]
2𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

200 1 100 2 1 20−90 2 1 20+90 2

ul
− ( ) − ( )
+ 𝑒 2 68 ) ]
− (
𝐶1000,100,20 = ∙ 𝑒 2 115 [𝑒 2 68
2𝜋 × 7.5 × 115 × 68

𝐶1000,100,20 = 0.59 × 10−4 𝑔/𝑚3

pa
Problem 2.7: Find the effective stack height if a 40m stack releases SPM at a rate of 1.25g/s. The
atmospheric pressure is 1.08kg/cm2. The temperatures of ambient air and gas are 27⁰C and 400⁰C. The
stack diameter is 2.3m. Stack gas velocity is 6.0m/s and the wind velocity is 1.8m/s.
jin
Also find GLC at 1km, 5km distances in the direction of wind.
Soln: Given h= 40m, d=2.3m, u=1.8m/s, Ta=27⁰C=27+273=300 K.
p =1.08kg/cm2 = 1.059bars (1bar = 1.0198kg/cm2) then p = 1059mbars
Vs = 6.0m/s, Ts = 400⁰C = 400+273 = 673 K.
.re

𝑉𝑠 ∙ 𝑑 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎
∆ℎ = [1.5 + (2.68 × 10−3 ) ∙ 𝑝 ∙ 𝑑 ( )]
𝑢 𝑇𝑠
6×2.3 673−300
∆ℎ = 1.8 [1.5 + (2.68 × 10−3 × 1059 × 2.3 ( 673 )]
w

∆ℎ = 39.78𝑚

Effective stack height H = h + ∆h = 40 + 39.78 = 79.78m

w

Assuming conditions for poor dispersion, moderately stable atmosphere (F class stability)
x 1km=1000m 5km=5000m
σy, m 38 160
w

σz, m 15 33

At 1km downwind,
𝑄 1 𝐻 2
− ( )
𝐶𝑥,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 23
 1.25 1 79.78 2
𝐶1,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 −2( 15 ) = 2.796 × 10−10 𝑔/𝑚3
𝜋 × 1.8 × 38 × 15
At 5km downwind,
1 𝐻 2
𝑄 − ( )
𝐶𝑥,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
1.25 1 79.78 2
𝐶5,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 −2( 33 ) = 2.25 × 10−6 𝑔/𝑚3

om
𝜋 × 1.8 × 160 × 33

Problem 2.8: A thermal power plant burns 5.45 tonnes with 4.2% sulphur per hour and discharges through
a stack of effective height 75m. The average wind speed at top of stack is 6m/s. The atmosphere is slightly
unstable. Find a) maximum G.L.C and the corresponding distance b) G.L.C. at 3km downwind and 0.4km

.c
cross wind distance.

Soln:
Coal burnt = 5.45tonnes/hour

ul
4.2
Sulphur content of 5.45 tonnes = 100 × 5.45 = 0.2289𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 ≅ 229𝑘𝑔

𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2 pa
32𝑔𝑚 + (16𝑔𝑚 × 2) → 64𝑔𝑚
64
𝑆𝑂2 = 𝑆 × 32 = 229 x 64/32 = 458kg SO2 produced per hour
458 × 1000
Thus, SO2 emission rate = = 127.22 𝑔/𝑠
3600
jin
a) maximum G.L.C and the distance at which it occurs
𝐻
Max. GLC occurs at a point where where 𝜎𝑧 = = 0.707H
√2
75
𝜎𝑧 = = 53𝑚
.re

√2
Considering slightly unstable condition, we have stability class C.
From graph σz Vs x , for σz = 53m we can obtain xmax = 700m

From gragh σy Vs x , for x = 700m we can obtain σy = 78m for C class stability.
w

2𝑄 𝜎𝑧
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∙
𝜋𝑢𝑒𝐻2 𝜎𝑦
2 × 127 53
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𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ×
𝜋 × 6 × 2.7183 × 752 78

Cmax = 5.98 x 10-4 g/m3

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b) G.L.C. at 3km downwind and 0.4km cross wind distance.

1) GLC at 3km downwind

we have x = 3000m
Then σz = 170m
σy = 280m for C class stability

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 24
 1 𝐻 2
𝑄 − ( )
𝐶𝑥,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
127 1 75 2
∙ 𝑒 2 170) = 1.28 × 10−4 𝑔/𝑚3
− (
𝐶3,0,0 =
𝜋 × 6 × 280 × 170

2) At 0.4km cross wind distance

om
For same x = 3000m
We have σz = 170m σy = 280m for C class stability
2 2
1 𝑦 1 𝐻
𝑄 − ( ) − ( )
𝐶𝑥,𝑦,0 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑦 ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
127 1 400 2 1 75 2

.c
∙ 𝑒 2 280 ∙ 𝑒 2 170)
− ( ) − (
𝐶3,0.4,0 =
𝜋 × 6 × 280 × 170

𝐶3,0.4,0 = 4.62 × 10−5 𝑔/𝑚3

ul
Measurement of meteorological parameters pa
A meteorological instrument should have an acceptable degree of accuracy and sensitivity. Also it should be
simple and durable. In our country the National environmental engineering research institute (NEERI) has
developed some devices for measuring meteorological parameters.

(i) Wind direction recorders

a) Windsocks
jin
windsocks are very basic devices that measure wind direction and provide a rough idea of the wind's
intensity. They comprise a tubular piece of fabric or thin, flexible fabric attached to a pole. In
windless conditions, the fabric hangs vertically from the attached pole. When wind begins to blow, it
fills the windsock and causes the sides to expand away from each other. This results in the
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windsock's rounded, cylindrical appearance and also causes the windsock to rise up to a horizontal
position. Either the pole or the harness attached to the windsock can rotate when the wind changes
direction, so the direction of the windsock will indicate that of the wind.
w
w
w

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 25
 b) Wind vanes
This instrument has been developed by NEERI for measuring wind direction, which is simple one,
which employs the conventional wind vane to sense the direction. It is automatic and operated
mechanically without any power supply. The instrument continuously records on an attached chart
the direction of the wind with time.
A weather vane / wind vane works similarly to a windsock. Instead of a tubular sock, this
instrument consists of a horizontal pole placed atop a vertical one. The poles are joined together so

om
that the horizontal pole can move independently of the structure's base. The horizontal pole has a
flattened, vertical end that reacts to wind. This flattened end may be any broad, flat shape, such as
the traditional rooster shape. When wind blows on the broad side of this end, it pushes it, causing
the pole to rotate. When the pole has rotated to a position parallel to the wind's direction, the
flattened end also sits parallel, and air moves by it on either side without having any further effect on
the pole's position.

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ul
pa
jin
(ii) Wind speed recorder
Instruments for measuring wind speed are called anemometers. If they are recording instruments they are
known as anemographs. The most common type is cup anemometer. The rate of rotation of the shaft to
which the cups are attached indicates the wind speed and this is transmitted to a recorder or an indicating
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panel by either mechanical, optical or electrical means. The Neeri has developed a wind spped recorder. In
the instrument a 4 cup rotor is employed to sense the wind. The motion of the cup is transferred after
reducing its speed by a gear system, to the pen which makes a continuous rise and fall impression on the
chart paper. This rate of rise or fall is proportional to the wind speed. The instrument gives a 24 hour record
in one setting. Wind speed at a particular time and average wind speed can be found out from this record.
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w
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 26
(iii) Humidity measurement
One of the simplest and most reliable instruments is the whirling psychrometer. Other instruments that
can be used are 1) Hair hygrometer 2) Infra-red hygrometer.
The whirling psychrometer consists of two thermometers mounted on the a frame that can be whirled
in the air by hand. The bulb of one thermometer is covered with a tight-fitting muslin sack and wetted
with water. This thermometer is known as the wet-bulb thermometer. The other is the dry-bulb

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thermometer. The psychrometer is whirled to force air past the bulbs. The dry bulb indicates the
temperature of the air. The wet bulb helps determine the relative humidity. When the psychrometer
whirls through the air, water from the muslin evaporates. The evaporating water cools the wet bulb. The
amount of cooling that occurs depends on the relative humidity. The lower the humidity, the faster the
water in the muslin will evaporate, and the more the bulb will cool. High humidity will cause less
evaporation, slowing the cooling process. From the difference in temperatures of wet and dry bulb
thermometers , the relative humidity can found by referring to a special chart (psychrometric table).

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ul
pa
jin
Wind roses
For better understanding of dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere, a knowledge of
usual/frequent wind direction as well as wind speed is essential. This type of information varies significantly
from city to city and varies in a particular city from month to month. The wind data (i.e., wind direction,
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wind duration, intensity (speed)) are graphically represented by a diagram called wind rose.

“Wind rose is defined as any one of a class of diagrams designed to show the distribution of wind direction
experienced at a given location, over a considerable period.”

The wind data should usually be collected for a period of atleast 5years and preferably of 10years, so as to
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obtain an average data with sufficient accuracy.

