Chapter 1

Introduction
Dipa Soni
DATA COMMUNICATIONS

 The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word

data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the
parties creating and using the data. Data communications are the exchange of
data between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a
wire cable.
Fundamental Characteristics for
effective Data Communication
 The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics:
 Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
 Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately.
 Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
 Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
Components of a data communication system
Continue…
 Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular
forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
 Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
 Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which
a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission
media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio
waves.
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
Continue…

 Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-

way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can
only receive.
 Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive,
but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only
receive, and vice versa.
 Full-Duplex: In full-duplex mode(also called duplex), both stations can
transmit and receive simultaneously
NETWORKS
 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication
links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. A link can be a cable, air,
optical fiber, or any medium which can transport a signal carrying information.
Network Criteria
 Performance
 Depends on Network Elements
 Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
 Reliability
 Failure rate of network components
 Measured in terms of availability/robustness
 Security
 Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
 Errors
 Malicious users
Physical Structure

 Type of Connection
 Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
 Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
 Physical Topology
 Connection of devices
 Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast
Types of connections: Point-to-Point
Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated
link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Types of connections: Multipoint
• Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more
than two specific devices share a single link.
• In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a
spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is timeshared connection.
Categories of Topology
Mesh Topology

 In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every

other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only
between the two devices it connects.
 To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n
nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected to every other
node. Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be connected to
n – 1 nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n
- 1) physical links. However, if each physical link allows communication in
both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of links by 2. In
other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need
n(n-1)/2
duplex-mode links.
A fully connected mesh topology (five
devices)
Different types of mesh topology

 There are two forms of this topology: full mesh and a partially-connected
mesh.
 In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection
to each of the other computers in that network.
 In a partially-connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in
the network have connections to multiple other computers in that
network.
Advantages and Disadvantages of a mesh
topology

 Advantage:
 Manages high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.
 Provide privacy or security. Every message travels along a dedicated line, only the
intended recipient sees it.
 Disadvantage:
 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable
option.
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential
for reduced efficiency.
Star Topology

 In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a

central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to
one another.
 Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between
devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data
to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to
the other connected device.
A star topology connecting four stations
Advantages and Disadvantages of a star
topology
 Advantage:
 Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central computer,
hub, or switch.
 Easy to add another computer to the network.
 If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to function
normally.
 Disadvantage:
 The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the
network can handle.
 If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all
computers are disconnected from the network.
Bus Topology

 The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus

topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone
(it is a part of a computer network which interconnects networks, providing a
path for the exchange of information between different LANs or
subnetworks.) to link all the devices in a network.
 This topology is famously used for the Local Area Network.
 The terminator is used to absorb the signal when the signal reaches the end,
preventing signal bounce.
 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. As a signal
travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat.
Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther.
For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and
on the distance between those taps.
A bus topology connecting three stations
Advantages and Disadvantages of a bus
topology
 Advantage:
 It works well when you have a small network.
 It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a
linear fashion.
 It requires less cable length than a star topology.
 Disadvantage:
 It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
 Bus topology is not great for large networks.
 Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails.
Ring Topology

 A ring topology is a network configuration where device connections create a

circular data path.
 In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with
only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in
one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.
 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a
signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and
passes them along.
 A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to
only its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete
a device requires changing only two connections.
 In addition, fault isolation is simplified. Generally in a ring, a signal is
circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a signal within a
specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator
to the problem and its location.
A ring topology connecting six stations
Advantages and Disadvantages of a ring
topology
 Advantage:
 All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
 A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each
workstation.
 Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the network.
 Disadvantage:
 All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on the
network, which can make it slower than a other topology.
 The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
 In Unidirectional Ring, a data packet must pass through all the nodes. (Let’s say A, B, C,
D, and E are a part of the ring network. The data flow is from A towards B and
henceforth. In this condition, if E wants to send a packet to D, the packet must traverse
the entire network to reach D.)
Hybrid Topology

 A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with
each branch connecting several stations in a bus topology

A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

Categories of Networks

 Local Area Networks (LANs)

 Short distances
 Designed to provide local interconnectivity
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
 Long distances
 Provide connectivity over large areas
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
 Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
Local Area Network (LAN)
 A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office,
building, or campus.
 Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology used, a LAN can be as
simple as two PCs and a printer in someone's home office; or it can extend throughout a
company and include audio and video peripherals. Currently, LAN size is limited to a few
kilometers.
 LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or
workstations. The resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software
(e.g., an application program), or data. A common example of a LAN, found in many business
environments, links a workgroup of task-related computers, for example, engineering
workstations or accounting PCs. One of the computers may be given a large capacity disk
drive and may become a server to clients. Software can be stored on this central server and
used as needed by the whole group.
 In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their transmission
media and topology. The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.
 Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second (Mbps) range. Today, however,
speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.
An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a
hub in a closet
Wide Area Network(WAN)

