Java Programming (R19) Unit-I

1.0 Introduction to Object OrientedProgramming

The 1960s gave birth to structured programming. This is the method of programming
championed by languages such as C. With the advent of languages such as c, structured
programming became very popular and was the main technique of the 1980‟s. Structured
programming was a powerful tool that enabled programmers to write moderately complex
programs fairly easily. However, as the programs grew larger, even the structured approach
failed to show the desired result in terms of bug-free, easy-to- maintain, and reusable programs.
To solve these problems, a new way to program was invented, called object-oriented
programming(OOP).

Object Oriented Programming (OOP) is an approach to program organization and

development that attempts to eliminate some of the pitfalls of conventional programming
methods by incorporating the best of structured programming features with several powerful new
concepts. It is a new way of organizing and developing programs and has nothing to do with any
particular language. However, not all languages are suitable to implement the OOP concepts
easily.

1.1 PO Programming Vs OOProgramming

All computer programs consist of two elements: code and data. Furthermore, a program
can be conceptually organized around its code or around its data. That is, some programs are
written around ― “what is happening” and others are written around ―“who is being affected”.
These are the two paradigms that govern how a program is constructed. The first way is called
the process- oriented model or procedural language. This approach characterizes a program as a
series of linear steps (i.e. code). The process-oriented model can be thought of as code acting on
data. Procedural languages such as C employ this model to considerablesuccess.

To manage increasing complexity, the second approach, called object-oriented

programming, was designed. Object-oriented programming organizes a program around its data
(i.e. objects) and a set of well-defined interfaces to that data. An object-oriented program can be
characterized as data controlling access to code.

Difference between POP and OOP

Procedure Oriented Programming Object Oriented Programming
Program is divided into small parts Program is divided into parts
Divided Into
called functions. called objects.
Importance is given to the data rather
Importance is given to functions as
Importance than procedures or functions because it
well as sequence of actions to be done.
works as a real world.
Approach It follows Top-down approach. It follows Bottom-up approach.
Data Data can move freely from function to Objects can communicate with each
Moving function in the system. other through member functions.
To add new data and function in POP It provides an easy way to add new data
Expansion
is not so easy. and function.

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Most function uses Global datafor Data cannot move easily from function
sharing that can be accessed freely to function, it can be kept public or
Data Access
from function to function inthe private so we can control the access of
system. data.
It does not have any proper way for It supports data hiding so provides
Data Hiding hiding data so it is less secure. more security.
In OOP, overloading is possible in the
Overloading In POP, Overloading is not possible. form of Function Overloading and
Operator Overloading.
Inheritance No such concept of inheritance in POP Inheritance is allowed in OOP
Access It has access specifiers named Public,
It does not have any access specifiers.
Specifiers Private, Protected.
C, BASIC, FORTRAN, Pascal, C++, JAVA, C#, Smalltalk, Action
Examples COBOL. Script.

1.2 Principles ofOOP

It is necessary to understand some of the concepts used extensively in object-oriented
programming. Theseinclude:
 Object  Inheritance
 Class  Polymorphism
 Encapsulation  Dynamicbinding
 Dataabstraction  Messagepassing

Object
Object is the basic run time entity in an object-oriented system. It may represent a person,
a place, a bank account, a table of data, vectors, time and lists. Objects have states and behaviors.
Example: A dog has states - color, name, breed as well as behaviors – wagging the tail, barking,
eating. An object is an instance of a class.

In OOP, A problem is analyzed in term of objects and the nature of communication

between them. Objects should be chosen such that they match closely with the real-world
objects.Objectstakeupspaceinthememoryandhaveanassociatedaddresslikeastructurein
C. When a program is executed, the objects interact by sending messages to oneanother.

For example, if “customer” and “account” are to object in a program, then the customer
object may send a message to the account object requesting for the bank balance. Each object
contain data, and code to manipulate data. Below figure shows two notations that are popularly
used in object oriented analysis and design.

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Class
A class is a collection of similar objects that share the same properties, methods, relationships
and semantics. A class can be defined as a template/blueprint that describes the behavior/state of
theobject.

Encapsulation
Definition: The process binding (or wrapping) code and data together into a single unit is known
as Encapsulation. For example: capsule, it is wrapped with different medicines.

 Java supports the feature of Encapsulation usingclasses.

 The data in the class is not accessed by outsideworld.
 The functions that are defined along with the data within the same class are allowed to
access thedata.
 These functions provide the interface between the object‟s data and the program. This
insulation of the data from direct access by the program is called data hiding or
information hiding.
 A class defines the structure and behavior (data and code) that will be shared by a set of
objects. Each object of a given class contains the same structure and behavior defined by
theclass.
 The objects are referred to as instances of a class. Thus, a class is a logical construct; an
object is physicalreality.

Data abstraction
Definition: It a process of providing essential features without providing the background or
implementation details. For example: It is not important for the user how TV is working
internally, and different components are interconnected. The essential features required to the
user are how to start, how to control volume, and change channels.
In java, we use abstract class and interface to achieve abstraction.

Inheritance
It a process by which an object of one class acquires the properties and methods of
another class. It supports the concept of hierarchical classification. For example, the bird,
„robin‟ is a part of class „flying bird‟ which is again a part of the class „bird‟. The principal
behind this sort of division is that each derived class shares common characteristics with the
class from which it is derived as illustrated in belowfigure.

In OOP, the concept of inheritance provides the idea of reusability. This means that we
can add additional features to an existing class without modifying it. This is possible by deriving
a new class from the existing one. The new class will have the combined feature of both the
classes. The Class from which the properties are acquired is called super class, and the class that

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acquires the properties is called subclass. This is mainly used for Method Overloading and Code
reusability.

Polymorphism
Polymorphism is another important OOP concept. Polymorphism, a Greek term, means
the ability to take more than one form. An operation may exhibit different behavior is different
instances. The behavior depends upon the types of data used in the operation.
In Java, we use method overloading and method overriding to achieve polymorphism.

For example can be to speak something e.g. cat speaks meow, dog barks woof , duck speaks
quack, etc.

Advantages of OOP
OOP offers several benefits to both the program designer and the user. Object-Orientation
contributes to the solution of many problems associated with the development and quality of

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software products. The new technology promises greater programmer productivity, better quality
of software and lesser maintenance cost. The principal advantages are:
 It presents a simple, clear and easy to maintainstructure.
 Software complexity can be easilymanaged.
 It enhances program modularity since each object existsindependently.
 New features can be easily added without disturbing the existingone.
 Objects can be reused in otherprogram.
 It allows designing and developing safe programs using the datahiding.
 Through inheritance, we can eliminate redundant code extend the use of existingclasses.
 It is easy to partition the work in a project based onobjects.
 Object-oriented system can be easily upgraded from small to largesystem.
 Message passing techniques for communication between objects makes to interface
descriptions with external systems muchsimpler.

Applications of OOP
Applications of OOP are beginning to gain importance in many areas. The most popular
application of object-oriented programming, up to now, has been in the area of user interface
design such as window. Hundreds of windowing systems have been developed, using the OOP
techniques. The promising areas of application of OOP include:

 Real-timesystems
 Simulation andmodeling
 Object-oriented databases
 Hypertext, Hypermedia, andExpertext
 AI and expertsystems
 Neural networks and Parallelprogramming
 Decision support and Office automationsystems
 CAM/CADSystems

1.3 What isJava?

Java is a programming language and a platform. Java is a high level, robust, secured and object-
oriented programming language.

Platform: Any hardware or software environment in which a program runs, is known as a platform. Since
Java has its own runtime environment (JRE) and API, it is called platform.

Where it is used (Applications)?