The most common form of wind rose consists of a circle and data are usually reported at eight primary and
eight secondary directions of the compass by lines. The length of each line denotes the frequency of wind
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from that direction and frequency of calm conditions is entered in the centre. There are many variations in
construction of wind roses, some indicate wind speeds along with specific wind directions, some indicate
any other meteorological parameter along with wind direction.
From the data obtained over a given time period such as a particular month or season or a year, the
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construction of wind roses may be done. In constructing or interpreting wind roses, wind direction refers to
the direction from which wind is blowing. For example, a line/bar extending to the south of the wind rose
indicates the frequency of winds blowing from the south. The wind rose diagram is prepared using an
appropriate scale to represent percentage frequencies of wind directions and appropriate index shades,
lines, colours, textures etc. to represent various wind speeds.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 27
Some times, special wind roses are constructed called ‘Pollution roses’ like
1) particulate wind rose
2) smoke wind rose
3) sulphur dioxide wind rose
4) hydrocarbon wind rose etc.
These are constructed by the parameters of particulate matter, smoke, SO 2, hydrocarbons, particulates
etc. instead of wind speed.

om
Wind rose diagrams can be plotted in two types as follows.

Type 1 wind rose: In this type of wind rose, the radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle
represents the duration of wind. The observed values of the total percentage of time in a month or a year
during which wind blows are plotted along the corresponding directions. All the plotted points are then
joined by straight lines. The maximum wind blowing direction is usually along the direction of the longest

.c
line on the wind rose. This type of wind rose does not account for the effect of cross wind component.

Type 2 wind rose: In this type of wind rose, the wind intensity is represented by each circle to some scale.
The values entered in each segment represent the percentage of time in a month or a year during which the

ul
wind, having particular intensity, blows from the respective direction.

Wind direction
pa
Problem2.9: Draw the TYPE – 1 wind rose diagram for the following data

Duration of the wind, percent

6.4 -25 kmph 25-40 kmph 40-60 kmph
N 7.4 2.7 0.2
NNE 5.7 2.1 0.3
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NE 2.4 0.9 0.6
ENE 1.2 0.4 0.2
E 0.8 0.2 0.0
ESE 0.3 0.1 0.0
SE 4.3 2.8 0.0
.re

SSE 5.5 3.2 0.0

S 9.7 4.6 0.0
SSW 6.3 3.2 0.5
SW 3.6 1.8 0.3
WSW 1.0 0.5 0.1
W 0.4 0.1 0.0
w

WNW 0.2 0.1 0.0

NW 5.3 1.9 0.0
NNW 4.0 1.3 0.3
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w

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 28
Soln:

Duration of the wind, percent Total wind duration

Wind direction in a particular
6.5 -25 kmph 25-40 kmph 40-60 kmph
direction (%)
N 7.4 2.7 0.2 10.3
NNE 5.7 2.1 0.3 8.1

om
NE 2.4 0.9 0.6 3.9
ENE 1.2 0.4 0.2 1.8
E 0.8 0.2 0.0 1.0
ESE 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.4
SE 4.3 2.8 0.0 7.1
SSE 5.5 3.2 0.0 8.7
S 9.7 4.6 0.0 14.3

.c
SSW 6.3 3.2 0.5 10.0
SW 3.6 1.8 0.3 5.7
WSW 1.0 0.5 0.1 1.6
W 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.5

ul
WNW 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.3
NW 5.3 1.9 0.0 7.2
NNW 4.0 1.3 0.3 5.6
The gross total of wind duration 86.5%
pa
Therefore the percentage of time during which wind speed is less than 6.4kmph is 100-86.5 = 13.5%
Therefore calm period is 13.5%

In figure the radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle represents the duration of wind. The
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total percentage of time in a year during which the wind blows from north direction is 10.3%. This value is
plotted along the north direction. Similarly, other values are also plotted along the respective directions. All
plotted points are then joined by straight lines as shown in figure.
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w
w
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 29
Problem 2.10: Draw the TYPE – 1 and TYPE – 2 wind rose diagrams for the following data.

Wind Duration of the wind, %

1-5 5-10 >10
direction
kmph kmph kmph
N 10 10 8
NE 7 6 6

om
E 5 3 2
SE 4 2 0
S 2 1 1
SW 3 0 3
W 5 4 3
NW 5 5 5

.c
ul
pa *****
jin
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w
w
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 30
 CONTROL TECHNIQUES Module 4
(Control of Particulate matter & Gaseous pollutants – settling chambers, cyclone separators, scrubbers,

om
filters and ESP)

4.1 Introduction
Everyday about half-a-million tonne of particulates (of sizes 100μm down to 0.1μm and even less)
are released into the atmosphere by anthropogenic sources. Micro-scale particles may cause severe
effects on man, material and vegetation.

.c
Basically, there are 4 ways available for the control of industrial effluent discharges into atmosphere and
thereby controlling the atmospheric pollution.
1. Reduction of pollutants discharge at the source by the application of control equipment

ul
2. Reduction at the source through raw material changes, industrial operational changes or
modifications, or replacement of process equipment(for ex., replacing older equipments with newer
ones)
3. Dilution of the source discharge by installing taller stacks
pa
4. Dispersion of source locations by adopting proper planning and zoning of industrial areas.

But the most effective ways are reduction at the source by application of control equipment and process
control. To remove particulate matter from gases, various types of control equipments are available.
jin
Factors to be considered for the selection of particular equipment -
1. Quantity of gas to be cleaned and its variation with time
2. Chemical, physical nature and concentration of the particulate matter to be removed
3. Temperature and pressure of the gas stream
4. Nature of the gas (for solubility and corrosive effects)
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5. Desired/Required quality of the cleaned gas

Objectives of using control equipments –

1. Prevention of nuisance
2. Prevention of physical damage to the property
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3. Elimination of the health hazards to plant employees and to the population living near the plant
4. Recovery of valuable waste products
5. Minimisation of economic losses through the reduction of plant maintenance
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6. Improvement of product quality

4.2 Settling Chambers

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The gravitational settling chambers are the simplest of all control equipments. Settling chamber is
almost the cheapest device to construct, operate and maintain and serves as a pre-cleaner.
There are two primary types of settling chambers: the expansion chamber and multiple-tray chamber. In
the expansion chamber, the velocity of the gas stream is reduced as the gas expands in a large chamber.
Reduction in velocity allows larger particles to settle down.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 1
Settling chamber serves as a preliminary screening device usually. Where the mass of larger particles is
more, the settling chamber can remove much of the mass of particulate matter, otherwise other
control devices would be choked up and their operation will be impaired, leading to frequent
cleaning. Thus in majority of particulate control devices, the first unit is a gravity settling chamber.

4.2.1 Principle, Construction and Working of settling chambers

Principle:

om
Gravitational force may be employed to remove particulates in settling chambers. Carrier gas velocity is
reduced to induce the action of gravity on the particles. For settling operations, Stoke’s law is applied.
Gravity settling chambers are provided with enlarged areas to minimise horizontal velocities and allow
time for the vertical velocity to carry the particulate to the bottom of the tank. Settling chambers are
effective for large and/or dense particles.

.c
Construction:
The most common type of settling chamber consists of a long box like structure, with an inlet at one
end and an outlet at the other end, set horizontally, often on the ground. It can be constructed from
brick and concrete. A hopper is provided at the bottom to collect the particulates.

ul
pa
jin
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Working:
The carrier gas is made to pass inside the chamber through inlet provided at one end, with lower
velocities. The solid particulates having higher density than the surrounding gas, settle due to action of
gravity on the base of the chamber. The cleaned gas will come out through the outlet provided at
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another end. The settled out particulates are then collected from the hopper for disposal.
The gas velocity must be sufficiently low (less than about 3m/s to prevent particle re-entrainment, less
than 0.5m/s for better results). To minimise turbulence and maintain uniform velocity, curtains, rods
and wire mesh screens may be provided in the chamber.
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4.2.2 Howard’s settling chamber

A multiple-tray settling chamber is referred to as Howard’s chamber. A multiple-tray settling chamber
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consists of a number of thin trays closely spaced within the chamber, which causes the gas flow
horizontally between them. Usually the trays are fitted at 1-3cm spacing. The collection efficiency
generally improves because the particles have much shorter height to fall down. Efficiency can be
improved if the height to be travelled by the particle is reduced. Particles of size 10-15μ can be removed
by this modified settling chamber. But the use of this modified Howard’s chamber is limited due to
difficulty in cleaning the closely spaced trays.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 2
 om
.c
4.2.3 Design considerations
Generally, settling chamber design based on laminar flow requires either a large size or large number of

ul
trays. Practically, the flow is turbulent rather than laminar.
Consider a settling chamber having dimensions L*W*H and containing ‘n’ number of trays including
bottom surface, assuming laminar conditions.pa
The criterion for laminar flow is that Reynold’s number, which is based on hydraulic diameter, should
be less than 2300. The hydraulic diameter for flow passage between the trays is given by
2𝑊 ∆𝐻
𝐷ℎ = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −4.1
𝑊 + ∆𝐻
𝑉𝐷ℎ 𝜌
jin
The Reynold’s number, 𝑅𝑒 = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 4.2
𝜇
𝑄
Velocity inside the chamber can be given by, 𝑉 = − − − − − − − − − − − − 4.3
𝑛𝑊 ∆𝐻

Substituting eq. 4.1 & 4.3 in eq. 4.2,

.re

2𝑄𝜌
𝑅𝑒 = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −4.4
𝑛𝜇(𝑊 + ∆𝐻)
𝐻
If thickness of the thin trays is neglected, the space between the trays is ∆𝐻 =
𝑛
Then eq. 4.4 becomes
2𝑄𝜌
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𝑅𝑒 = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −4.5
𝜇(𝑛𝑊 + 𝐻)
A particle entering the chamber at the top will be collected by the chamber, if its settling time is the
same (or less than) the time the gas takes to pass through the chamber (from inlet to outlet).
w

For laminar conditions (Re <2300) within the trays, particles of size dp will settle to a height of h with
settling velocity Vs in time t. Thus t= distance/velocity = h/Vs
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During the same time the particles are transported horizontally a distance L, with horizontal velocity of
the gas stream V. Thus t= L/V.