 A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large

geographical area comprising a region, a country, or even the whole world.
WAN includes the technologies to transmit data, image, audio and video
information over long distances and among different LANs and MANs.
 A router or other multifunction device is used to connect a LAN to a WAN.
Enterprise WANs allow users to share access to applications, services and
other centrally located resources. This eliminates the need to install the same
application server, firewall or other resources in multiple locations, for
example.
 WANs have a large capacity, connecting a large number of computers over a
large area, and are inherently scalable.
Continue…

 Advantage:
 Can cover a large geographical area
 Centralized infrastructure
 Disadvantage:
 High set up cost
 Possibility for security gaps
 Needs antivirus software and firewalls
Continue…
Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size greater than LAN
but smaller than a WAN. It connects two or more computers that are apart
but resides in the same or different cities.
 It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service
Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity.
 Speeds of MAN ranges in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain a
Metropolitan Area Network.
 Man is nothing but extended LAN.
The distinguishing features of MAN are:
 Network size generally ranges from 5 to 50 km. It may be as small as a group of
buildings in a campus to as large as covering the whole city.
 Data rates are moderate to high.
 In general, a MAN is either owned by a user group or by a network provider who
sells service to users, rather than a single organization as in LAN.
Continue…
Questions

 If two computers are in the range of 10Km and if they communicate with each
other using internet than it falls in which category
 Ans: WAN
 If two computers are in the two different countries and if they communicate
with each other using either Ethernet or optical fiber cable or twisted pair
cable than it falls in which category
 Ans: LAN
Internetwork
When two or more networks are connected, they become an
internetwork, or internet.
Protocols
 A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of rules that govern data
communications. It determines what is communicated, how it is communicated
and when it is communicated.
The key elements of a protocol are:
 Syntax
 Structure or format of the data
 Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
 Semantics
 Interprets the meaning of the bits
 Knows which fields define what action
 Timing
 When data should be sent and what
 Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being received.
Layered Task
 We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider
two friends who communicate through postal mail. The process of sending a
letter to a friend would be complex if there were no services available from
the post office.
The OSI Model

 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that

describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application
in another computer.
 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
 OSI model was developed by the International Standards Organization(ISO) in
1970.
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks.
Each layer is assigned a particular task.
Seven layers of the OSI model

The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers: physical (layer 1), data link (layer 2),
network (layer 3), transport (layer 4), session (layer 5), presentation (layer 6), and
application (layer 7). Above figure shows the layers involved when a message is sent from
device A to device B. As the message travels from A to B, it may pass through many
intermediate nodes. These intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three layers
of the OSI model.
The interaction between layers in the OSI
model
Organization of the Layers

 The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups.

 Layers I, 2, and 3-physical, data link, and network-are the network support layers;
they deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another
(such as electrical specifications, physical connections, physical addressing, and
transport timing and reliability).
 Layers 5, 6, and 7-session, presentation, and application-can be thought of as the
user support layers; they allow interoperability among unrelated software
systems.
 Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups and ensures that what the
lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use.
 The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in software; lower layers are
a combination of hardware and software, except for the physical layer, which is
mostly hardware.
An exchange using the OSI model
Layers in the OSI Model

 Now we briefly describe the functions of each layer in the OSI model:
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Physical Layer

 Physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI reference model. It is responsible
for sending individual bits from one hop(node) to another. This layer is not
concerned with the meaning of the bits and deals with the setup of physical
connection to the network and with transmission and reception of signals.

Physical Layer
Functions of Physical Layer:
 Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of bits. The bits must
be encoded into signals for transmission. It defines the type of encoding i.e. how
0's and 1's are changed to signal.
 Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission which is the number of bits
per second.
 Synchronization of bits: It deals with the synchronization of the transmitter and
receiver. The sender and receiver are synchronized at bit level. In other words,
the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized..
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and transmission medium. It
also defines the type of transmission medium.
 Line Configuration: This layer connects devices with the medium: Point to Point
configuration and Multipoint configuration.
 Topologies: Devices must be connected using the following topologies: Mesh, Star,
Ring and Bus.
 Transmission Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex.
Data Link Layer