According to Sun, 3 billion devices run java. There are many devices where Java is currently used. Some
of them are as follows:
1. Desktop GUI Applications such as acrobat reader, media player, antivirusetc.
2. Web Applications such as irctc.co.in, javabay.cometc.
3. Enterprise Applications such as bankingapplications.

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4. MobileApplications
5. EmbeddedSystems
6. SmartCards
7. Robotics
8. Gamesetc.

Types of Java Applications

There are mainly 4 types of applications that can be created using java programming:
1. StandaloneApplication
It is also known as desktop application or window-based application. An application that
we need to install on every machine such as media player, antivirus etc. AWT and Swing
are used in java for creating standalone applications.
2. WebApplication
An application that runs on the server side and creates dynamic page, is called web
application. Currently, servlet, jsp, struts, jsf etc. technologies are used for creating web
applications in java.
3. EnterpriseApplication
An application that is distributed in nature such as banking applications etc. It has the
advantage of high level security, load balancing and clustering. In java, EJB is used for
creating enterprise applications.
4. MobileApplication
An application that is created for mobile devices. Currently Android and Java ME are
used for creating mobile applications.
Java Platforms / Editions
There are 4 platforms or editions of Java:
1. Java SE (Java StandardEdition)
It is a java programming platform. It includes Java programming APIs such as java.lang,
java.io, java.net, java.util, java.sql, java.math etc. It includes core topics like OOPs,
String, Regex, Exception, Inner classes, Multithreading, I/O Stream, Networking, AWT,
Swing, Reflection, Collection etc.
2. Java EE (Java EnterpriseEdition)
It is an enterprise platform which is mainly used to develop web and enterprise
applications. It is built on the top of Java SE platform. It includes topics like Servlet, JSP,
Web Services, EJB, JPA etc.
3. Java ME (Java MicroEdition)
It is a micro platform which is mainly used to develop mobile applications.
4. JavaFx
It is used to develop rich internet applications. It uses light-weight user interface API.
History of Java
The history of java starts from Green Team. Java team members (also known as Green
Team), initiated a revolutionary task to develop a language for digital devices such as set-top
boxes, televisions etc.
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For the green team members, it was an advance concept at that time. But, it was suited for
internet programming. Later, Java technology as incorporated by Netscape.

James Gosling
Currently, Java is used in internet programming, mobile devices, games, e-business solutions etc.
There are given the major points that describe the history of java.

1. James Gosling, Mike Sheridan, and Patrick Naughton initiated the Java language
project in June 1991 at Sun Microsystems. The small team of sun engineers called Green
Team.
2. Originally designed for small, embedded systems in electronic appliances like set-top
boxes.
3. Firstly, it was called "Greentalk" by James Gosling and file extension was“.gt”.
4. After that, it was called Oak and was developed as a part of the Greenproject.
5. Why Oak? Oak is a symbol of strength and chosen as a national tree of manycountries
like U.S.A., France, Germany, Romaniaetc.
6. In 1995, Oak was renamed as "Java" because it was already a trademark byOak
Technologies.
Why "Java" name
7. Why had they chosen Java name for java language? The team gathered to choose a new
name. The suggested words were "dynamic", "revolutionary", "Silk", "jolt", "DNA"etc.
They wanted something that reflected the essence of the technology: revolutionary,
dynamic, lively, cool, unique, and easy to spell and fun tosay.
According to James Gosling "Java was one of the top choices along with Silk". Since
java was so unique, most of the team members preferred Java.
8. Java is an island of Indonesia where first coffee was produced (called javacoffee).
9. Notice that Java is just a name not anacronym.
10. Originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems (which is now asubsidiary
of Oracle Corporation) and released in1995.
11. In 1995, Time magazine called Java one of the Ten Best Products of1995.
12. JDK 1.0 released in(January 23,1996).
Java Version History
There are many java versions that have been released. Current stable release of Java is Java SE 8.
1. JDK Alpha and Beta(1995)
2. Initial Java Versions 1.0 and 1.1 were released in the year 1996 for Linux, Solaris,Mac
and Windows.

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3. J2SE 1.2 (Commonly called as Java 2) was released in the year1998.
4. J2SE 1.3 codename Kestrel was released in the year2000.
5. J2SE 1.4 codename Merlin was released in the year2002.
6. J2SE 5.0 codename „Tiger‟ was released in the year2004.
7. Java SE 6 codename „Mustang‟ was released in the year2006.
8. Java SE 7 codename „Dolphin‟ was released in the year2011.
9. Java SE 8 is the current stable release which was released this year2014.
Five Goals which were taken into consideration while developing Java
1. Keep it simple, familiar and objectoriented.
2. Keep it Robust andSecure.
3. Keep it architecture-neural andportable.
4. Executable with HighPerformance.
5. Interpreted, threaded anddynamic.

Why we call it Java 2, Java 5, Java 6, Java 7 and Java 8, not their actual version numbers
which 1.2, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7 and 1.8?
Java 1.0 and 1.1 were Java. When Java 1.2 was released it had a lots of changes and marketers /
developers wanted a new name so they called it Java 2 (J2SE), remove the numeric before
decimal. This was not the condition when Java 1.3 and Java 1.4 were released hence they were
never called Java 3 and Java 4, but they were still Java 2.

When Java 5 was released, once again it was having a lots of changes for the developer /
marketers and need a new name. The next number in sequence was 3, but calling Java 1.5 as
Java 3 was confusing hence a decision was made to keep the naming as per version number and
till now the legacycontinues.

1.4 Java Features / Buzzwords

There is given many features of java. They are also known as java buzzwords. The Java Features
given below are simple and easy to understand.

1. Simple
2. Secure
3. Portable
4. Object-oriented
5. Robust
6. Multithreaded
7. Architecture-neutral
8. Interpreted
9. Highperformance
10. Distributed
11. Dynamic

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Fig. Java features

Simple
Java inherits all the best features from the programming languages like C, C++ and thus
makes it really easy for any developer to learn with little programming experience. Removed
many confusing and/or rarely-used features e.g., explicit pointers, operator overloading etc.
No need to remove unreferenced objects because there is Automatic Garbage Collection in
java.

Secure
When Java programs are executed they don‟t instruct commands to the machine directly.
Instead Java Virtual machine reads the program (Byte code) and convert it into the machine
instructions. This way any program tries to get illegal access to the system will not be
allowed by the JVM. Allowing Java programs to be executed by the JVM makes Java
program fully secured under the control of theJVM.

Portable
Java programs are portable because of its ability to run the program on any platform and no
dependency on the underlying hardware / operating system.

Object Oriented
Everything in Java is an Object. The object model in Java is simple and easy to extend, while
primitive types, such as integers, are kept as high-performance non-objects.

Robust
The multi-platformed environment of the Web places extraordinary demands on a program,
because the program must execute reliably in a variety of systems. Thus, the ability to create
robust programs was given a high priority in the design of Java. Following features of Java
make it Robust.
 PlatformIndependent
 Object Oriented ProgrammingLanguage
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 Memorymanagement
 ExceptionHandling

Multithreaded
Java was designed to meet the real-world requirement of creating interactive, networked
programs. To accomplish this, Java supports multithreaded programming, which allows you
to write programs that do many thingssimultaneously.

Architecture-neutral
The Java designers made several hard decisions in the Java language and the Java Virtual
Machine in an attempt to alter this situation. Their goal was ― write once; run anywhere,
anytime, forever. To a great extent, this goal was accomplished.

Interpreted and High Performance

Java enables the creation of cross-platform programs by compiling into an intermediate
representation called Java byte code. This code can be executed on any system that
implements the Java Virtual Machine. Most previous attempts at cross-platform solutions
have done so at the expense of performance. As explained earlier, the Java byte code was
carefully designed so that it would be easy to translate directly into native machine code for
very high performance by using a just-in-time compiler.