Equating these two, h/Vs = L/V

ℎ𝑉
𝑉𝑠 = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 4.6
𝐿

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 3
 𝑉𝑠 ∙𝐿
Height through which the particulates travel before settling down, ℎ =
𝑉

ℎ 𝐿 𝑉𝑠 𝐿 𝑉𝑠 𝑛 𝑛 𝑊 𝐿 𝑉𝑠
Efficiency, 𝜂 = = = = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 4.7
Δ𝐻 𝑉 Δ𝐻 𝑉𝐻 𝑄
The Vs can be calculated using Stoke’s law
2
𝑔 ∙ (𝑑𝑝 ) ∙ (𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)
𝑉𝑠 = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 4.8

om
18𝜇
Where, dp= diameter of the particle
g=acceleration due to gravity
𝜌𝑝 = density of the particles
𝜌 = density of the gas
μ = viscosity of the gas

.c
From eq. 4.6 and 4.7,
18𝑉ℎ𝜇
𝑑𝑝 = √ − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −4.9

ul
𝐿𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)

18𝜇𝑄
And also 𝑑𝑝 = √ − − − − − − − − − − − − − 4.10
pa (another formula)
𝑊𝐿𝑔(𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)

If the flow is turbulent, the collection efficiency can be given by

𝑛 𝐿 𝑊 𝑉𝑠
[ ]
𝜂 =1−𝑒 𝑄 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 4.11
jin
4.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of settling chambers

Advantages
1. Low initial costs
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2. Simple construction, no moving parts

3. Low maintenance costs
4. Low pressure drop
5. Dry and continuous disposal of solid particles
6. Excellent reliability
7. It can be constructed out of almost any material
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Disadvantages
1. Large space requirements
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2. Unable to handle sticky and tacky particles

3. Trays in Howards chamber may warp during high temperature operations
4. Only larger particulates can be collected (>40μ)
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Problem 4.1:
Calculate the settling velocity of fog with a particle size of 1μm.

Soln: Given dp =1×10-6 m

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 4
Assume ρ=density of air=1.2 Kg/m3
ρp =density of particle i.e., fog=1000 Kg/m3 , 𝜌 ≪ 𝜌𝜌
μ = viscosity of the medium i. e. , air = 1.8 × 10−5 Kg⁄m . sec
2
g∙(dp ) ∙(ρp -ρ)
Eq. 4.8 Vs =

om
18μ
9.81×(1×10-6 )2 ×(1000-1.2)
Vs=
18×1.8×10-5
∴ Vs=3×10-5 m⁄sec

Stoke’s law is applicable only if Re<1

.c
VDρ
Eq. 4.2 Re =
μ
3×10-5 ×1×10-6 ×1.2
Re =
1.8×10-5

ul
∴ Re = 0.000002

Hence Stoke’s law is applicable hence settling velocity is 3×10-5 m⁄sec

pa
(NOTE: This value is very very less. That is why fog appears to float in air. Particles with <0.1μ are
affected by Brownian motion. They collide with the surrounding particles, they combine and then finally
settle down)
jin
Problem 4.2:
Calculate minimum size of the particle that will be removed with 100% efficiency from a settling chamber
of size 8m×4m×1.5m designed for a flow rate of 6 m3/sec at 75 ºC.

Soln: Given L= 8m, W= 4m, H= 1.5m

.re

18𝑉ℎ𝜇
Eq. 4.9, 𝑑𝑝 = √
𝐿𝑔(𝜌𝑝 −𝜌)

𝑄 𝑄 6
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𝑉= = = = 1.0𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑐 ⁄𝑠 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑊𝐻 4 × 1.5

Assume μ at 75℃=2.1×10-5 Kg⁄m .sec and ρp =2650 Kg/m3 , neglecting 𝜌 as 𝜌 ≪ 𝜌𝜌

w

18×1.0×2.1×10-5 ×1.5
dp=√
8×9.81(2650)
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dp=5.22×10-5 m
dp= 52.2 μm

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 5
Problem 4.3:
Find the length of the simple gravity collector required to remove 90% of 50μm diameter particles of
density 2.0g/cc. The bulk gas velocity is 0.5m/s and the chamber is 3m in height. Calculate the length if
two trays are used for same efficiency.

Soln: Given η = 0.9, dp = 50μm = 50×10-6 m

H = 3m, V= 0.5m/sec

om
Assume ρ= 1.2 Kg/m3 , ρp =2000Kg/m3 , Neglect 𝜌 as 𝜌 ≪ 𝜌𝜌

2
g∙(dp ) ∙(ρp -ρ)
Vs =
18μ

.c
9.81×(50×10-6 )2 ×(2000)
Vs=
18×1.8×10-5

ul
Vs= 0.15m/sec

ℎ 𝐿 𝑉𝑠 𝐿 𝑉𝑠 𝑛
Efficiency, Eq. 4.7, 𝜂= =
pa =
𝛥𝐻 𝑉 𝛥𝐻 𝑉𝐻

here number of trays ‘n’ is 1, considering bottom floor as one tray

𝜂𝑉𝐻
𝐿=
𝑉𝑠 𝑛
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0.9×0.50×3
L= =9m
0.15×1

If two trays are installed and considering bottom floor as one tray,
∆H = H/n = 3/3 = 1m, this is the new effective height of the chamber
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𝜂 𝑉 ∆𝐻
Thus length of the chamber with 2 trays = 𝐿 = = 9/3 = 3m
𝑉𝑠

Problem 4.4:
A multi-tray settling chamber handles 6 m3/sec of air at 20 ºC. There are 8 trays including the bottom
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surface spaced 0.25m apart. The chamber is 4m long and 1m wide. For particles of density 2000 Kg/m3
and sizes a) 70 and b) 25μm, calculate residence time (t), the distance settled (h) and the efficiency of
collection (η). Is the tray spacing sufficient to collect all the particles of each size? Assume Laminar
flow. What will be the efficiency if the flow regime is turbulent in each case?
w

Soln: Given Q = 6 m3/s, n=8, ∆H=0.25m

L=4m, W=1m, ρp =2000 Kg⁄m3
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a) For 70μm
Q 6
From Eq. 4.7, V= = =3 m/s
n W ∆H 8×1×0.25

2
g∙(dp ) ∙(ρp -ρ)
Vs = Neglect ρ as ρ≪ρρ
18μ

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 6
 9.81×(70×10-6 )2 ×(2000)
𝑉𝑠 =
18×1.8×10-5

Vs= 0.295m/s
distance (length) 4
Residence time t= = =1.33 sec
velocity 3

om
For laminar flow conditions, h/Vs = L/V
L Vs 4×0.295
Distance settled, h= = =0.393m
V 3

ℎ 𝐿 𝑉𝑠 4×0.295
Efficiency, Eq. 4.7 𝜂= = = = 1.57 ≅ 100%
Δ𝐻 𝑉 Δ𝐻 3×0.25

.c
(NOTE: When h>∆H, (0.393>0.25) all particles of that size or larger will be collected).

b) For 25μm

ul
Residence time will be same, as all the dimensions are same as before.
2
g∙(dp ) ∙(ρp -ρ)
Vs = pa Neglect ρ as ρ≪ρρ
18μ

9.81×(25×10-6 )2 ×(2000)
𝑉𝑠 =
18×1.80×10-5

Vs= 0.037m/s
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L Vs 4×0.037
Distance settled, h= = =0.05m
V 3

h L Vs 4×0.037
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η= = = =20%
ΔH V ΔH 3×0.25
c) If the flow regime is turbulent
n L W Vs
[ ]
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Efficiency for 70μm, Eq. 4.11, η=1-e Q

-8×1×4×0.295
η=1-e[
]
6 = 79.2%
nLWV
[ Q s]
Efficiency for 25μm, Eq. 4.10, η=1-e
w

-8×1×4×0.037
[ ]
η=1-e 6 = 18%
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(NOTE: Vs can also be calculated by the empirical formula (𝑉𝑠 = 30000 ∙ 𝜌𝑝 ∙ 𝑑𝑝 2 ))

Problem 4.7:
Design a gravity settler to remove all the iron particulates from a dust-laden gas stream with the data
given as:
dp = 35μ uniform

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 7
Q = 3.6 m3/s
ρp =7.62 g/cc

Soln: Collection area required can be obtained from Eq. 4.10,

18μQ
dp2 =
WLg(ρp -ρ)

om
18μQ
WL=
dp2 g(ρp -ρ)
18×1.8×10-5 ×3.6
WL= 2 Neglect ρ, as ρ≪ρρ
(35×10-6 ) ×9.81×7620
WL = 12.8 m2

.c
Q 3.6
Assuming an inlet velocity of 3m/sec, the c/s area is, WH= = =1.2 m2
V 3

Based on minimum height required for cleaning purposes, H is usually 1m, then

ul
W×1=1.2 m2
W = 1.2 m
WL = 12.8 m2
12.8
pa
L= =10.6 m
1.2
But for economic considerations, We can take L=W,
WL = L2 = 12.8 m2
W = L = 3.5 m
jin
H=1m
Q 3.6
And in this case, V= = =1 m/s
WH 3.5×1
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4.3 Cyclone Separators

Cyclone separators are the most common separating devices called as centrifugal or inertial
separators because of the use of centrifugal force or action for the separation process. A cyclone
collector can be defined as “a structure without any moving parts in which the velocity of an inlet gas
stream is transformed into a confined vortex from which centrifugal forces tend to drive the suspended
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particles to the wall of the cyclone body”.