 Data link layer performs the most reliable node to node delivery of data. It
forms frames from the packets that are received from network layer and
gives it to physical layer.
Data Link Layer
Functions of Data Link Layer:
 Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units called frames.
 Physical Addressing: If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender
and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the
sender's network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects
the network to the next one.
 Flow Control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less
than the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer
imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
 Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a trailer at the end of the
frame. It adds a mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It
also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
 Access Control: Protocols of this layer determine which of the devices has control
over the link at any given time, when two or more devices are connected to the
same link.
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
 The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the
delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network (links), the network
layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination.
 If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network
layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different networks (links) with
connecting devices between the networks (links), there is often a need for the network
layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
Network Layer

Functions of Network Layer:

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: The physical addressing implemented by the data link
layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network
boundary, we need another addressing system to help distinguish the source
and destination systems. The network layer adds a header to the packet
coming from the upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical
addresses of the sender and receiver.
Network Layer
Transport Layer

 Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
 It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
 The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
Transport Layer
Functions of Transport Layer:
 Service Point Addressing: Transport Layer header includes service point address which is port
address. This layer gets the message to the correct process on the computer unlike Network Layer,
which gets each packet to the correct computer.
 Segmentation and Reassembling: A message is divided into segments; each segment contains
sequence number, which enables this layer reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
 Connection Control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connectionoriented:
 Connectionless Transport Layer : Each segment is considered as an independent packet and delivered
to the transport layer at the destination machine.
 Connection Oriented Transport Layer : Before delivering packets, connection is made with transport
layer at the destination machine
 Flow control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control. However,
flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
 Error control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control.
However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a single
link. The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is usually achieved
through retransmission.
Transport Layer
Session Layer
 The Session Layer allows users on different machines to establish active
communication sessions between them.
 It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.
Session Layer
Functions of Session Layer:
 Dialog Control : This layer allows the systems to communicate in either half-
duplex or full-duplex mode of communication.
 Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are
considered as synchronization points into stream of data. Example: If a
system is sending a file of 800 pages, adding checkpoints after every 50 pages
is recommended. This ensures that 50 page unit is successfully received and
acknowledged. This is beneficial at the time of crash as if a crash happens at
page number 110; there is no need to retransmit 1 to100 pages.
Presentation Layer
 The primary goal of this layer is to take care of the syntax and semantics of
the information exchanged between two communicating systems.
 Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the
receiver will understand the information(data) and will be able to use the
data. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems.
Under this condition presentation layer plays a role translator.
Presentation Layer
Functions of Presentation Layer:
 Translation : The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually
exchanging information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The
information must be changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because
different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is
responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. The
presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-
dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving
machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
 Encryption : To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure
privacy. Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to
another form and sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption
reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
 Compression : Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information. Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission
of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
Application Layer

 It is the top most layer of OSI Model. Manipulation of data(information) in

various ways is done in this layer which enables user or software to get access
to the network. Some services provided by this layer includes: E-Mail,
transferring files, distributing the results to user, directory services, network
resources, etc.
 The Application Layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly
needed by users. One widely-used application protocol is HTTP(HyperText
Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web. When a
browser wants a web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the
server using HTTP. The server then sends the page back.
Application Layer

Functions of Application Layer:

 Network Virtual Terminal : A network virtual terminal is a software version of
a physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File transfer, access, and management : This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files
from a remote computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or
control files in a remote computer locally.
 Mail services : This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and
storage.
 Directory Services : This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.
Summary of Layers
Video
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore,
the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI
model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.
 However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the host-to-
network layer is equivalent to the combination of the physical and data link
layers. The internet layer is equivalent to the network layer, and the
application layer is roughly doing the job of the session, presentation.
 So, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.
Transmission Media

 A transmission media defined as anything that carry information between a

source to a destination.
 Located below the physical layer and are directly controlled by the physical
layer.
Types of Transmission Media
Guided Media

 Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit(channel) from one
device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic
cable.
 Twisted –pair cables and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that
accept and transport signals in the form of electric current
 Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transport signals in the form of the
light
Twisted Pair Cable

 A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together.

 One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only
as a ground reference.
 If the two wires are parallel, the effect of interference noise and crosstalk is big.
 Twisting the pair of wire balance the effect of unwanted signal and reduce it.
 So, the number of twists per unit of length effects on the quality of the cable
Twisted Pair Cable

Unshielded versus Shielded Twisted–pair cable

Metal shield in STP :

 Improve the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk
 It is bulkier and more expensive
Applications of Twisted-Pair Cable

 Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data
channels. The local loop-the line that connects subscribers to the central
telephone office-commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
 The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-
rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded
twisted-pair cables.
 Local-area networks, such as 10-Base-T and 100-Base-T, also use twisted-pair
cables.
Coaxial(Coax) Cable

 Coax cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in Twisted
pair cable because the two media are constructed quite differently.