Distributed
Java is designed for the distributed environment of the Internet because it handles TCP/IP
protocols. In fact, accessing a resource using a URL is not much different from accessing a
file. Java also supports Remote Method Invocation (RMI). This feature enables a program to
invoke methods across a network.

Dynamic
Java programs carry with them substantial amounts of run-time type information that is used
to verify and resolve accesses to objects at run time. This makes it possible to dynamically
link code in a safe and expedient manner.

1.5 Java Virtual Machine(JVM)

The key that allows Java to solve both the security and the portability problems is the byte
code. The output of Java Compiler is not directly executable file. Rather, it contains highly
optimized set of instructions. This set of instructions is called, "byte code". This byte code is
designed to be executed by Java Virtual Machine (JVM). The JVM also called as the
interpreter for byte code.

JVM also helps to solve many problems associated with web-based programs.
Translating a Java program into byte code makes it much easier to run a program in a wide
variety of environments because only the JVM needs to be implemented for each platform.
Once the run-time package exists for a given Figure 2 JVM system, any Java program
can run on it. Remember, although the details of the JVM will differ from platformto

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platform, all understand the same Java byte code. Thus, the execution of byte code by the
JVM is the easiest way to create truly portable programs.

Internal Architecture of JVM

JVM (Java Virtual Machine) is an abstract machine. It is a specification that provides runtime
environment in which java bytecode can be executed.
 JVMs are available for many hardware and software platforms (i.e. JVM isplatform
dependent).
 It is a specification where working of Java Virtual Machine is specified. But
implementation provider is independent to choose the algorithm. Its implementation
has been provided by Sun and othercompanies.
 Its implementation is known as JRE (Java RuntimeEnvironment).
 Whenever you write java command on the command prompt to run the java class, an
instance of JVM iscreated.
What it does
The JVM performs following operations:
 Loadscode
 Verifiescode
 Executescode
 Provides runtimeenvironment

JVM provides definitions for the:

 Memoryarea
 Class fileformat
 Registerset
 Garbage-collectedheap
 Fatal error reportingetc.
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Let's understand the internal architecture of JVM. It contains class loader, memory area,
execution engine etc.
1. Classloader
Classloader is a subsystem of JVM that is used to load class files.

2. Class(Method)Area
Class (Method) Area stores per-class structures such as the runtime constant pool,
field and method data, the code for methods.

Fig. Internal architecture of JVM

3. Heap
It is the runtime data area in which objects are allocated.

4. Stack
Java Stack stores frames. It holds local variables and partial results, and plays a part in
method invocation and return. Each thread has a private JVM stack, created at the
same time as thread. A new frame is created each time a method is invoked. A frame
is destroyed when its method invocation completes.

5. Program Counter (PC)Register

PC (program counter) register. It contains the address of the Java virtual machine
instruction currently being executed.

6. Native MethodStack
It contains all the native methods used in the application. A native method is a Java
method (either an instance method or a class method) whose implementation is
written in another programming language such as C.

7. Execution Engine
It contains:
a. A virtualprocessor

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b. Interpreter: Read bytecode stream then execute theinstructions.
c. Just-In-Time(JIT) compiler: It is used to improve the performance. JIT
compiles parts of the byte code that have similar functionality at the same
time, and hence reduces the amount of time needed forcompilation.

1.6 Basic Structure of JavaProgram

Basically, a Java program involves the following sections:
 DocumentationSection
 PackageStatement
 ImportStatements
 InterfaceStatement
 ClassDefinition
 Main MethodClass
 Main MethodDefinition

Section Description
It comprises of a comment line which gives the names program, the
programmer‟s name and some other brief details. Java provides 3 styles of
Documentation comments
Section 1. Single line(//)
2. Multi-line(/**/)
3. Documentation comment( /**….*/)
The first statement allowed in Java file is the Package statement which is
Package used to declare a package name and it informs the compiler that the classes
statement defined within the program belong to this package. It is declared as:
package package_name;
The next is the number of import statements, which is equivalent to the
Import #include statement in C++.
statements Example:
import java.util.Scanner;

Interfaces are like a class that includes a group of method declarations.

Interface
This is an optional section and can be used only when programmers want
statement
to implement multiple inheritances within aprogram.

A Java program may contain multiple class definitions. Classes are the
Class
main and important elements of any Java program. These classes are used
Definition
to plot the objects of the real worldproblem.

Since every Java stand-alone program requires the main method as the
Main Method
starting point of the program. This class is essentially a part of Java
Class
program. A simple Java program contains only this part of the program.

To create a simple java program, you need to create a class that contains main method. Let's
understand the requirement first.

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Requirement for Welcome Java Example
For executing any java program, you need to
 Install the JDK if you don't have installed it, download the JDK and installit.
 Set path of the jdk/bindirectory.
 Create the javaprogram
 Compile and Run the javaprogram

Sample Code of “Welcome” Java program

Example: Welcome.java

class Welcome
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("Welcome to Java");
}
}
Output:
Welcome to Java
Entering the Program
 We can use any text editor such as "notepad' or "dos texteditor".
 The source code is typed and is saved with ".java" asextension.
 The source code contains one or more class definitions. The program name will be
same as class name in which main function is written. This in not compulsory, but by
convention this isused.
 The source file is officially called as compilationunit.
 We can even uses our choice of interest name for the program. If we use a different
name than the class name, then compilation is done with program name, and running
is done with class file name. To avoid this confusion and organize the programs well,
it is suggested to put the same name for the program and class name, but not
compulsory.
Compiling the Program
To compile the program, specifying the name of the source file on the command line,
as shown below:
C:/>javac Welcome.java
The javac compiler creates the file called "Welcome.class” that contains the byte code
version of the source code. This byte code is the intermediate representation of the source
code that contains the instructions that the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) will execute. Thus
the output of the javac is not the directly executablecode.
Running the Program
To run the program, we must use Java interpreter, called "java". This is interpreter the
"Welcome.class" file given as input.
C:/>java Welcome
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When the program is run with java interpreter, the following output is produced: Welcome to
Java
Description of the program
The first line contains the keyword class and class name, which actually the basic unit for
encapsulation and is used to declare a class in java, in which data and methods are declared.
Second line contains "{" which indicates the beginning of the class.
Third line contains the public static void main(String args[])
where
 public keyword is an access modifier which represents visibility, it means it is visible
to all.
 static is a keyword, if we declare any method as static, it is known as static method.
The core advantage of static method is that there is no need to create object to invoke
the static method. The main method is executed by the JVM, so it doesn't require to
create object to invoke the main method. So it savesmemory.
 void is the return type of the method, it means it doesn't return anyvalue.
 main represents startup of the program where executionstarts.
 String[] args is used to read command lineargument.

Fourth line contains the "{", which is the beginning of the main function.
Fifth line contains the statement
System.out.println("Hello World");

Here "System" is the predefined class, that provides access to the system, and out is the output
stream that is used to connect to the console. The println(), is used to display string passed to
it. This can even display other information to.

1.7 Lexicalissues
Java programs are a collection of whitespace, identifiers, literals, comments, operators,
separators, and keywords.

Whitespace
Java is a free-form language. This means that you do not need to follow any special
indentation rules. For example, the Java program could be written all on one line or in any
other strange way you felt like typing it, as long as there was at least one whitespace
character between each token that was not already delineated by an operator or separator. In
Java, whitespace is a space, tab, ornewline.