It depends upon centrifugal force instead of gravity to separate the particles from the gas stream.
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Because the centrifugal force generated can be several times greater than the gravitational force,
particles that can be removed in centrifugal collectors are much smaller than those that can be
removed in gravity settling chambers.
During cyclonic separation, carrier gas rotational velocity (velocity of vortex flow inside cyclone) may
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exceed several times the average inlet velocity.

4.3.1 Principle, Construction and Working of Cyclone Separators

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 8
Principle:
Centrifugal force separates the particulates from the gas stream instead of gravitational force. Velocity
of an inlet gas stream is transformed into a confined vortex from which centrifugal forces tend to drive
the suspended particles to the wall of the cyclone body.

Construction:
Generally a cyclone separator consists of a vertically placed cylinder, an inverted conical base attached

om
to the bottom of the cylinder, a dust hopper too collect the dust and an inlet from where the dirty gas
enters the cyclone. Outlet for clean gas is provided in the centre at the top. All the parts of the cyclone
are designed as per the standard set of dimensions as shown in the figure.

Working:
The dirty gas consisting of particulates is made to enter the cyclone with higher velocities through inlet,
tangentially to the cylinder. The gas path generally follows a double vortex. First, the gas spirals

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downwards along the wall of the cylinder and continues through conical portion and reaches the
bottom. Then, second, the gas stream moves upwards in a narrower inner spiral, concentric with the
first and comes out from the cyclone through the outlet pipe. Due to the rapid spiralling movement of

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the gas, the particles are thrown to the wall by the centrifugal force and then they fall to the bottom of
the body by gravity. They are collected in a storage hopper.
pa
jin
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w
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 9
 om
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ul
4.3.2 Design considerations:
1. A set of sizes of various parts of the cyclone
Diameter of the cyclone cylinder = Dc, Diameter of the gas exit De = Dc/2,
pa
Length of cylinder Lc = 2 Dc, Length of the cone Zc = 2 Dc,
Heigth of the entrance/inlet Hc = Dc/2, Width of the entrance/inlet Bc= Dc/4,
Diameter of dust exit Jc = Dc/4

2. Separation factor
jin
In a cyclone, the initial separating force is the radial component of the centrifugal force and is a
function of tangential velocity. The centrifugal force Fc is given by,
m V0 2
Fc=
R
.re

V0 2
Separation factor S =
gR

Higher the separation factor, the better is the performance of the cyclone.
w

3. Efficiency
1
η=
w

dPC 2
1+ ( )
dp
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4. Cut size
Cut size (dPC) is the size of those particles that are collected with 50% efficiency. Collection
efficiency will be greater than 50% for the particles larger than d PC. Collection efficiency will be
less for smaller particles.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 10
 The extremely smaller particles than dPC may be collected in very less quantity or they may not
be collected. Thus dPC is the diameter of the smallest particle which can be theoretically
completely separated from the gas stream.
9 μ Bc
dPC = √
2π Vi Nt (ρp -ρ)

om
5. Number of cyclones
If Q is total volumetric flow, then Q= VA
A is total area of cyclone including of all cyclones
V is inlet velocity
Then Q= VA = Vi Bc Hc n
Q
Number of cyclones (n)=

.c
Vi Bc Hc

6. Number of turns
Number of turns made by inlet gas

ul
in main outer vortex inside the cyclone
Lc
Nt= 1.5×
pa Hc
Or
1 𝑍𝑐
Nt= [𝐿𝑐 + ]
Hc 2
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4.3.3 Operating Problems
There are 3 important operating problems associated with cyclones. They are erosion, corrosion and
material build-up.
Erosion: Heavy, hard, sharp-edged particles, in a high concentration, moving at high velocity in the
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cyclone, continuously scrape against the wall and can erode the metallic surface. Therefore suitable body
material is used.
Corrosion: This problem occurs if the cyclone operates at lower temperatures and when reactive gases
are present. The best solution to any corrosion problem in a cyclone is to maintain the temperature
above the dew point. If the gas and dust are corrosive at low temperatures then perhaps the only
alternative is to use a stainless alloy.
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Build-up of dust cake: It occurs most frequently on the cyclone walls. It can be removed periodically
and scrapped.
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4.3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Cyclone separators

Advantages
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1. Low initial cost

2. Simple construction and operation
3. Low pressure drop
4. Low maintenance requirements
5. It has no moving parts
6. Continuous disposal of solid particulates

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 11
 7. They can be constructed of any material

Disadvantages
1. Low collection efficiency for particulates below 5-10μ
2. Equipment is subject to severe abrasive deterioration
3. Decreasing collection efficiency for decreasing particulate concentration.

om
4.3.5 Applications
Cyclones are used widely for control of particulates in industrial operations such as cement
manufacture, feed & grain processing, food and beverage processing, mineral processing, paper and
textile industry, and wood working industries.
Cyclones are also used to separate dust in disintegration operations, such as rock crushing, ore handling
and sand conditioning in industries. They are also used in the recovery of catalyst dusts in the petroleum

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industry, and in the reduction of fly ash emissions.

Problem 4.8:
Calculate number of cyclones required to treat a flow of 60m 3/sec with an inlet velocity of 15m/s. The

ul
diameter of cyclone is 1.8m.

Soln: Given Q= 60m3/sec, Dc = 1.8m, Vi = 15m/s

pa
Bc = Dc/4 = 1.8/4 = 0.45m
Hc = Dc/2 = 1.8/2 = 0.9m
Q
Number of cyclones (n)=
Vi Bc Hc
jin
60
n=
15×0.45×0.9

n = 9.876 ≅ 10 No's
.re

Problem 4.9:
Calculate collection efficiency for a gas flow rate of 7 m3/sec, particle density of 1500 Kg/m3 and
diameter of 10μ, if a multiple cyclone (64 cyclones each of diameter 24cm) is used instead of single large
unit.
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Soln: Given Q = 7m3/sec, Dc = 24cm = 0.24m, ρp =1500 Kg/m3 , dp = 10μ

w

Bc = Dc/4 = 0.24/4 = 0.06m

Hc = Dc/2 = 0.24/2 = 0.12m
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Area of inlet of one cyclone = Bc Hc = 0.06 × 0.12 = 7.2×10-3 m2

Area of all the inlets = 64×7.2×10-3 =0.45 m2

Inlet velocity Vi = Q/A = 7/0.45 = 15 m/s

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 12
Assuming Nt = 5 and μ @ 20 ℃=1.81×10-5 Kg⁄m .sec

9 μ Bc
(dPC)2 =
2π Vi Nt (ρp -ρ)
9×1.81×10-5 ×0.06
(dPC )2 =
2π ×15×5 (1500)

om
(dPC )2 = 1.3827×10−11

dPC = 3.7185×10−6𝑚 = 3.72 μ

Efficiency,
1
η=

.c
dPC 2
1+ ( )
dp
1
η=

ul
3.72 2
1+ ( )
10
η=0.878=87.8%
pa
Note: If you want you can neglect 𝜌 as 𝜌 ≪ 𝜌𝑝
Or simply take it as 1.2Kg/m3

Problem 4.10:
jin
A cyclone has an inlet width of 15cm and the shortest length of 25cm with diameter of 0.5m, operates
at 5 effective turns. The gas temperature is 345 K and inlet velocity is 20m/s. The average particle size
is 10μ with particle density 1.2 g/cc, the viscosity of the gas at 345 K is 0.745 Kg/m.h. Determine cut
diameter and separation factor. Is this a high efficiency cyclone?
.re

Soln:
Given Bc= 15cm= 0.15m, Lc = 25cm = 0.25m, Dc = 0.5m, Nt = 5, dp= 10μ, Vi= 20m/s,
ρp =1.2g/cc=1.2×103 =1200Kg/m3, μ= 0.745Kg/m.h
w

0.745
1Pa.s = 3600Kg/m.h then μ= =2.069×10-4 Pa.s
3600
Take ρ=1.2Kg/m3
9 μ Bc
(dPC )2 =
w

2π Vi Nt (ρp -ρ)

9×2.069×10-4 ×0.15
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(dPC )2 =
2π ×20×5 (1200-1.2)

(dPC )2 = 3.708×10−10

dPC = 1.92×10-5 m=19.25μ

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 13
 V0 2
Separation factor S =
gR

202
S= =163.09
9.81×0.25

om
dPC > dp
then the cyclone is highly efficient

Multiple cyclone separator unit

.c
ul
pa
jin
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 14
4.4 Fabric Filters
One of the oldest and most widely used methods of separating particulates from carrier gas is
‘Filtration’. A filter is generally a porous structure composed of granular or fibrous material which tends
to retain the particulates and allows the gas to pass through the voids of the filter. The filter is
constructed of any material compatible with the carrier gas and particulates and may be arranged in 1)
fabric or cloth filters 2) fibrous or deep bed filters.

om
In fabric/cloth filters, the filter is made of cloth material arranged in the form of tubular bags or cloth
envelops and is suitable for dust content of the order of 1g/m 3. They are capable of removing dust
particles as small as 0.5μ. In case of deep bed filters, the filter is made of fibrous material like mats of
wool, cellulose etc. Deep bed filters have large void spaces of 97-99% of total volume and collection of
particulates takes place in the interstices of the bed, and is suitable for light dust contents of the order
of 1mg/m3.

