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 Approaches to Human Learning

CHAPTER THIRTEEN
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT:
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
BY
Rose Ngozi Uzoka (Ph.D)
Ofoegbu, Jude Uzodinma

Objectives:
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
 Explain Language in relation to human development.
 Discuss in what ways language can influence human
thinking.
 Illustrate known stages of language development in man.
 Present articulately the Whorfian hypothesis.
 Define cognition.
 Identify major educational implications of language
development on learning.

1.1 Introduction
Language is one of the most significant achievements of the
human species. Without language, human beings and human
civilization would be a pale shadow of what they are. Also,
without an efficient means of communication, it would not be
possible to co-ordinate the efforts of many people in a division
of labour, to regulate their behavior for the common good
through laws, or to amass the wisdom learned through
experience by previous generations and passing it on through
education (Lahey, 1998).

The Oxford dictionary of Psychology (2003), defined language

as conventional system of communicative sounds and
sometimes (though not necessarily) written symbols capable

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 Approaches to Human Learning

of fulfilling the following hierarchy of functions suggested by

the German-born Austrian psychologist Karl Buhler (1879-
1963) and the Austrian-born British philosopher Karl R.
Popper (1902-94); expressing a communicator’s physical,
emotional, or cognitive state; issuing signals that can elicit
responses from other individuals; describing a concept, idea or
external state of affairs, and commenting on a previous
communication”.

The concept of language is often interpreted loosely to

embrace codes devised for specific purposes, as in expressions
such as programming languages, and forms of communication
that fulfill some but not all of the four listed functions,
including body language and the language of the bees, neither
can fulfill the fourth and highest function.

According to Benjamin Lahey (1998), language is a symbolic

code used in communication. Nnachi (2007), noted that
language is a vital technique for communicating feelings,
sentiments or thoughts. By means of it, an individual transmit
ideas and skills. Jersild, Telford and Sarrey (1975), defined
language as a vast repatoire of words that is organized by
grammar and syntax. Therefore, language represents one of
the highest forms of behavioural development.

1.2 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN HUMAN BEINGS

Human beings cry as soon as they are born. Naturally, sounds
made by advanced animal organisms are signals for one thing
or the other. Under normal condition, crying is the first sound
made by newly born humans. As babies develop after some
months of birth, they start to babble.Crying is not a form of
language but babbling in a primitive oral expression signaling

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 Approaches to Human Learning

speech. Real human speech develops out of babbling (Nnachi,

2003). Babbling reaches its peak at the sixth to eight month.

Babbling is the act of producing meaningless oral sounds by

babies. As they progress, the babies start to listen to the
parents and siblings. In the course of listening, they began to
understand what other people say before they start to say
those words. In speech, babies develop by imitating and
mimicking older and adult members. The understanding of the
words passed to the (young) people as they listen is referred to
as receptive language. The speaking of those words in imitation
of the older or more experienced persons is known as
productivelanguage.Language development goes from receptive
to productive stages (Nnachi, 2007).

Furthermore, human linguistic development goes with

maturity. As the human being matures, the brain matures
(Stone and Church, 1976). Two principal areas of the brain
located within the cotex that are responsible for speech
production and comprehension are Broca’s and Wernike’s
areas respectively.

In the course of maturation, these two areas develop and are

useful for speech. Newly born babies lack the development of
these speech areas. But as the individuals develop, the areas
develop and the individuals become ready for speech. The
more the development of these areas; the more the speech
ability. What could be regarded as speech begins at or after one
year when the baby likely makes use of one or two words in an
expression.

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 Approaches to Human Learning

1.3 INFLUENCE OF LANGUAGE ON HUMAN THINKING

It is an established fact that language determines the way
people of a particular culture perceive and understand their
world (Smith, 1995; Feldman, 2000). The way people perceive
and understand their world generates thoughts in them. For
instance, where people have the word ‘politics’ in their
language dictionary, there may be a common reference to the
word and the individuals may, no doubt have greater political
consciousness than those whose language does not contain
such.

Certain concepts borne by certain languages created greater

awareness in the users of the languages than those whose
languages do not contain it, such people reflect on and think
more about what they see or hear. So, as certain concepts are
being mentioned from time to time, greater thoughts are built
on them.