Identifiers
Identifiers are used to name things, such as classes, variables, and methods. An identifier may
be any descriptive sequence of uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, or the underscore
and dollar-sign characters. They must not begin with a number. Java is case-sensitive, so
VALUE is a different identifier than Value. Some examples of valid identifiers are

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AvgTemp count a4 $test this_is_ok

Invalid identifier names include these:

High-temp 2count 4a Not/ok
Literals
A constant value in Java is created by using a literal representation of it. For example, here
are some literals:
100 98.6 „C‟ “This is a test”

Left to right, the first literal specifies an integer, the next is a floating-point value, the third
is a character constant, and the last is a string.
A literal can be used anywhere a value of its type is allowed.

Comments
As mentioned, there are three types of comments defined by Java. You have already seen
two: single-line and multiline. The third type is called a documentation comment. This type
of comment is used to produce an HTML file that documents your program. The
documentation comment begins with a /** and ends with a*/.

Separators
In Java, there are a few characters that are used as separators. The separators are shown in the
following table:
Symbol Name Purpose
() Parentheses Used to contain lists of parameters in method definition and
invocation. Also used for defining precedence inexpressions,
expressions in control statements, and surrounding casttypes.
{} Braces Used to contain the values of automatically initialized arrays.
Used to define a block of code, for classes, methods, and local
scopes
[] Brackets Used to declare array types and to dereferencing array values.
; Semicolon Terminates statements.
, Comma Separates consecutive identifiers in a variable declaration.
. Period Used to separate package names from sub-packages and classes
and used to separate a variable or method from a reference
variable.

The Java Keywords

 There are 50 keywords currently defined in the Java language (see below Table).
 These keywords, combined with the syntax of the operators and separators, form the
foundation of the Javalanguage.
 These keywords cannot be used as identifiers. Thus, they cannot be used as names for
a variable, class, ormethod.
 The keywords const and goto are reserved but notused.
 In addition to the keywords, Java reserves the following: true, false, and null. These
are values defined byJava.

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abstract continue for new switch
assert default goto package synchronized
boolean do if private this
break double implements protected throw
byte else import public throws
case enum instanceof return transient
catch extends int short try
char final interface static void
class finally long strictfp volatile
const float native super while

Table: Java Keywords

Operators
An operator performs an operation on one or more operands. Java provides a rich set of
operators. An operator that performs an operation on one operand is called unary operator.
An operator that performs an operation on two operands is called binaryoperator.

1.8 Variables
The variable is the basic unit of storage in a Java program. A variable is defined by the
combination of an identifier, a type, and an optional initializer. In addition, all variables have
a scope, which defines their visibility, and alifetime.

Declaring a Variable

In Java, all variables must be declared before they can be used. The basic form of a variable
declaration is shown here:
type identifier [ = value/literal][, identifier [= value/literal] ...] ;
Here the type is any primitive data type, or class name. The identifier is the name of the
variable. We can initialize the variable by specifying the equal sign and value.
Example
int a,b,c; // declares three ints, a, b, andc.
int d = 3, e, f=5; // declares three more ints, initializing d and f.
byte z=22; // initializes z with22.
double pi =3.1415; // declares an approximation of pi.
char c= 'x'; // variable c has the value'x'

Dynamic Initialization of the variable

We can also assign a value to the variable dynamically as follow:
int x = 12, y=13;
float z = Math.sqrt (x+y);

The Scope and Lifetime of Variables

 A scope determines what objects are visible to parts of your program. It also
determines the life time of theobjects.
 Java allows, declaring a variable within anyblock.
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 A block begins with opening curly brace( { ) and ended with end curly brace ( }).
 Thus, each time we start new block, we create newscope.
 Many programming languages define two scopes: Local andGlobal
 As a general rule a variable defined within one scope, is not visible to code defined
outside of thescope.
 Scopes can be also nested. The variable defined in outer scope are visible to the inner
scopes, but reverse is notpossible.
Example code

void method1( )
{ //outer block
int a =10;
if(a==10)
{ // inner block and here a,b,c are visible to the inner scope
int b=a*20;
int c=a+30;
} //end of inner block
b=20*2; // b is not known here, which declared in inner scope
} //end of the outer block

1.9 Identifiers
Identifiers are used for class names, method names, and variable names. An identifier may be
any descriptive sequence of uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, or the underscore and
dollar-sign characters. They must not begin with a number, lets they be confused with a
numeric literal. Java is case-sensitive, so VALUE is a different identifier than Value. Some
examples of valid identifiers are:

Rules for Naming Identifier:

1. The first character of an identifier must be a letter, or dollar($)sign.
2. The subsequent characters can be letters, an underscore, dollar sign ordigit.
3. White spaces are not allowed withinidentifiers.
4. Identifiers are case sensitive so VALUE is a different identifier thanValue

Valid Identifiers are as follows:

Average Temperature A1 Total_Score

Invalid Identifiers are as follows:

2a Area-circle Not/ok

Naming Convention for Identifiers

 Class or Interface - These begin with a capital letter. The first alphabet of every
internal word is capitalized. Ex: classMyclass
 Variable or Method – These start with lower case letters. The first alphabet of every
internal word is capitalized. Ex: inttotalPay;

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 Constants - These are in upper case. Underscore is used to separate the internal word.
Ex:-final doublePI=3.14;
 Package – These consist of all lower-case letters. Ex: importjava.util.*;

1.10 DataTypes
Java is strongly typed language
Java is strongly typed language. The safety and robustness of the Java language is in fact
provided by its strict typing. There are two reasons for this: First, every variable and
expression must be defined using any one of the type. Second, the parameters to the method
also should have some type and also verified for type compatibility.

Java language has 8 primitive data types: They are: char, byte, short, int, long, float, double,
boolean. These are again categorized into 4 groups.

1. Integer Group: The integer group contains byte, short, int, long. These data types will
need different sizes of the memory. These are assigned positive and negative values. The
width and ranges of these values are asfollow:
byte
 The smallest integer type is byte.
 This is a signed 8-bit type that has a range from –128 to127.
 Variables of type byte are especially useful when you‟re working with a stream of
data from a network or file and working with raw binary data that may not be directly
compatible with Java‟s other built-intypes.
 Byte variables are declared by use of the bytekeyword.
For example, the following declares two byte variables called b and c:
byteb,c; // where b and c areidentifiers
short
 short is a signed 16-bittype.
 It has a range from –32,768 to32,767.
 It is probably the least-used Javatype.
Here are some examples of short variable declarations:
short s, t;
int
 The most commonly used integer type isint.
 It is a signed 32-bit type that has a range from – 2,147,483,648 to2,147,483,647.
 In addition to other uses, variables of type int are commonly employed to control
loops and to indexarrays.
 We can store byte and short values in anint.
Example: int x=12;

long
 long is a signed 64-bit type and is useful for those occasions where an int type is not
large enough to hold the desiredvalue.
 The range of a long is -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to9,223,372,036,854,775,807.
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 This makes it useful when big, whole numbers are needed.
Example: longx=123456;

2. Floating-PointGroup
Floating-point numbers, also known as real numbers, are used when evaluating
expressions that require fractional precision. These are used with operations such as square
root, cosine, and sine etc. There are two types of Floating-Point numbers:
1. float
2. double.
The float type represents single precision and double represents double precision.

float
 The type float specifies a single-precision value that uses 32 bits ofstorage.
 The range of a float is 1.4e–045 to3.4e+038
 Single precision is faster on some processors and takes half as much space as double
precision.
 Variables of type float are useful when you need a fractional component, but don‟t
require a large degree ofprecision.
Example
float height, price;
double
 Double precision, as denoted by the double keyword, uses 64 bits to store avalue.
 The range of a double is 4.9e–324 to1.8e+308
 Double precision is actually faster than single precision on some modern processors
that have been optimized for high-speed mathematicalcalculations.
 All the math functions, such as sin( ), cos( ), and sqrt( ), return double values.
Example:
double area, pi;
Example program to calculate the area of a circle
import java.io.*;
class Circle {
public static void main(String args[ ] ) {
double r, area, pi;
r=2.5;
pi=3.14;
area=pi*r*r;
System.out.println("The Area of the Circle is:"+area);
}
}
Output
The Area of the Circle is: 19.625
3. CharactersGroup
In Java, the data type used to store characters is char. Java uses Unicode to represent
characters. Unicode defines a fully international character set that can represent all of the
characters found in all human languages.
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Java char is a 16-bit type. The range of a char is 0 to 65,536. The standard set of characters
known as ASCII still ranges from 0 to 127 as always, and the extended 8-bit character set,
ISO-Latin-1, ranges from 0 to 255.