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4.4.1 Principle, construction and working of Fabric filter or Bag house filter

Principal

ul
Separation of particulates from carrier gas stream is simply like sieving as the small pores of the fabrics
retain the larger particles and allow only gas to pass through them. Basically, initial deposition of the
particulates on the filter media takes place through interception and impingement of the particles on the
pa
fabric fibres. A pre-coat or the dust cake will be formed on the filter media within a minute or two. This
dust cake/dust layer/pre-coat becomes itself a filtering media to retain more number of particles. The
fabric fibres just act like matrix to support the dust cake/pre-coat. Efficiency will be comparatively low
during the formation of pre-coat but efficiency increases after the formation of pre-coat.
jin
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Construction:
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The most common type of fabric filter consists of tube shaped fabric bags. A bag house consists of
numerous vertical bags of 120-400mm diameter and 2-10m long. The upper ends are closed and lower
ends are open. The bags are suspended and attached to a manifold/shaking mechanism. The hopper at
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the bottom serves as a collector for the dust. A baffle plate is provided infront of the inlet.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 15
 om
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ul
Working:
pa
The gas entering the house through inlet pipe strikes the baffle plate which causes the large particles to
fall into a hopper due to gravity. The carrier gas then flows upward into the tubes with velocity of 0.4-
1m/min and passes outward through the fabric leaving the particulate matter as a dust cake on inside
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walls of the bags. Efficiency during the formation of pre-coat is low, but efficiency increases after the
formation of pre-coat. Once the pre-coat is formed, it acts as a filtering media which helps in further
removal particulates. The clean gas comes out through the outlet.
The accumulation of dust on inside of the bags, increases air resistance therefore filter bags have to be
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cleaned periodically.

4.4.2 Factors affecting efficiency

1. Excessive filter ratios – ‘Filter ratio’ is defined as the ratio of the carrier gas volume to gross
filter area, per minute flow of the gas. Excessive filter ratio lowers the removal efficiency and
results in bag wear. Therefore low filter ratios are recommended for high concentration of
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particulate matter.
Filter ratio = Gas volume per minute flow/ Gross filter area
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Gas volume per minute of flow = Volume/Time = Discharge (Q)

And we know that Discharge (Q) = c/s Area (A) x Velocity (V)
Thus Filter ratio = AV/Gross filter area
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Here filter ratio is directly proportional to velocity. If the velocity increases, filter ratio
increases. High velocities cause escaping of particulates through pores of filter media that
decreases the efficiency. Thus low filter ratios are recommended.
2. Improper selection of filter media leads to lower removal efficiency and higher maintenance
costs. While selecting filter media for bag house, we must consider the characteristics and

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 16
 properties of carrier gas and dust particles such as temperature resistance of the material,
resistance to chemical attack, abrasion resistance, carrier gas temperature, carrier gas
composition, gas flow rate, size & shape of the dust particles and its concentration.

4.4.3 Operating problems in fabric filters

1. Cleaning: Periodic cleaning of bags is an important problem. After few hours of operation, the
formation of heavy dust layer blocks the passage of air. Thus the carrier gas no longer pass

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through the bag. Then the bags have to be cleaned by rapping, shaking, by reverse air flow or by
pulse jet.
2. Rupture of cloth: While cleaning the filter, the greatest problem that may be seen in cloth filters
is rupture of cloth. It is often difficult to find out the ruptures and it leads to replacement of the
cloth.
3. Temperature: Fabric filters will not perform properly if temperature overload occurs. Generally,

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the filters are designed for about 250ºC to 300ºC. The temperature related problem occurs when
carrier gas contains a reactive gas such as SO 2 which can form an acid if the temperature in the
bag house falls below the dew point. This can be prevented having the bag house fairly
insulated. Sometimes an auxiliary heater is used in winter season so that temperature does not

ul
fall below dew point.
4. Bleeding: Bleeding is the escape of fine particles through fabric. Bleeding occurs if fabric weave
is too open or if the superficial filtration velocity (Filter ratio) is too high. Generally, only very
fine particles may escape through fabrics and they only cause human health hazards. The
pa
solution to bleeding is to use double layered thick woven fabrics.
5. Humidity: Humidity control is a common and an important problem especially if a hygroscopic
dust is involved. Hygroscopic dusts are those readily attract water from its surroundings through
either absorption or adsorption. Cleaning will become difficult in such cases. This problem can
be overcome by taking suitable precautions.
jin
6. Chemical attack: Another problem associated with fabric filters is possibility of chemical attack
due to corrosive chemicals such as SO 2 present in the carrier gas. Acid/alkali resistant filter
cloths are to be used in such cases.
.re

4.4.4 Filter cleaning methods

Filter cleaning can be done by the following methods.
1. Shaking: The shaking mechanism is the oldest one, the number of bags suspended in the bag
house and attached to a shaking manifold are shaken manually or mechanically. Shaker cleaners
hold the top of the bag still and shake the entire tube sheath, vibrations produced by the shaker
loosens the dust cake. The dust will fall down into the hopper at the bottom. This method is not
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used for sticky dusts because the forces needed to remove the collected dust would cause tearing
and ripping in the bags quickly. For cleaning by this method, the filtration process has to be
stopped for some time and specified duration should be provided for cleaning.
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2. Reverse air flow: The filter is cleaned by a high velocity air jet which is discharged in reverse to
normal flow direction to the filter. Blow rings around the each bag are used to pass the air jet.
As the blow ring traverses outside of the filter tube, the air jet passes through the fabric in
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backward direction and removes dust cake continuously from the filter surface. The main
advantage of the this method are 1) No need of shutting down of filtration process blow rings
are a continuous cleaning mechanism 2) The cloth resistance can be maintained. But the
disadvantage is that blow rings are mechanical linkages and are individual attachments for each
bag, resulting in increased maintenance costs.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 17
 om
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3. Pulse jet: Here, a jet of high pressure air is blasted inside periodically. When the compressed
high pressure air is blasted, the bag will be inflated (swelled out or stretched out). This inflation
of bag causes the dust cake to loosen from the surface and then the dust cake falls down. The
pa
advantage of this method is, there are no moving parts and also duration of cleaning is not
important.
In general, while selecting particular cleaning method, we have to consider the cleaning mechanism,
frequency of cleaning required, duration of cleaning and any undesirable effects on the bags.
jin
.re
w
w
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 18
 An industrial unit of Bag House

om
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ul
pa
jin
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4.4.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of fabric filters

Advantages
w

1. High collection efficiency for particulates of all sizes.

2. Simple construction and operation
3. Nominal power consumption
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4. Dry disposal of collected material

Disadvantages
1. Operation limits are induced if carrier gas temperature and humidity are high.
w

2. High maintenance and fabric replacement costs

3. Large size of the equipment
4. Problems in handling dusts which may abrade, corrode, or blind the cloths.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 19
Problems 4.11:
A fabric filter is to be constructed using bags of 0.3m in diameter and 6m long. The bag house is to
receive 800m3/min of carrier gas. Determine the number of bags required if the superficial filtration
velocity is 2m/min.

Soln:
Given Q = 800m3/min, L = 6m,

om
Superficial filtering velocity = 2m/min (i.e., 2m 3/m2/min)

800 Q
∴ cloth area required for filtering= [∵Q=AV⇒A= ]
2 V
= 400m2
Area of each bag, A = π D L

.c
A = π x 0.3 x 6
A = 5.65m2

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑡ℎ 400

ul
∴ Total number of bags= = =70.79 ≅72 bags
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑎𝑔 5.65

Note: Here we can take 71 number of bags, but we cannot fix bags in a bag house in rows perfectly with
pa
odd numbers. If we assume 72 numbers, then for example, 72 bags can be fixed in 6 rows each of 12.