However, it is not an overstatement to suggest that language

makes the categorizations that humans utilize in the
construction of their views about people and events in the
world. As people discuss, they tend to think, reflect and
perceive. Think of a situation where a teacher enters into the
class and starts to write on the board, clean, write and clean
without talking to any member of the class. If such occurs, how
do you think you could feel and what might be your reaction
that after writing all sorts of things, the teacher gets out of the
class without talking to anybody? It should be noted that as the
teacher talks to the members of the class, their mental
consciousness is awakened. Therefore, talking to each other in
class and in understandable language creates room for the
discussants to think.

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 Approaches to Human Learning

It is pertinent to say that the richer a language, the greater the

probability that users would have a greater world view
(Nnachi, 2007). It should also be noted that as language
produces thoughts, the thoughts themselves can produce a
language. Thinking creates ideas and ideas can produce
concepts. Perhaps, it might be fair to say that humans
intellectually perform better than other organisms because
they are the only organisms sufficiently equipped for linguistic
activities.

1.4 STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Whether the individual is young or old, beginning to learn a
language is not an easy task. Learning of any language starts
with pronunciation of individual words of the language.
Usually a beginner makes a one-word sentence such as bia, zo,
wa, come, go, hear, here and so on. Efforts are made by the
teacher to pronounce these one word statements. Pronouncing
and understanding these words are the beginning point of
success of the greater tasks to follow. Beginning to learn a
language does not succeed with the use of high vocabularies,
otherwise the beginner is confused and linguistically
obstructed. There are certain words in every language the
beginner might not conveniently pronounce. Such words are
initially avoided.

The next step in language learning is to join two simple words

to form a sentence. Take for example, come here, go there, eat
food, leave me and so on. A language learner gradually learns
how to make some long sentences and can rudimentarily
communicate. However, the lower steps in language learning
are too junior for effective expressions in arts, science and
technology. So a language learner has to move beyond
rudimentary stages in order to use the language to make

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 Approaches to Human Learning

contributions in areas of arts, science, technology or any field

of human endeavour. Thus, further study of language becomes
necessary.

Milestone in Early Childhood Language and Ways to

Encourage Development
Age Milestone Strategies to encourage
Range Development
Between Identifies body parts; calls  Help the child listen
2 and 3 self “me” instead of name; and follow
combines nouns and instructions by playing
verbs; has a 450-word simple games.
vocabulary; uses short  Repeat new words
sentences; matches 3-4 over and over.
colours; knows big and  Describe what you are
little; likes to hear same doing, planning,
story repeated; forms thinking.
some plurals; answers  Have the child deliver
“where’ questions. simple messages for
you.
 Show the child you
understand what he or
she says by answering,
smiling, and nodding
your head.
 Expand what the child
says. Child: “more
juice.” You say, “Chris
wants more juice.”
Between Can tell a story; sentence  Talk about how
3 and 4 length of 4-5 words; objects are the same
vocabulary about 1000 or different.
words; knows last name,  Help the child to tell
name of street, several stories using books
nursery rhymes. and pictures.
 Encourage play with
other children.
 Talk about places

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 Approaches to Human Learning

you’ve been or will be

going.
Between Sentence length of 4-5  Help the child sort
4 and 5 words; uses past tense; objects and things
vocabulary of about 1500 (e.g., things to eat,
words; identifies colors, animals).
shapes; asks many  Teach the child how to
questions like “why?” and use the telephone.
“who?”  Let the child help you
plan activities.
 Continue talking about
the child’s interest.
 Let the child tell and
make up stories for
you.
Between Sentence length of 5-6  Praise children when
5 and 6 words; average 5-6year- they talk about
old has vocabulary of feelings, thoughts,,
about 10,000 words; hopes, fears.
defines objects by their  Sing songs, rhythms.
use; knows spatial  Talk with them as you
relations (like “on top” and would an adult.
“far”) and opposites;  Listen and show your
knows address; pleasure when the
understands same and child talks to you.
different; uses all types of  Carry on
sentences. conversations with the
child.
 Ask questions to get
the child to think and
talk.
 Read books to the
child every day,
increasing in length as
the child develops.
Source: Reprinted from LDOnline.org with thanks to the learning
Disabilities Association of America.

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 Approaches to Human Learning

1.5 RELATED STUDIES ON LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT

Language and thinking are closely related phenomena.
Although we often think in visual images, sounds and images of
movements and some thought may involve no conscious
images at all – much of our thinking takes place in the form of
silent conversations with ourselves. If this is true, does
language exert any influence on our thinking? If so, it is
possible that people who speak different languages might think
somewhat differently.