Here is a program that demonstrates char variables:

class CharDemo{
public static void main(String args[ ]) {
char ch1, ch2;
ch1=88; // code for X
ch2 = 'Y';
System.out.print("ch1 and ch2: ");
System.out.println(ch1 + " " + ch2);
}
}
Output
ch1 and ch2: XY

4. Booleans Group
Java has a primitive type, called boolean, for logical values. It can have only one of two
possible values, true and/or false.

Here is a program that demonstrates the boolean type:

class BoolTest {
public static void main(String args[])
{
boolean b;
b = false;
System.out.println("b is " + b);
b = true;
System.out.println("b is " + b);
// a boolean value can control the if statement
if(b)
System.out.println("This is executed.");
else
System.out.println("This is not executed.");
// outcome of a relational operator is a boolean value
System.out.println("10 > 9 is " + (10 > 9));
}
}
Output
b is false
b is true
This is executed.
10>9 is true

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1.11 Literals/Constants
A literal is a value that can be passed to a variable or constant in a program. Literals can be
numeric, boolean, character, string or null.
Integer Literals
 Integers are the most commonly used type in the typicalprogram.
 Any whole number value is an integerliteral.
 Examples are 1, 2, 3, and 42. These are all decimal values, meaning they are
describing a base 10number.
 Octal values are denoted in Java by a leadingzero.
 Octal numbers are ranging from 0 to 7 range. A more common base for numbers used
by programmers ishexadecimal,
which matches cleanly with modulo 8 word sizes, such as 8, 16, 32, and 64 bits. You signify
a hexadecimal constant with a leading zero-x, (0x or 0X). The range of a hexadecimal digit is
0 to 15, so A through F (or a through f ) are substituted for 10 through15.
Integer literals create an int value, which in Java is a 32-bit integer value. Since Java is
strongly typed, you might be wondering how it is possible to assign an integer literal to one
of Java‟s other integer types, such as byte or long, without causing a type mismatch error.
Fortunately, such situations are easily handled. When a literal value is assigned to a byte or
short variable, no error is generated if the literal value is within the range of the target type.
An integer literal can always be assigned to a long variable. However, to specify a long
literal, you will need to explicitly tell the compiler that the literal value is of type long. You
do this by appending an upper- or lowercase L to the literal. For example, 0x7ffffffffffffffL
or 9223372036854775807L is the largest long. An integer can also be assigned to a char as
long as it is within range.

1.12 Operators
An operator is defined as a symbol that operates on operands and does something. The
something may be mathematical, relational or logical operation. Java supports a lot of
operators to be used in expressions. These operators can be categorized into the following
groups:
1. Arithmeticoperators
2. Bitwiseoperators
3. Relational operatorsand
4. Logical operators
5. Miscellaneousoperators
Arithmetic Operators
 These are used to perform mathematicaloperations.
 Most of them are binary operators since they operate on two operands at a time except
unary minus andplus.
 They can be applied to any integers, floating-point number orcharacters.
 Java supports 5 arithmetic operators. They are +, -, *, /,%.
 The modulo (%) operator can only be applied to integer operands as well as double
operands.

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The following table lists the arithmetic operators:
Operator Result
+ Addition (also unary plus)
- Subtraction (also unary
minus)
* Multiplication
/ Quotient division
% Modulo Division
++ Increment
-- Decrement
+= Addition assignment
-= Subtraction assignment
*= Multiplication assignment
/= Division assignment
%= Modulus assignment

Example program to perform all the arithmetic operations (Arith.java )

import java.io.*;
class Arith
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int a,b;
a=5;
b=6;
intc=a+b; //arithmeticaddition
int d=a-b; //aritmeticsubtraction
inte=a/b; //arithmeticdivision
intf=a*b; //arithmetic multiplication
System.out.println("The Sum is :"+c);
System.out.println("The Subtraction is :"+d);
System.out.println("The Division is :"+e);
System.out.println("The Multiplication is:"+f);
}
}
Output
The Sum is : -1
The Subtraction is : -1
The Division is : 0
The Multiplication is : 30

The Modulus Operator ( % )

The modulus operator returns the remainder of a division operation. It can be applied to
integer types as well as floating-point types. The following program demonstrates the %
operator.

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// Demonstrate the % operator. (Modulus.java)
class Modulus
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int x = 42;
double y = 6.25;
System.out.println("x mod 10 = " + x % 10);
System.out.println("y mod 2.5 = " + y % 2.5);
}
}
Output
x mod 10 = 2
y mod 2.5 = 1.25

Arithmetic Compound Assignment Operators

Java provides special operators that can be used to combine an arithmetic operation with an
assignment. As you probably know, statements like the following are quite common in
programming:
a = a + 4;
In Java, you can rewrite this statement as shown here: a += 4;
This version uses the += compound assignment operator. Both statements perform the same
action: they increase the value of a by 4.

Here is another example, a = a % 2; which can be expressed as a %= 2;

Increment and Decrement Operators

 The ++ and the – – are Java‟s increment and decrementoperators.
 The increment operator is unary operator that increases value of its operand by1.
Similarly, the decrement operator decreases value of its operand by1.
 These operators are unique in that they work only on variables not onconstants.
 These are used in loops like while, do-while and forstatements.

There are two ways to use increment or decrement operators in expressions. If you put the
operator in front of the operand (prefix), it returns the new value of the operand (incremented or
decremented). If you put the operator after the operand (postfix), it returns the original value of
the operand (before the increment ordecrement)
For example, this statement:
x = x + 1;
can be rewritten like this by use of the increment operator: x++;
Operator Name Value returned Effect on variable
x++ Post-increment x Incremented
++x Pre-increment x+1 Incremented
x-- Post-decrement x Decremented
--x Pre-decrement x+1 Decremented

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The following program demonstrates the increment and decrement operator. (IncDec.java)
class IncDec
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int x=5;
System.out.println("x="+(x++)); // post increment
System.out.println("x="+(++x)); // pre increment
System.out.println("x="+(x--)); // post decrement
System.out.println("x="+(--x)); // predecrement
}
}
Output
x=5
x =7
x =7
x =5

The Bitwise Operators

Java defines several bitwise operators that can be applied to the integer types, long, int, short,
char, and byte. These operators act upon the individual bits of their operands. They are
summarized in the following table:

Operator Result
~ Bitwise unary NOT (Complement)
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
>> Shift right
>>> Shift right zero fill
<< Shift left
&= Bitwise AND assignment
|= Bitwise OR assignment
^= Bitwise exclsive OR assignment
>>= Shift right assigment
>>>= Shift right zero fill assigment
<<= Shift left assigment

These operators are again classified into two categories: Logical operators, and Shift
operators.

The Bitwise Logical Operators

The bitwise logical operators are &, |, ^, and ~. The following table shows the outcome of
each operation. The bitwise operators are applied to each individual bit within each operand.