Problem 4.12:
A bag house filter having 20 compartments, 360 bags per compartment and each bag of diameter 11m
and bag length 30m, with gas flow rate of 12,00,000m3/min. Calculate the gross and net air to cloth
jin
ratios. Assume that 2 compartments are out of service when calculating the net air-cloth ratio.

Soln:
Given D= 11m, L= 30m, Q= 12,00,000 m3/min
.re

𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

= = 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝐹𝑎𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
w

Total number of bags in the bag house = 360 x 20 = 7200

Area of each bag, A = π D L
A = π x 11 x 30
A = 1036.72m2
w

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑡ℎ

Total number of bags=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑎𝑔
w

Total cloth area=𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑠 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑎𝑔

Total cloth area = 7200×1036.72 = 7.46×106 𝑚2

𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 1200000

𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = = 0.160
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 7.46 × 106

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 20
If two compartments are out of service,
Total number of bags in the bag house = 360 x 18 = 6480

Total cloth area=𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑠 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑎𝑔

Total cloth area = 6480×1036.72 = 6.717×106 𝑚2

om
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 1200000
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = = 0.178
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 6.717 × 106

4.5 Scrubbers/Wet collectors

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We know that nature cleanses herself up to considerable extent. Just consider that in an atmosphere,
the particulate matter is suspended in the air. When it rains in that atmosphere, what happens?
When it rains, all the dust particulates will be washed away from the atmosphere and they are carried
along with the rain water. Every water droplet of the rain hits the dust particle and it tends the particle

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to settle down. That’s why we all experience the fresh air sensation after every rain. The same principle
is used in the scrubbers.
Scrubbers are the devices which utilize a liquid to assist in removal of particulates from the carrier gas
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stream. Generally water is used as the scrubbing liquid. The scrubbers are basically cheap to install but
costly to operate. The particles larger than 0.2μ can be collected from high efficient scrubbers.

4.5.1 Collection Mechanism

The four major steps are involved in collecting particles by wet collectors.
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1) Transport – the particles must be moved to the vicinity of the water droplets which are usually
10-1000 times larger than particulates.
2) Collision- the particles must collide with the droplet.
3) Adhesion – when the particles collide with the droplets, they will be adhered (stuck) to the water
droplets.
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Interception - when they hit the droplets, the water droplets act as baffles/barriers which
disallow the particles to move further, thus particles will experience a loss of velocity and then
can be collected separately.
Condensation – Condensation of the liquid medium vapours on the particulates increases the
size and weight of particles. Thus, it helps in easy removal of the particulate matter.
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4) Precipitation – the particles are precipitated to the bottom of the scrubber containing dust
particles. It means removal of the droplets containing the dust particle form the gas phase.
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4.5.2 Types of scrubbers

Following are the most commonly used types of scrubbers.
1) Spray towers
2) Venturi scrubber
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3) Cyclone scrubber
4) Packed scrubber
5) Mechanical scrubber

4.5.2.1 Spray Towers

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 21
 A Spray tower is the simplest type of wet scrubber into which water is introduced by means of spray
nozzles. A simple spray tower is shown in figure. A spray tower can be either round or rectangular,
in which gas is passed, counter-current to falling liquid drops from spray nozzles. The particle
collection can be done by the mechanism of adhesion and interception.
Spray towers cause very little pressure loss (energy) and can handle large volume of gases. The
towers effectively remove particles >10μm. The maximum efficiency occurs if droplets have a
diameter of 800μm (0.8mm). The efficiency of a spray tower depends upon the droplet size, flow

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velocity of the gases, velocity of liquids etc. Effectiveness of the spray tower varies with the size of
particles. It is 94% for 5μm particles to 99% for 25μm particles.

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4.5.2.2 Venturi scrubbers
Venture scrubbers are called as high performance scrubbers. These are high energy wet
scrubbers with high efficiency collection of particles (0.5-5μm). These are suitable for submicron
particulates associated with smoke, fume and also highly corrosive matter. Venturi scrubbers
have converging and diverging sections. The high performance of the venture scrubber is
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achieved by accelerating the gas stream to very high velocities (60-100m/s). Due to high speed
action, the feed liquid is atomised (i.e., liquid layers broken into number of droplets) with
uniform fashion in the throat of the venturi. In the throat section, several low pressure spray
nozzles are mounted as shown in the figure.
The droplets accelerate in the throat section and due to the velocity difference between the
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particles and the droplets the particles are impacted against the slow moving droplets. Slurry is
sent to the collection tank and the cleaned gas is continuously passed out. The principle
collection mechanism is inertial impaction (collision and adhesion).
The application of venturi scrubber is more oftenly used in Kraft mill furnaces, metallurgical
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furnaces, sulphuric acid concentrators etc for removing mists and dusts from gases.
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 22
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4.5.2.3 Cyclone scrubbers

This is just a modification of dry cyclone by the addition of liquid phase. In cyclone scrubbers,
the gas is tangentially swirled around, as same as in the dry cyclone. Water sprays are introduced
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in the centre of the cyclone. Scrubbing liquid is sprayed from the centre to the wall of the
cyclone. These sprays help in the collection of particles preventing re-entrainment. Impingement
and inertial separation are the primary collection mechanisms.
For droplets of 100μm, efficiency may reach 100%. And 90-98% efficiency may be reached for
droplets of 5-50μm. Generally efficiencies slightly higher than those with the spray tower and
dry cyclone.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 23
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4.5.2.4 Packed scrubbers
In packed scrubbers, a bed of material is packed inside. Usually fibre glass fine filaments, coke or

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broken stone are used as the packing bed material. The polluted gas stream moves upward in a
counter current flow packed scrubber. And scrubbing liquid stream flows downward over the
packed bed. The gas stream and scrubbing liquid are passed through pore spaces of packed bed,
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particles present in the gas are captured by the liquid. The primary collection mechanism is
collision and adhesion. Smaller packing increases the efficiency. Sometimes packing towers
encounter plugging problems, which can be reduced by employing sprays to wash the packed
bed or by using low density spheres.
Packed towers can also be co-current or cross-flow type design (as shown in the figure)
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depending on the direction of liquid flow with respect to the direction of gas flow.
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 24
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Counter current packed scrubber Cross flow packed scrubber

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4.5.2.5 Mechanical scrubbers
This is a mechanically aided scrubber, has a rotating mechanical part for breaking up the liquid
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layers into smaller droplets and simultaneously creating turbulence. These are high energy
scrubbers.
Here, the liquid-particles contact is achieved by the simultaneous introduction of scrubbing
liquid and gas stream on the rotating discs, blades or perforated plates. The scrubbing liquid falls
down on the rotating part and violently disintegrated into fine droplets that are thrown out
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radially by centrifugal force and are removed quite easily.
These scrubbers have high initial cost, high operating cost and require considerable
maintenance. The water use rate is also high.
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4.5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Wet collectors or Scrubbers:

Advantages:
1. Low initial cost
2. Moderately high collection efficiency for even submicron particles

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 25
 3. Applicable for high temperature installations
4. They can simultaneously remove particulates and gases
5. Valuable byproducts can be obtained.
For example, if Sulfur dioxide is present in the gas, 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂3 /𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 here,
H2O is scrubbing liquid and sulfuric acid is valuable byproduct.
If the ammonia is present in the gas, 2𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → (𝑁𝐻4 )2 𝑆𝑂4 here sulfuric acid is
scrubbing liquid and ammonium sulfate is a valuable byproduct.

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Disadvantages:
1. High power consumption for higher efficiency
2. High maintenance costs because of corrosion and abrasion
3. Wet disposal of the collected material

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4.6 Electrostatic Precipitators
Electrostatic precipitation is a method of dust collection that uses electrostatic forces. They have been
successfully used for removal of fine dusts from all kinds of waste gases with very high efficiencies (98-

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99%). Particles as small as 0.1μ can be removed.

Basically, an ESP consists of six major components,

1. A source of high voltage
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2. Discharge electrodes and collecting electrodes
3. Inlet and outlet for the gases
4. A hopper for disposal of collected material
5. An electronic cleaning system
6. An outer casing form an enclosure around the electrodes (precipitator shell)
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4.6.1 Principle:
Electrostatic precipitators (ESP) are particulate collection devices that utilise electrical energy directly to
assist in the removal of the particulate matter. In an ESP, the gas containing aerosols is passed between
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two electrodes. Out of the two electrodes, one is a discharging electrode (anodic) and the other a
collecting electrode (cathodic). Electric potentials as high as 40-60 KV are used. Because of such high
voltage, a powerful ionising field is formed. This ionisation creates an active glow zone (blue electric
discharge) called ‘corona’. As the particulates in the carrier gas pass through this field, they get charged
and migrate to the oppositely charged collecting electrode. The particles once deposited on the
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collecting electrode, they are removed mechanically by rapping, vibration or washing and collected in
the hopper at the bottom.
Thus four steps in the process involved are,
1) Gas ionisation – charging of particulates
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2) Migration of particles to the collector

3) Neutralisation of the charge at collector
4) Removal of collected particles
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4.6.2 Types of ESPs:

ESPs can be grouped, or classified according to a number of different features in their design.