The above hypothesis was stated by Benjamin Whorf (1956)

and is known as the Whorfian hypothesis or linguistic relativity
hypothesis. Although Whorf was most concerned with the
impact of different languages on the thinking of people from
different cultures, his concrete examples of how this might
happen generally concerned the relationship between
language and perception.
For example, Eskimos have several different words for snow
and can discriminate among different kinds of snow better
than residents of Florida. Does the fact that Eskimos have more
words to describe different kinds of snow – (and can notice
small differences among different kinds of snow) – mean that
their additional words improve their perception of snow?
Whorf proposed that the presence of these words in the
Eskimos vocabulary improves visual perception. It seems at
least as plausible to assume that the Eskimos first learned to
perceive slight differences among different kinds of snow and
then invented a vocabulary for talking about them to others.
A strong test of the Whorfian or linguistic relativity hypothesis
has been performed by researchers at the University of Alberta,
Canada (Hogman, Lau and Johnson, 1986). Their experiment
was based on the fact that each language contains terms

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referring to “personality types” that are important in each

culture. For example, most of us understand that the “artistic
type” is a person who is interested in the arts, imaginative,
intense, moody and unconventional. Each language contains
such terms but not every language has terms to describe the
same personality types.

The Whorfian hypothesis suggests that these labels for

personality types influence how we think about people. Do
they? Fluent speakers of English were compared in their
memory for, and reasoning about, hypothetical persons whose
personality types were described by the experimenters.
Individuals whose language contained a label for the particular
personality type described by the experimenter were able to
recall the hypothetical person more easily and thought about
them in ways that were more consistent with the personality
type. For example, English speaking research participants
recalled the characteristics of the hypothetical person
described as artistic more often and reasoned about the artistic
type in ways that reflected the description of his or her
personality more accurately than Chinese-speaking
participants. The opposite was true of the shen cling bu iou
type. In this sense, the words in our language do seem to
influence our cognition.
However, another test of the Whorfian hypothesis that reached
a different conclusion was conducted by Eleanor Rosch with
the same Dani tribe from New Guinea used in her research on
learning natural colour concepts (Heider & Oliver, 1972). She
compared the memory of the Dani for colours, whose language
uses only two colour names, with that of American college
students whose language contains many colour names. The
participants were briefly shown single colour chips and asked
to find the same colour 30 seconds among 40 colour chips.
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 Approaches to Human Learning

According to the Whorfian hypothesis, a person’s language

should influence memory for colours. Specifically, colours with
the same name should be confusing in memory more easily
than colors with different names. The Dani were expected to
remember less than the English speakers. The results did not
support Whorf’s theory. Neither Dani nor American individuals
confused colors equally different in wavelength any more often
when they had the same colour names than different color
names, in spite of the large differences in the number of color
names in the two languages. Perhaps the Whorfian hypothesis
is correct only for some aspects of cognition.

Linguistics relatively has led us to re-examine some of our

common language usage. Persons concerned about gender
equity have lobbied for the substitution of gender-neutral
terms for unnecessary masculine terms, as in the case of
changing chairman to chairperson. If Whorf is correct, using
chairman might subtly affect the way we think about the
capabilities of females to serve in leadership role. Although
some of the changes seem initially odd to some people (server
instead of waiter or waitress) they seem to be rapidly taking
over common usage. Producers of “Star Trek, the Next
Generation” took this trend one step further when the original
“where no man has gone before” changed to “where no one has
gone before”. Neither females nor non-humans are now
excluded.

1.6 COGNITION AND LANGUAGE

The concept of cognition refers to the mental activities
involved in acquiring and processing information. Cognition
can be defined as those intellectual processes (such as
perception, memory, thinking, and language) through which
information is obtained, transformed, stored, retrieved and
used (Lahey, 1998). This definition has three facets viz:
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 Approaches to Human Learning

1. Cognition processes information: Information is the

stuff of cognition: the stuff that is obtained, transformed,
kept and used. Much of this information is dealt with in
the form of categories or concepts.
2. Cognition is active. The information that the world
gives us is actively changed, kept and used in the
process of cognition. In cognition, information is:
a. obtained through the senses.
b. transformed through the interpretive processes
of perception and thinking.
c. stored and retrieved through the processes of
memory and
d. used in the processes of problem-solving and
language.