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The Bitwise NOT ( ~ )

One‟s complement operator (Bitwise NOT) is used to convert each 1 to 0 and 0 to 1, in the
given binary pattern. It is a unary operator i.e. it takes only one operand. For example, the
number 56, which has the following bit pattern:
~00111000  56
11000111 -57

The Bitwise AND (&)

The Bitwise AND operator produces a 1 bit if both operands are also 1. A zero is produced in
all other cases. Here is an example:
00111000  56
&00010100  20
00010000  16

The Bitwise OR( | )

The Bitwise OR operator combines bits such that if either of the bits in the operands is a 1,
then the resultant bit is a 1, as shown here:
00111000  56
|00010100  20
00111100  60
The Bitwise XOR (^)
The bitwise XOR operator combines bits such that if both operands are different then the
result is 1. Otherwise, the result is zero. The following example shows the effect of the ^.
00111000  56
^00010100  20
00101100  44

The following program demonstrates the bitwise logical operators:

Example: ( BitwiseOp.java )

class BitwiseOp
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int x = 56,y=20,z;
int a = x&y;
int b = x|y;
int c = x^y;

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int d = ~x;
System.out.println("x = " +Integer.toBinaryString(x));
System.out.println("y = "+Integer.toBinaryString(y));
System.out.println("x&y = "+Integer.toBinaryString(a));
System.out.println("x|y = "+Integer.toBinaryString(b));
System.out.println("x^y = "+Integer.toBinaryString(c));
System.out.println("~x = "+Integer.toBinaryString(d));
}
}
Output
x = 00111000
y =00010100
x&y = 00010000
x|y = 00111100
x^y = 00101100
~x = 11000111

Bitwise Shift Operators

Java supports three bitwise shift operators. They are shift-left (<<) and shift-right (>>) and
unsigned shift-right(>>>). These operations are simple and are responsible for shifting bits
either to left or to the right. The syntax for shift operation can be given as:
operand operator num
where the bits in operand are shifted left or right depending on the operator (<<, >>) by the
number of places denoted by num.

The Left Shift (<<)

When we apply left-shift, every bit in x is shifted to left by one place. So, the MSB (Most
Significant Bit) of x is lost, the LSB (Least Significant Bit) of x is set to 0.
Let us consider int x=4;

Left-shift is equals to multiplication by 2.

The Right Shift( >> )
When we apply right-shift, every bit in x is shifted to right by one place. So, the LSB (Least
Significant Bit) of x is lost, the MSB (Most Significant Bit) of x is set to previous value. This
preserves the sign of the value.

Let us considerintx=4; Now shifting the bits towards right for 1 time, will give the
followingresult.

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Right-shift is equals to division by 2.

The following program demonstrates the bitwise logical operators:

Example: (ShiftOp.java )
class ShiftOp
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int x = 4;
System.out.println("x<<1 = " +x);
System.out.println("x<<1 = " +(x<<1));
System.out.println("x>>1 = "+(x>>1));
x=-4;
System.out.println("x>>>1 = "+(x>>>1));
}
}
Output
x=4
x<<1 =8
x>>1 =2
x>>>1 = 2147483646

Relational Operators
A relational operator, also known as a comparison operator, is an operator that
compares two operands. The operands can be variables, constants or expressions. Relational
operators always return either true or false depending on whether the conditional relationship
between the two operands holds or not.
The outcome of these operators is a Boolean value. The relational operators are most
frequently used in the expressions to control if and loop statements.

Java has six relational operators. The following table shows these operators along with their
meanings
Operator Meaning Example
< Less than 4<5 return true
> Greater than 4>5 return false
<= Less than or equal to 100<=100 return true
>= Greater than or equal to 50>=100 return false
= =+ Equal to 4==5 return false
!= Not equal to 4!=5 return true
The following program demonstrates the Relational operators:
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Example: ( RelOp.java )
class RelOp
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int x = 4,y=5;
System.out.println(x + "<" + y +" = " + (x<y));
System.out.println(x + ">" + y +" = " + (x>y));
System.out.println(x + "<=" + y +" = " + (x<=y));
System.out.println(x + ">=" + y +" = " + (x>=y));
System.out.println(x + "==" + y +" = " + (x==y));
System.out.println(x + "!=" + y +" = " + (x!=y));
}
}
Output
4<5 = true
4>5 = false
4<=5 = true
4>=5 =false
4==5 =false
4!=5 = true

Logical Operators (|| and &&)

Operators which are used to combine two or more relational expressions are known as
logical operators. Java supports three logical operators – logical AND(&&), logical OR(||),
logical NOT( !). These are also known as short-circuit logical operators.
 Logical && and logical || are binary operators whereas logical ! is an unaryoperator.
 All of these operators when applied to expressions yield either true orfalse.
 When we use || operator if left hand side expression is true, then the result will be true,
no matter what is the result of right hand sideexpression.
 In the case of && if the left hand side expression results false, then the result will be
false, no matter what is the result of right hand sideexpression.
Example 1: (expr1 || expr2) Example2: (expr1 && expr2)

Miscellaneous Operators
The Assignment Operator
The assignment operator is the single equal sign, =. The assignment operator works in Java
much as it does in any other computer language. It has this general form:

var = expression;
Here, the type of var must be compatible with the type of expression. The assignment
operator allows you to create a chain of assignments. For example, consider thisfragment:
int x, y, z;
x = y = z = 52; // set x, y, and z to 52

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The ? Operator
Java includes a special ternary (three-way) operator that can replace certain types of if-then-
else statements. The ? has this general form:

var = expr1 ? expr2 : expr3

Here, expr1 can be any expression that evaluates to a boolean value. If expr1 is true, then
expr2 is evaluated; otherwise, expr3 is evaluated and its value is assigned to var.

The following program demonstrates the Relational operators: ( Ternary.java )

class Ternary
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int x=4,y=6;
int res= (x>y)?x:y;
System.out.println("The result is :"+res);
}
}
Output
The result is : 6

1.13 Expressions
In Java programming, an expression is any legal combination of operators and operands that
evaluated to produce a value. Every expression consists of at least one operand and can have
one or more operators. Operands are either variables or values, whereas operators are
symbols that represent particularactions.

In the expression x + 5; x and 5 are operands, and + is an operator.

In Java programming, there are mainly two types of expressions are available. They are as
follows:
1. Simple expression
2. Complexexpression

Simple expression: It contains one operator and two operands or constants.

Example: x+y; 3+5; a*b; x-y etc.

Complex expression: It contains two or more operators and operands or constants.

Example: x+y-z; a+b-c*d; 2+5-3*4; x=6-4+5*2 etc.
Operators provided mainly two types of properties. They are as follows:
1. Precedence
2. Associativity

Operator Precedence
It defines the order in which operators in an expression are evaluated depends on their
relative precedence. Example: Let us seex=2+2*2

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1st pass -- 2+2*2
2nd pass -- 2+4
3rd pass -- 6 that isx=6.

Associativity defines the order in which operators with the same order of precedence are
evaluated. Let us see x=2 / 2 *2
1st pass -- 2 / 2 * 2
2nd pass -- 1*2
3rd pass -- 2 that is x=2

Below Table shows the order of precedence for Java operators, from highest to
lowest. Operators in the same row are equal in precedence. In binary operations, the order of
evaluation is left to right (except for assignment, which evaluates right to left). The [ ], ( ),
and . would have the highestprecedence.