 Based on the structural design and operation of the discharge electrodes (Ex: rigid-frame, wires
or plate) and collection electrodes (Ex: pipe or plate type ESP)

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 26
  Based on the method of charging (Ex: single-stage or two-stage)
 Based on the method of particle removal from collection surfaces (Ex: wet or dry ESP)

These categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, an ESP can be a rigid-frame, single-stage,
plate-type ESP as described below.

Single stage and two stage ESPs:

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ESPs are classified by the number of stages used to charge and remove particles from a gas stream.
A single-stage precipitator uses high voltage to charge the particles, which are then collected within
the same chamber on collection surfaces of opposite charge.
In a two-stage precipitator, particles are charged by low voltage in one chamber, and then collected by
oppositely charged surfaces in a second chamber.
Almost all industrial precipitators are of single stage design. Usually two stage precipitator is used for

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lightly concentrated gases and single stage for more heavily concentrated industrial gas streams.

Single-stage ESPs use very high voltage (50 to 70 kV) to charge particles. After being charged, particles
move in a direction perpendicular to the gas flow through the ESP, and migrate to an oppositely

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charged collection surface, usually a plate or pipe. Particle charging and collection occurs in the same
stage and same chamber. Thus, the precipitators are called single-stage ESPs.
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The two-stage precipitator differs from the single-stage precipitator in both design and amount of
voltage applied. The two-stage ESP has separate particle charging and collection stages as shown in the
figure. The ionizing stage consists of a series of small, positively charged wires equally spaced 2.5 to 5.1
cm from parallel grounded tubes/pipes. A corona discharge between each wire and a corresponding
tube charges the particles suspended in the air flow as they pass through the ionizer. The direct-current
potential applied to the wires is approximately 12 to 13 kV. The second stage consists of parallel metal
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plates less than 2.5 cm apart. The particles receive a positive charge in the ionizer stage (first chamber)
and are collected at the collector plates in the second stage (second chamber).
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Figure: Single - stage Pipe type ESP Figure : Single - stage Plate type ESP

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 27
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Figure: Two – stage ESP

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Tubular and Plate ESPs:

Tubular or pipe type precipitators consist of cylindrical collection electrodes (tubes) with discharge
electrodes (wires with small radius of curvature) located in the center of the cylinder (figure). The
wires/discharge electrodes must be weighted to keep them straight and in the center of cylinders. Dirty
gas flows into the tubes, where the particles are charged. The charged particles are then collected on the
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inside walls of the tubes. Collected particles are removed by rapping of pipes or washing the pipes with
water sprays located directly above the tubes. The tubes may be formed as a circular, square, or
hexagonal honeycomb with gas flowing upward or downward. A tubular ESP is tightly sealed to
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minimize leaks of collected material. Tube diameters typically vary from 0.15 to 0.31m, with lengths
usually varying from 2 to 5m. Spacing between discharge electrode and collection electrode ranges from
8 to 20cm.
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Tubular precipitators are generally used for collecting mists or fogs, and are most commonly used when
collecting particles that are wet or sticky. Tubular ESPs have been used to control particulate emissions
from sulfuric acid plants, coke oven byproduct gas cleaning (tar removal), and iron and steel sinter
plants.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 28
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Figure : Diagrams showing Tubular or pipe type ESP
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Plate electrostatic precipitators primarily collect dry particles and are used more often than tubular
precipitators. Plate ESPs can have wire, rigid-frame, or occasionally, plate discharge electrodes. Figure
shows a plate ESP with wire discharge electrodes. Dirty gas flows into a chamber consisting of a series
of discharge electrodes that are equally spaced along the center line between adjacent collection plates.
Charged particles are collected on the plates as dust, which is periodically removed by rapping or water
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sprays. Discharge wire electrodes are approximately 0.13 to 0.38cm in diameter. Collection plates are
usually between 3 and 6m high. For ESPs with wire discharge electrodes, the plates are usually spaced
from 15 to 35cm apart. For ESPs with rigid-frame or plate discharge electrodes, plates are typically
spaced 30 to 38cm apart and 8 to 12m in height.
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Plate ESPs are typically used for collecting fly ash from industrial and utility boilers as well as in many
other industries including cement kilns, glass plants and pulp and paper mills.
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4.6.3 Advantages and disadvantages of ESPs:

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 29
Advantages of ESPs:
1. High collection efficiency
2. Particles as small as 0.1μ can be removed.
3. Low maintenance and operating costs
4. Low pressure drop
5. Satisfactory handling of large quantities of high temperature gases

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6. Treatment time is negligible
7. Cleaning is easy

Disadvantages of ESPs:
1. High initial cost
2. Space requirement is more because of the larger size of the equipment
3. Possible explosion hazards

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4. Precautions are necessary to maintain safety during operation.
5. Poisonous gas ‘Ozone’ is produced during gas ionization.

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4.6.4 Applications of ESPs:
The important applications of ESP are listed in the table below.

Sl. No. Industry Application

1
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Cement factories
Cleaning of flue gas from
cement kilns, recovery of cement
dust from kilns.
Soda-Fume recovery in Kraft
2 Pulp and paper
pulp mills
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Cleaning blast furnace gas,
removing tars from coke over
3 Steel plants
gases, cleaning open hearth and
electric furnace gases.
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Collection of Sox. Phosphoric

Acid mist, cleaning various types
of gases i.e., hydrogen, CO2,
4 Chemical Industries
SO2, Removing dost from
elemental phosphorus in the
vapor state
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5 Petroleum industry Recovery of catalyst

Agglomeration and collection of
6 Carbon black industry
carbon black
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Collecting Fly ash from coal

7 Thermal Power plants
fired boilers.
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4.6.5 Design considerations of ESP

1. The efficiency of the ESP is given by
(−𝑉𝑝 ∙𝐴𝑐)
𝜂 = 1−𝑒 𝑄
Where,

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 30
 Q= Gas flow rate
Vp= Drift velocity or migration velocity

Note: Ac= Total collection area if Q is total gas flow rate.

And also Ac = Area of the one collecting electrode if Q is considered as gas flow rate in each
channel.

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2. Gas flow rate is calculated by
𝜋𝐷 2
𝑄= × 𝑉𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐸𝑆𝑃
4

𝑄 = 𝐻𝑆 × 𝑉𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐸𝑆𝑃

Where ,

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D= Diameter of the cylinder (0.1 to 0.5m)
H= height of the collecting electrode (2 to 6m)
S= Spacing between the plates

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3. Area of collecting electrode is calculated by
𝐴𝑐 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐸𝑆𝑃

Where,
L= length of the collecting electrode
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𝐴𝑐 = 2𝐻𝐿 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝐸𝑆𝑃

If many number of channels are there, then total collection area Ac = 2HL x n
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Where n is the number of channels.

4. Migration / Drift velocity is the velocity of particles migrating towards attractive collection
electrodes after being charged in the corona field. It depends upon different operational
quantities like electric field strength, particle size, viscosity of gas and dielectric & resistivity
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properties of the dust. Vp normally ranges from 0.05 to 0.2m/s.

The drift velocity is given by
𝑉𝑝 = 𝑎 × 𝑑𝑝
dp = diameter of the particles
a = constant and is a function of voltage applied
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Problem 4.13:
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Design a parallel plate type ESP with 10 channels to handle 10000m 3/hr of gas for efficiency of 90%,
99% and 99.9%.

Soln: Given Q= 10000 m3/hr = 2.78m3/sec

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n= no. of channels = 10
Assume Vp = 0.1m/sec and H= 2m
Area of each collecting plate 2HL = 4L m2
For 10 channels, total collecting area = 2HL x n = 40L m2
(−𝑉𝑝 ∙𝐴𝑐)
𝜂 = 1−𝑒 𝑄

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 31
 −𝑄 −2.78
For 90% , 𝐴𝑐 = ln(1 − 𝜂) = × ln(1 − 0.90) = 64.011𝑚2
𝑉𝑝 0.1

64.011m2 is the total collection area,

Then length of each collecting plate can be calculated as,
40L = 64.011m2
L= 1.6m

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−𝑄 −2.78
For 99% , 𝐴𝑐 = ln(1 − 𝜂) = × ln(1 − 0.99) = 128.023 𝑚2
𝑉𝑝 0.1
40L = 128.023m2
L= 3.20m

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−𝑄 −2.78
For 99.9% , 𝐴𝑐 = ln(1 − 𝜂) = × ln(1 − 0.999) = 192.03 𝑚2
𝑉𝑝 0.1
40L= 192.03m2
L= 4.80m

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---------------------------------------- OR ------------------------------------------------

Soln: Given Q= 10000 m3/hr = 2.78m3/sec

n= no. of channels = 10
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Gas flow rate in each channel = total Q/n = 2.78/10 = 0.278 m3/sec
Assume Vp = 0.1m/sec and H= 2m
Area of each collecting plate 2HL = 4L m2
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(−𝑉𝑝 ∙𝐴𝑐)
𝜂 = 1−𝑒 𝑄

−𝑄 −0.278
For 90% , 𝐴𝑐 = ln(1 − 𝜂) = × ln(1 − 0.90) = 6.4011𝑚2
𝑉𝑝 0.1
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4L = 6.4011m2
L= 1.6m
−𝑄 −0.278
For 99% , 𝐴𝑐 = ln(1 − 𝜂) = × ln(1 − 0.99) = 12.8023 𝑚2
𝑉𝑝 0.1
4L = 12.8023m2
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L= 3.20m
−𝑄 −0.278
For 99.9% , 𝐴𝑐 = ln(1 − 𝜂) = × ln(1 − 0.999) = 19.203 𝑚2
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𝑉𝑝 0.1
4L= 19.203m2
L= 4.80m
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(Note: For total collection area Ac of all the collecting plates, consider Q as the total gas flow rate. If
you take Ac as area of a single collecting electrode plate, then Q is taken as gas flow rate in each channel
i.e., total Q/n)

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 32
Problem 4.14:
Design a parallel plate ESP with an efficiency of 90, 99 and 99.9% of removal of 0.75μm sized fly ash
from a cement industry with gas flow rate of 10m 3/sec. Pilot plant studies showed that drift velocity
Vp= 2.5x105 dp m/sec.