3. Cognition is useful. It serves as a purpose. We think

because there is something we do not understand. We
use language when we need to communicate something
to others. We create when we need something that
does not exist. Humans use cognition to survive
physically and to live in a social world.
Furthermore, the study of cognition includes cognitive
psychology, psycholinguistics, artificial intelligence and
cognitive neuro-psychology. Psycholinguistic is a word
introduced by collective agreement at an academic conference
in 1953 to denote the psychology of language, including
language acquisition by children and all aspects of the
production and comprehension of speech and writing.
1.7 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
Languages create a medium for the study of every discipline of
human endeavour. Without a language, there would be some
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 Approaches to Human Learning

problems in the study of any academic discipline. So, language

is indispensable for any form of learning. The school has every
need for the study of languages if the school aspires towards
effective transmission of knowledge. The school therefore has
the following tasks to undertake regarding learning of
language.
1 Every learner should be encouraged to study one or
more languages. The importance of a language for
communication and study of other disciplines should
always be stressed. The school should make the study of
language compulsory for every learner. The study of
indigenous and official languages should be considered
by the school as important and paramount in the study
of other subjects in and outside the school. This should
always be pointed out and stressed to the learners so
that they would be encouraged and motivated to put
more interest and effort in the study of one or more
languages.

2 The school should encourage the teaching of language

with tangible experience. This is done with teaching
aids such as charts, maps, photographs and book
illustrations.

3 Since language develops with maturity, the teaching of

any language to a young person or a beginner should
start with simple and common words. The use of high-
sounding vocabularies to the beginner is obstructive to
the understanding, development and learning of any
language. The teacher should start with one word
statements, such as bia, come, wa, zo, go, gaa, etc. and
later goes to two words statements such as come here,
go there and so on. The teacher gradually goes to more

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 Approaches to Human Learning

complex words and statements as the learner matures

physically, intellectually and otherwise.

4 There should be encouragement in the explanation or

description of things or events. For instance, essay
questions are found to be more useful in encouraging
learners to develop and learn more aspects of the
language under consideration than multiple-choice
questions. Learners tend to learn more and master
many aspects of a language under consideration when
they are being encouraged to discuss, describe or
explain things or events. In the event of doing this, they
tend to search for words applicable to the situation and
also find a way of joining the words correctly. Essay
questions are many a times asked in order to foster this.

5 The teacher should always try to use correct

pronunciation for words. At the learning stage, learning
of a language is largely done by imitation. Whatever the
teacher says is taken to be the right thing. If the teacher
uses wrong pronunciations for words, learners absorb
the words without questioning and that may affect their
further use of the language.

6 Present the learners, from time to time, with

comprehension. Ensure that passages are read in the
class and the meanings of words discussed. As readings
are going on, teachers should be careful in detecting
those that have intellectual problems (and should pay
special attention to such persons).

7 Teachers should encourage pairing of students based on

abilities. Those who have high proficiency in the

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 Approaches to Human Learning

language under consideration could be paired with

those that have low proficiency. Those of the high
language proficiency could be encouraged to assist the
weaker ones.

8 Language learning grows with practice. The school

authorities should encourage the learners to speak out
their minds using the language under consideration.
Debating activities could be carried out by the learners
from time to time for them to master the oral use of the
words. Debating activities would also help them to be
more logical in the use of words and sentences.
1.8 CONCLUSION
Language is necessary to human beings because they are social
and gregarious. Human beings cannot effectively interact
without languages. A language may be defined as a vast
repertoire of words that is organized by grammar and syntax.

Language development is controlled by the brain. Language is

expressed through speech. Without speech, there would be no
language because other forms of language written or sign
forms, are derived from speech. For the fact that speech is
involved, language is a motor activity controlled by the brain.
Language evolved to assist man in his interactions and
activities. All human societies in the world make use of
languages. Language is therefore, a cultural and social property.
It is easier to learn language from one word, sentences as well
as words that are simple to pronounce. Use of high-sounding
vocabularies are necessary when the learner has matured
linguistically. Language learning follows some principles –
principle of reinforcement, principle of conditioning and
principle of maturation. The teacher of any language needs to
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 Approaches to Human Learning

make some considerations of the principles in his teaching

activities.

Revision Questions

1. Explain language and language development in man.

2. How does language influence human thinking?
3. With the help of a diagram illustrate the known stages
of language development in man.
4. What is the contribution of Benjamin Whorf in language
and thought?
5. What is Cognition?
6. Point out any five educational implications of language
development on learning.

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 Approaches to Human Learning

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