Highest(↓) Associativity
--
++(postfix) L to R
(postfix)
-- (-) (type
++(prefix) ~ ! + (unary) L to R
(prefix) unary cast)
* / % L to R
+ - L to R
>> >>> << L to R
> >= < <= instanceof L to R
== != L to R
& L to R
^ L to R
| L to R
&& L to R
|| L to R
?: L to R
= op= R to L
Lowest L to R

Using Parentheses
Parentheses raise the precedence of the operations that are inside them. This is often
necessary to obtain the result you desire. For example, consider the followingexpression:
a >> b + 3
This expression first adds 3 to b and then shifts a right by that result. That is, this expression
can be rewritten using redundant parentheses like this:
a >> (b + 3)
However, if you want to first shift a right by b positions and then add 3 to that result, you will
need to parenthesize the expression like this:
(a >> b) + 3
In addition to altering the normal precedence of an operator, parentheses can sometimes be
used to help clarify the meaning of an expression.
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1.14 Type Conversion andcasting
Type casting is a way to convert a variable from one data type to another data type. It can be
of two types: They are
1. ImplicitConversion
2. ExplicitConversion.

Implicit Conversion
When the type conversion is performed automatically by the compiler without programmer‟s
intervention, such type of conversion is known as implicit type conversion or automatic type
promotion. In this, all the lower data types are converted to its next higher data type.

In the case of Java, An automatic type conversion will take place if the following two
conditions are met:
 The two types arecompatible.
 The destination type is larger than the sourcetype.
When these two conditions are met, a widening conversion takes place. For example, the int
type is always large enough to hold all valid byte values,

For widening conversions, the numeric types, including integer and floating-point types, are
compatible with each other. However, there are no automatic conversions from the numeric
types to char or boolean. Also, char and boolean are not compatible with each other.

The Type Promotion Rules

Java defines several type promotion rules that apply to expressions. They are as follows:
 First, all byte, short, and char values are promoted to int, as justdescribed.
 Then, if one operand is a long, the whole expression is promoted tolong.
 If one operand is a float, the entire expression is promoted tofloat.
 If any of the operands is double, the result isdouble.

Example ( TypePromo.java )
class TypePromo
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int num=10;
float sum,f =10;
char ch='A';
sum=num+ch+f;
System.out.println("The value of sum = "+sum);
}
}
Output
The value of sum = 85.0

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Explicit Conversion (Type casting)
It is intentionally performed by the programmer for his requirement in a Java
program. The explicit type conversion is also known as type casting. This kind of conversion
is sometimes called a narrowing conversion, since you are explicitly making the value
narrower so that it will fit into the targettype.

To create a conversion between two incompatible types, you must use a cast. A cast is
simply an explicit type conversion. It has this general form:
(target - type ) value;
Here the target type specifies the destination type to which the value has to be converted.
Example
int a=1234;
byte b=(byte)a;
The above code converts the int to byte. If the integer‟s value is larger than the range
of a byte, it will be reduced modulo (the remainder of an integer division by the) byte‟s
range.

A different type of conversion will occur when a floating-point value is assigned to an integer
type: truncation. When a floating-point value is assigned to an integer type, the fractional
component is lost. For example, if the value 1.23 is assigned to an integer, the resulting value
will simply be 1.The 0.23 will have been truncated.

1.15 Flow of Control (ControlStatements)

Control statements are used to control the flow of execution to advance and branch based on
changes to the state of a program. Java control statements can be put into the three categories:
1. Selection
2. Iteration
3. Jump

Iteration statements enable program execution to repeat one or more statements (that is,
iteration statements form loops). Jump statements allow your program to execute in a
nonlinear fashion

1.15.1 Selectionstatements
They allow your program to choose different paths of execution based upon the outcome of
an
expression or the state of a variable. They are also called as Conditional or Decision Making
Statements. These include if and switch.
if..else statement
This is the Java's conditional branch statement. This is used to route the execution through
two different paths. The general form of if statement will be as follow:
if (conditional expression) {
statement1;
}
else {
statement2;
}
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Here the statements inside the block can be single statement or composite statements. The
conditional expression is any expression that returns the Boolean value. The else clause is
optional. The if works as follows: if the conditional expression is true, then statement1 will be
executed. Otherwise statement2 will be executed.
Example:
Write a java program to find whether the given number is even or odd? (EvenOdd.java)
import java.io.*;
class EvenOdd{
public static void main(String args[])throws IOException {
DataInputStream dis =new DataInputStream(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter the value ofn:");
int n=Integer.parseInt(dis.readLine());
if(n%2==0)
System.out.println(n+" is Even Number");
else
System.out.println(n+"is ODD Number");
}
}
Output
Enter the value of n: 5
5 is ODD Number

Nested if
The nested if statement is if statement, that contains another if and else inside it. When we
nest ifs, the else always associated with the nearest if. The general form of the nested if will
be asfollow:
if(conditional expr1) {
if(conditional expr2){
statement1;
}
else { statement2; }
}
}
else { statement3; }
Example
Write a java Program to test whether a given number is positive or negative. (Positive.java)
import java.io.*;
class Positive
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException
{
DataInputStream dis=new DataInputStream(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter a number to test:");
int n=Integer.parseInt(dis.readLine());
if(n>-1){
if(n>0)
System.out.println(n+ " is Positive");

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}
else
System.out.println(n+ " is Negative");
}
}
Output
Enter a number to test: -1
-1 is Negative

The if-else-if Ladder

A common programming construct that is based upon a sequence of nested ifs is the if-else-if
ladder. It looks like this:
if(condition1)
statement1;
else if(condition2)
statement2;
.
.
elseif(conditionN)
statementN;
else
statement;

The if statements are executed in a sequential manner. As soon as one of the condition is true,
the statement associated with that if is executed, and the rest of the ladder is bypassed. If none
of the conditions is true, then the final else statement will be executed.

Example Program:
Write a Java Program to test whether a given character is Vowel or Consonant? (Vowel.java)
import java.io.*;
class Vowel {
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException
{
System.out.print("Enter character to test:");
char ch=(char)System.in.read();
if(ch=='a')
System.out.println("Vowel");
else if(ch=='e')
System.out.println("Vowel");
else if(ch=='i')
System.out.println("Vowel");
elseif(ch=='o')
System.out.println("Vowel");
elseif(ch=='u')

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System.out.println("Vowel");
else
System.out.println("Consonant");
}
}
Output
Enter character to test:a
Vowel
Enter character to test:r
Consonant

The Switch statement

The switch statement is Java‟s multi-way branch statement. It provides an easy way to
dispatch execution to different parts of your code based on the value of an expression. As
such, it often provides a better alternative than a large series of if-else-if statements. Here is
the general form of a switch statement:
switch(expr)
{
case value1:
// statement sequence
break;
case value2:
// statement sequence
break;
case valueN:
// statement sequence
break;
default:
// default statement sequence
}

 The expression must be of type byte, short, int, char orstring;

 Each of the values specified in the case statements must be of a type compatible with
theexpression.
 Each case value must be a unique literal (that is, it must be a constant, not avariable).
 Duplicate case values are not allowed.

The switch statement works like this: The value of the expression is compared with each of
the literal values in the case statements. If a match is found, the code sequence following that
case statement is executed. If none of the constants matches the value of the expression, then
the default statement is executed. However, the default statement is optional. If no case
matches and no default is present, then no further action is taken.

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The break statement is used inside the switch to terminate a statement sequence. When a
break statement is encountered, execution branches to the first line of code that follows the
entire switch statement. This has the effect of ―jumping out of theswitch.