 Coax has a central core of stiff copper conductor for transmitting

signals. This is covered by an insulating material. The insulator is encased by
a closely woven braided metal outer conductor that acts as a shield against
noise. The outer conductor is again enclosed by a plastic insulating cover and
the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover. The structure is shown in the
figure
Applications of Coaxial Cable

 Analog telephone network where a single cable could carry 10,000 voice
signals. Later it was used in Digital telephone networks where cable can carry
600Mbps
 Cable TV network: hybrid network use coaxial cable only at the network
boundaries , near the consumer.
 Traditional Ethernet LANs.
 10-base-2 or “Thin Ethernet”, uses RG-58 coax cable to transmit data at 10 Mbps
with a range of 200m.
 10-base-5, or “Thick Ethernet”, uses RG-11 to transmit 10 Mbps with range of 500
m
Fiber-Optic Cable
 A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form
of light.
 Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform
substance. If a ray of light traveling through one substance enters another
substance of different density , the ray change direction as shown:
Fiber-Optic Cable

 Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic
core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
Structure of Fiber-Optic Cable
 Core − It is the innermost portion of an optical fiber through which light
propagates. It is cylindrical in shape and it made up of a flexible glass of high
refractive index.
 Cladding − The core is surrounded by a glass cladding. The glass of cladding has a
lower refractive index than the core. This enables total internal reflection of light
waves in the core, and eventually propagation of light waves within the core.
 Outer Coating or Jacket − The outer jacket is a thin plastic sheath or coating that
is opaque to light. It prevents light rays from outside to enter the optical fiber.
Applications of Fiber-Optic Cable

 Cable TV network: hybrid network use a combination of optical fiber and coax
cable.
 Local area networks such as 100base-FX(fast Ethernet) and 1000base-X LANs.
 Backbone networks because its wide bandwidth
Advantages of Fiber-Optical

 Higher Bandwidth
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference (noise)
 Resistance to corrosive materials
 Light weight
Disadvantages of Fiber-Optical

 Installation and maintenance. It’s a new technology. Its installation and

maintenance require expertise that is not yet available every where
 Unidirectional light propagation. If we need bidirectional , two fibers are
needed.
 Cost. The cable and the interfaces are more expensive than those of other
guided media. If the demand of bandwidth is not high , often use of optical
fiber can not be justified
Unguided Media: Wireless
 Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
 Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways:
ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation.
Unguided Media: Wireless

 In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the
atmosphere, hugging the earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all
directions from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the
planet.
 In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the
ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they
are reflected back to earth. This type of transmission allows for greater
distances with lower output power.
 In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in
straight lines directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional,
facing each other, and either tall enough or close enough together not to be
affected by the curvature of the earth.
Radio Waves

 Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are

normally called radio waves.
 Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves,
they are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and
receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending antenna send waves
that can be received by any receiving antenna.
Applications of Radio Waves:
 The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for
multicasting in which there is one sender but many receivers.
 AM and FM radio, television, cordless phones, and paging are examples of
multicasting.
Micro Waves

 Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
micro waves.
 Micro waves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they
can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas
need to be aligned.
 The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can
be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
Applications of Micro Waves:
 Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when
unicast(one-to-one) communication is needed between the sender and the
receiver.
 They are used in satellite networks and wireless LANs.
Infrared Waves
 Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for
short-range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot
penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents interference
between one system and another, a short-range communication system in on
room cannot be affected by another system in the next room.
 When we use infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the
remote by our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared
signals useless for long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use
infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays contain infrared
waves that can interfere with the communication.
Applications of Infrared Waves:
 The Infrared Data Association(IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of
infrared waves, has established standards for using these signals for
communication between devices such as keyboards, mouse, PCs and printers.
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.
Digital Transmission
Digital-To-Digital Conversion

 Techniques to represent digital data by using digital signals

 Line Coding
 Block Coding
 Sampling
 Transmission modes
 Parallel
 Serial
 Synchronous
 Asynchronous
Line Coding
 Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.
 Data is in the form of ???, and stored in computer memory as sequences of
bits.
 Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.
 Converting a string of 1’s and 0’s (digital data) into a sequence of signals that
denote the 1’s and 0’s.
 For example a high voltage level (+V) could represent a “1” and a low voltage
level (0 or -V) could represent a “0”.
Line coding and decoding
Signal Element Vs Data Element

 A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece of

information: this is the bit. In digital data communications, a signal element
carries data elements.
 A signal element is the shortest unit (timewise) of a digital signal. In other
words, data elements are what we need to send; signal elements are what we
can send. Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the carriers.
 The ratio ‘r’ is the number of data elements carried by a signal element.
Continue…
Data Rate Vs Signal Rate