Soln: Given Q = 10m3/sec

dp = 0.75μm = 0.75x10-6m

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Vp = 2.5x105 x dp = 2.5x105x0.75x10-6 = 0.1875m/sec

Total collection area,

For 90% efficiency,
(−𝑉𝑝 ∙𝐴𝑐)
𝜂 = 1−𝑒 𝑄

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−𝑉𝑝 ∙ 𝐴𝑐
= ln(1 − 𝜂)
𝑄

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−𝑄 −10
𝐴𝑐 = ln(1 − 𝜂) = × ln(1 − 0.90) = 122.8𝑚2
𝑉𝑝 0.1875

For 99% efficiency, pa

−𝑄 −10
𝐴𝑐 = ln(1 − 𝜂) = × ln(1 − 0.99) = 245.6𝑚2
𝑉𝑝 0.1875

For 99.9% efficiency,

−𝑄 −10
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𝐴𝑐 = ln(1 − 𝜂) = × ln(1 − 0.999) = 368.4𝑚2
𝑉𝑝 0.1875

Assume L= 10m, H= 2m, S= 0.15m

∴ Area of each channel = 2HL= 2 x 10m x 2m= 40m2
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∴ Number of channels
122.8
1) For 90% efficiency, 𝑛= =3
40
245.6
2) For 99% efficiency, 𝑛= =6
40
368.4
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3) For 99.9% efficiency, 𝑛 = =9

40

∴ Number of plates required for 90, 99 and 99.9% efficiency are 4, 7 and 10 respectively.
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Problem 4.15:
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A plate ESP is used in a cement plant for removing dust particles consist of 10 equal channels. The
spacing between plates is 15cm and the plates are 3m high and 3m long. Unit handles 20000m 3/hr of
gas.
1. What is the efficiency of collection plates?
2. What should be the length of the plate for achieving efficiency of 99% keeping other parameters
same?

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 33
Soln: Given n=10
L= 3m, H= 3m
Q= 20000 m3/hr = 20000/3600 = 5.555m3/sec
Assume Vp= 0.1m/sec

Total collection area Ac = 2HL x n = 2 x 3 x 3 x 10 = 180m2

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(−𝑉𝑝 ∙𝐴𝑐)
𝜂 = 1−𝑒 𝑄
−0.1×180
𝜂 = 1− 𝑒 5.555
𝜂 = 0.9608 = 96.08%

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Now to increase the efficiency of 96.08% to 99%,
Total collection area Ac = 2HL x n = 2 x 3 x L x 10 = 60L m 2

(−𝑉𝑝 ∙𝐴𝑐)

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𝜂 = 1− 𝑒 𝑄
−0.1×60𝐿
0.99 = 1 − 𝑒
pa 5.555

−0.1×60𝐿
𝑒 5.555 = 1 − 0.99

−0.1 × 60𝐿
= ln(0.01)
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5.555

L= 4.26m

Problem 4.16:
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Dust has particles with migration velocity of 0.25m/sec. For a total air flow of 65m 3/sec, what must be
the number of collecting plates each having area of 100m2. Assume collection efficiency to be 95%.

Soln: Given Q= 65m3/sec, Vp= 0.25m/sec, A= 100m2

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(−𝑉𝑝 ∙𝐴𝑐)
𝜂 = 1−𝑒 𝑄

−𝑉𝑝 ∙ 𝐴𝑐
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= ln(1 − 𝜂)
𝑄
−𝑄 −65
Total collection area 𝐴𝑐 = ln(1 − 𝜂) = × ln(1 − 0.95) = 778.8𝑚2
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𝑉𝑝 0.25

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 = +1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
778.8
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 = + 1 = 8.78 ≅ 9 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
100

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 34
Problem 4.17:
Design a tubular ESP for the gas flow rate of 2.78m3/sec with 30cm diameter tubes for efficiencies of
90%, 99% and 99.9%. Assume inlet gas velocity 1m/sec.

Soln: Given Q=2.78 m3/sec, D=0.3m, Vg= 1m/sec

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Assume Vp = 0.075m/sec

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 0.3𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 1𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
=
𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
2.78 2.78

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= 𝜋 = = 39.3 𝑠𝑎𝑦 40
⁄4 × 𝐷 2 × 𝑉𝑔 𝜋⁄4 × 0.32 × 1

Corrected gas flow rate for each tube = 2.78/40 = 0.0695m3/sec

ul
(−𝑉𝑝 ∙𝐴𝑐)
𝜂 = 1−𝑒 𝑄

−𝑉𝑝 ∙ 𝐴𝑐
𝑄
= ln(1 − 𝜂)
pa
−𝑉𝑝 ∙ 𝜋𝐷𝐿
= ln(1 − 𝜂)
𝑄
𝑄
jin
𝐿= ln(1 − 𝜂)
−𝑉𝑝 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ 𝐷

0.0695
𝐿= ln(1 − 0.90) = 2.26𝑚
−0.075 × 𝜋 × 0.3
.re

0.0695
𝐿= ln(1 − 0.99) = 4.52𝑚
−0.075 × 𝜋 × 0.3
0.0695
𝐿= ln(1 − 0.999) = 6.78𝑚
−0.075 × 𝜋 × 0.3
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Problem 4.18:
A cement plant was emitting flue gases at the rate of 20000m 3/hr. Assuming inlet gas velocities of
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2m/sec, design a tubular ESP with 0.20m diameter with 7 cylinders to achieve the efficiency of 90%
and 95%.
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Soln: Given Q= 20000 m3/hr = 5.555 m3/s

Vg= 2m/s, D= 0.2m
Assume Vp= 0.2m/sec

Gas flow rate in each tube = total flow / no. of tubes = 5.555 / 7 = 0.7935 m3/s

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 35
 𝑄
𝐿= ln(1 − 𝜂)
−𝑉𝑝 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ 𝐷
0.7935
For 90%, 𝐿= ln(1 − 0.9) = 14.53m
−0.2 ∙𝜋∙0.2

0.7935
For 95%, 𝐿= ln(1 − 0.95) = 18.91m

om
−0.2 ∙𝜋∙0.2

Problem 4.19:
A cylindrical ESP of diameter 0.3m is used for separating pulvarised coal flyash particles from a furnace
gas stream. If the volumetric flow rate of the gas is 0.05m3/sec, what will be the length of the
precipitator for obtaining a collection efficiency of 99.9%? What percent change in electrode collection

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area is required to increase the collection efficiency from 99.9 to 99.95%?

Soln: Given Q= 0.05m3/sec, D= 0.3m

Assume Vp= 0.1m/sec

ul
Area of the collecting electrode Ac = π x D x L = 0.3 π L

For 99.9%,
𝜂 = 1−
(−𝑉𝑝 ∙𝐴𝑐)
𝑒 𝑄
pa
−𝑄
𝐴𝑐 = ∙ ln(1 − 𝜂)
𝑉𝑝
jin
−0.05
𝐴𝑐 = ln(1 − 0.999) = 3.45m2
0.1

0.3 π L = 3.45
L = 3.661m
.re

For 99.95%,
−𝑄
𝐴𝑐 = ∙ ln(1 − 𝜂)
𝑉𝑝
−0.05
𝐴𝑐 = ln(1 − 0.9995) = 3.80m2
0.1
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𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 3.80−3.45

Percentage increase in collection area = = = 10.14%
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𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 3.45

Problem 4.20:
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An industrial installation has two ESPs, each designed to handle 48m 3/sec. The collecting surface per
precipitator is 1440m2. For a migration velocity of 0.13m/sec, calculate the efficiency of each
precipitator. If one of the precipitator is shut down and it is decided to treat the total gas volume in the
other precipitator, calculate the new efficiency.

Soln: Given Q= 48m3/sec, Ac = 1440m2, Vp= 0.13m/sec

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 36
 (−𝑉𝑝 ∙𝐴𝑐)
𝜂 = 1−𝑒 𝑄

−0.13×1440
𝜂 = 1− 𝑒 48

𝜂 = 0.979 = 97.9%

om
If one of the precipitator is shut down and it is decided to treat the total gas volume in the other
precipitator,
−0.13×1440
𝜂 = 1− 𝑒 48×2

𝜂 = 0.8577 = 85.77%

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ul
*****

pa
jin
.re
w
w
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SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 37