Write a Java Program to test whether a given character is Vowel or Consonant using switch?
importjava.io.*;
classSwitchTest
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException
{
System.out.print("Enter achatacter to test:");
char ch=(char)System.in.read();
switch(ch)
{
//test for small letters
case 'a':
System.out.println("vowel");
break;
case 'e':
System.out.println("vowel");
break;
case 'i':
System.out.println("vowel");
break;
case 'o':
System.out.println("vowel");
break;
case 'u':
System.out.println("vowel");
break;
default:
System.out.println("Consonant");
}
}
}
Output
Enter character to test: i
Vowel
Enter character to test: x
Consonant
There are three important features of the switch statement to note:
 The switch differs from the if in that switch can only test for equality, whereas if can
evaluate any type of Booleanexpression.
 No two case constants in the same switch can have identicalvalues.
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 A switch statement is usually more efficient than a set of nestedifs.

1.15. 2 Loops (IterationStatements)

Java‟s iteration statements are for, while, and do-while. These statements create what we
commonly call loops. A loop repeatedly executes the same set of instructions until a
termination condition is met.
Advantages
 Reduce length ofCode
 Take less memoryspace.
 Burden on the developer isreducing.
 Time consuming process to execute the program isreduced.

while
The while loop is a pre-test or entry-controlled loop. It uses conditional expression to control the
loop. The while loop evaluates (checking) the test expression before every iteration of the loop,
so it can execute zero times if the condition is initially false. The initialization of a loop control
variable is generally done before the loopseparately.

while (test expression)

{
// body of loop
inc/dec statement
}

How while loop works?

 Initially the while loop evaluates (checking condition) the testexpression.
 If the test expression is true , statements inside the body of while loop is evaluated.
Then, again the test expression is evaluated. The process goes on until the test
expression isfalse.
 When the test expression is false, the while loop isterminated.

Example : Program to print 1 to 10 numbers using while loop.

class Test {
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int n=1;
while(n<=10)
{
System.out.print(n+" ");
n++;
}
}
}
Output:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
do - while statement
do-while loop is similar to while loop, however there is one basic difference between them.
do-while runs at least once even if the test condition is false at first time. Syntax of do while
loop is:

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do
{
// body of loop
inc/dec statement
} while (test expression);
How do-while loop works?
 First the code block (loop body) inside the braces ({….}) is executedonce.
 Then, the test expression is evaluated (checking condition). If the test expression is
true, the loop body is executed again. This process goes on until the test expression is
evaluated to false(0).
 When the test expression is false, the do...while loop isterminated.

Example
Write a java program to add all the number from 1 to 10. (using do-while)
classTest
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int n=1;
do
{
System.out.print(n+" ");
n++;
} while (n<=10);
}
}
Output:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

for statement
It is the most general looping construct in Java. The for loop is commonly used when the
number of iterations are exactly known. The syntax of a for loop is:

for ( initialization; condition; iteration)

{
// body of loop
}

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The loop header contains three parts:
 aninitialization,
 a test condition,and
 incrementation(++) / decrementation(˗ ˗)/update.

Initialization: This part is executed only once when we are entering into the loop first time.
This part allows us to declare and initialize any loop control variables.

Condition: if it is true, the body of the loop is executed otherwise program control goes
outside the for loop.

Iteration: After completion of initialization and condition steps loop body code is executed
and then increment or decrements steps is execute. This statement allows to us to update any
loop controlvariables.

How for loopworks?

 First the loop initialization statement isexecuted.
 Then, the test expression is evaluated. If the test expression is false, for loop is
terminated. But if the test expression is true, codes inside the body of for loop is
executed and the update expression is executed. This process repeats until the test
expression becomesfalse.

Note: In for loop everything is optional but mandatory to place two semicolons (; ;)
Example program: same program using the for loop
class Test
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
for(int i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
System.out.print(i+"");
}
}
}
Output:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

For each version of the for loop:

A for loop also provides another version, which is called Enhanced Version of for loop. The
general form of the for loop will be as follow:

for ( type itr_var : collection)

{
// body of loop
}

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Here, type is the type of the iterative variable of that receives the elements from collection,
one at a time, from beginning to the end. The collection is created using the array.

Example: Write a java program to print all the elements in an array?

class Test
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a[ ] = {12,13,14,15,16};
for(int x:a)
{
System.out.print(x+"");
}
}
}
Output
12 13 14 15 16

1.15.3 The Jump/Branching Statements

Java supports three jump statements: break, continue, and return. These statements transfer
control to another part of your program.

break statement
In Java, the break statement has three uses.
1. It terminates a statement sequence in a switchstatement.
2. It can be used to exit aloop.
3. It can be used as civilized form of gotostatement.

Using break to Exit a Loop

In Java, when break statement is encountered inside a loop, the loop is immediately
terminated, and program control is transferred to nest statement following the loop. The
break statement is widely used with for loop, while loop, do-while loop and switch statement.
Its syntax is quite simple, just type keyword break followed with asemicolon.
break;

The following example illustrates the use of break;

class Test {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int i=1;
while( i <= 5)
{
if (i==3)
break;

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System.out.print(" "+i);
i = i + 1;
}
} }
Output
1 2
Using break as a Form of Goto
For example, the goto can be useful when you are exiting from a deeply nested set of loops.
To handle such situations, Java defines an expanded form of the break statement. By using
this form of break, you can, for example, break out of one or more blocks of code.
The general form of the labeled break statement is shown here:
break label;

Most often, label is the name of a label that identifies a block of code. This can be a stand-
alone block of code but it can also be a block that is the target of another statement. When
this form of break executes, control is transferred out of the named block. The labeled block
must enclose the break statement, but it does not need to be the immediately enclosingblock.

To name a block, put a label at the start of it. A label is any valid java identifier followed by a
colon. Once you have labeled a block, you can then use this label as the target of a break
statement.

Example code:
class Break{
public static void main(String args[]) {
boolean t = true;
first: {
second: {
third: {
System.out.println("Before the break.");
if (t)
breaksecond; // break out of second
block
System.out.println("This won't execute");
}
System.out.println("This won'texecute");
}
System.out.println("This is after secondblock.");
}
}
}
Running this program generates the following output:
Before the break.
This is after second block.
continue statement

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In Java, when continue statement is encountered inside a loop, it stops the current iteration
and places the loop in next iteration. In while and do-while loops, a continue statement causes
control to be transferred directly to the conditional expression that controls the loop. In a for
loop, control goes first to the iteration portion of the for statement and then to the conditional
expression. For all three loops, any intermediate code is bypassed. Its syntax is quite simple,
just type keyword continue followed with a semicolon.
continue;

class Test {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int i=1;
while( i <= 5)
{
i = i + 1;
if (i==3)
continue;
System.out.print(" "+i);
}
}
}
Output
2 4 5 6
return statement
The last control statement is return. The return statement is used to explicitly return from a
method. That is, it causes program control to transfer back to the caller of the method. As
such, it is categorized as a jump statement.
return expr/value;
Example:
class Test {
public static void main(String[]args) { //Caller Method
inta=3,b=4;
intx=add(a,b); //function call
System.out.println("The sum is"+x);
}
static int add(intx,inty) // called method
{
return (x+y);
}
}

Output
The sum is 7
After computing the result the control is transferred to the caller method, that main in this
case.

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Command Linearguments
 The java command-line argument is an argument i.e. passed at the time of running the
java program.
 The arguments passed from the console can be received in the java program and it can
be used as aninput.
 You can pass N (1,2,3 and so on) numbers of arguments from the commandprompt.
 They are stored as Strings in String array passed to the args in the mainmethod.

 The first command line argum0ent is stored in args[0], the second argument is stored in
args[1], the third argument is stored in args[2], and soon.

Example program:

Write a Java program to read all the command line arguments.

import
java.io.*;
class CLine
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
for(int i=0;i<args.length();i++)
System.out.println("args["+i+"]:"+args[
i]);
}
}
Output
C:/>javac CLine.java
C:/>java Cline Vijay Anand
Chintapalli args[0]: Vijay
args[1]: Anand
args[2]:
Chintapalli

0000

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