 The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in 1s. The unit
is bits per second (bps).
 The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in 1s. The unit is the
baud.
 The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate; the signal rate is sometimes
called the pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate.
 One goal in data communications is to increase the data rate while decreasing
the signal rate. Increasing the data rate increases the speed of transmission;
decreasing the signal rate decreases the bandwidth requirement.
Relationship between data rate and
signal rate
 This relationship, depends on the value of r. It also depends on the data pattern. If
we have a data pattern of all 1s or all 0s, the signal rate may be different from a
data pattern of alternating 0s and 1s.
 To derive a formula for the relationship, we need to define three cases: the worst,
best, and average.
 The worst case is when we need the maximum signal rate; the best case is when
we need the minimum.
 In data communications, we are usually interested in the average case.
 The relationship between data rate and signal rate can be expressed as:
S =c * N * 1/r baud
 where N is the data rate (bps); c is the case factor, which varies for each case; S is
the number of signal elements; and r is ratio between data element & signal
element
Example

 A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as one signal
element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average value of the
baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?
 Solution:
 We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The baud rate is then
Baseline Wandering

 In decoding a digital signal, the receiver calculates a running average of the

received signal power. This average is called the baseline.
 The incoming signal power is evaluated against this baseline to determine the
value of the data element.
 A long string of 0s or 1s can cause a drift in the baseline (baseline wandering)
and make it difficult for the receiver to decode correctly. A good line coding
scheme needs to prevent baseline wandering.
DC Components

 When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the spectrum
creates very low frequencies.
 These frequencies around zero, called DC (direct-current) components,
present problems for a system that cannot pass low frequencies or a system
that uses electrical coupling(via a transformer).
 For example, a telephone line cannot pass frequencies below 200 Hz. Also a
long-distance link may use one or more transformers to isolate different parts
of the line electrically.
 For these systems, we need a scheme with no DC component.
Self-synchronization
 To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender, the receiver's bit
intervals must correspond exactly to the sender's bit intervals.
 If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit intervals are not matched and
the receiver might misinterpret the signals.
Example

 In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent faster than the
sender clock. How many extra bits per second does the receiver receive if the
data rate is 1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
 Solution:
 At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001 bps instead of 1000 bps.

 At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps instead of 1,000,000 bps.

Built-in Error Detection

 Error detection - errors occur during transmission due to line impairments.

 Some codes are constructed such that when an error occurs it can be
detected. For example: a particular signal transition is not part of the code.
When it occurs, the receiver will know that a symbol error has occurred.
Immunity to Noise and Interference

 Noise and interference - there are line encoding techniques that make the
transmitted signal “immune” to noise and interference.
 This means that the signal cannot be corrupted, it is stronger than error
detection.
Complexity

 A complex scheme is more costly to implement than a simple one.

 For example, a scheme that uses four signal levels is more difficult to
interpret than one that uses only two levels.
Line Coding Schemes
Unipolar Scheme

 Use single voltage level to represent binary data.

 1- high voltage is transmitted
 0- no voltage is transmitted
 In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis,
either above or below.
NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero):
 Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to-zero (NRZ)
scheme in which the positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage
defines bit 0.
 It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of
the bit.
Unipolar NRZ scheme
Polar Scheme

 Uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values.

 In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis. For example,
the voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for 1 can be negative.
 It is available in 3 types:
 Non-Return to zero(NRZ)
 NRZ-L (NRZ-Level)
 NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert)

 Return to Zero(RZ)
 Biphase
 Manchester
 Differential Manchester
Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes
Polar-RZ

 The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and receiver
clocks are not synchronized. The receiver does not know when one bit has
ended and the next bit is starting.
 One solution is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme, which uses three values:
positive(+), negative(-), and zero(0).
 In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit.
 This scheme has more signal transitions (two per symbol) and therefore
requires a wider bandwidth.
Polar RZ scheme
Polar - Biphase: Manchester and
Differential Manchester
 Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-L and RZ schemes.
 Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from high to low or low to high.
Uses only two voltage levels.
 Differential Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-I and RZ
schemes.
 Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But the level at the beginning of
the symbol is determined by the symbol value. One symbol causes a level change
the other does not.
Polar biphase: Manchester and differential
Manchester schemes
Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary

 Code uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to represent the symbols (note not

transitions to zero as in RZ).
 Voltage level for one symbol is at “0” and the other alternates between + & -.
 Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the “0” symbol is represented by zero
voltage and the “1” symbol alternates between +V and -V.
 Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI.
Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary