MCE 321 Friction

Lecture Note

MCE 321
FRICTION
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material
elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction:
 Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction is
subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction between
moving surfaces.
 Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving
relative to each other.
 Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid
surfaces.
 Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the
surface of a body.
 Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid
material while it undergoes deformation.
When surfaces in contact move relative to each other, the friction between the two surfaces
converts kinetic energy into thermal energy (that is, it converts work to heat). This property can
have dramatic consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of
wood together to start a fire. Kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy whenever motion
with friction occurs, for example when a viscous fluid is stirred. Another important consequence
of many types of friction can be wear, which may lead to performance degradation and/or
damage to components. Friction is a component of the science of tribology.
Friction is not itself a fundamental force. Dry friction arises from a combination of inter-surface
adhesion, surface roughness, surface deformation, and surface contamination. The complexity of
these interactions makes the calculation of friction from first principles impractical and
necessitates the use of empirical methods for analysis and the development of theory.
Friction is a non-conservative force - work done against friction is path dependent. In the
presence of friction, some energy is always lost in the form of heat. Thus mechanical energy is
not conserved.
Laws of dry friction
The elementary property of sliding (kinetic) friction were discovered by experiment and were
expressed as three empirical laws:
 Amontons' First Law: The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load.
 Amontons' Second Law: The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of
contact.
 Coulomb's Law of Friction: Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity.
Dry friction
Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. The two regimes of
dry friction are 'static friction' between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction (sometimes
called sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving surfaces.
The Coulomb friction may take any value from zero up to one, and the direction of the frictional
force against a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in the absence of
friction. Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be in order to prevent
motion between the surfaces; it balances the net force tending to cause such motion. In this case,
rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force, the Coulomb approximation

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MCE 321 Friction
Lecture Note

provides a threshold value for this force, above which motion would commence. This maximum
force is known as traction.
The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic friction)
or potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces. For example, a curling stone
sliding along the ice experiences a kinetic force slowing it down. For an example of potential
movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward;
if they did not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the
pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose; it is the
direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road.
Normal force

From the figure above, the arrows are vectors indicating directions and magnitudes of forces, N
is the normal force, mg is the force of gravity, and Ff is the force of friction.
The normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces together; and its
direction is perpendicular to the surfaces. In the simple case of a mass resting on a horizontal
surface, the only component of the normal force is the force due to gravity. In this case, the
magnitude of the friction force is the product of the mass of the object, the acceleration due to
gravity, and the coefficient of friction. However, the coefficient of friction is not a function of
mass or volume; it depends only on the material. For instance, a large aluminum block has the
same coefficient of friction as a small aluminum block. However, the magnitude of the friction
force itself depends on the normal force, and hence on the mass of the block.
If an object is on a level surface and the force tending to cause it to slide is horizontal, the normal
force between the object and the surface is just its weight, which is equal to its mass multiplied
by the acceleration due to earth's gravity, g. If the object is on a tilted surface such as an inclined
plane, the normal force is less, because less of the force of gravity is perpendicular to the face of
the plane. Therefore, the normal force, and ultimately the frictional force, is determined using
vector analysis, usually via a free body diagram. Depending on the situation, the calculation of
the normal force may include forces other than gravity.

Coefficient of friction
The coefficient of friction (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter µ, is a dimensionless
scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force
pressing them together. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for example,
ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of
friction.

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MCE 321 Friction
Lecture Note

Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between 0.3 and 0.6. Values
outside this range are rarer, but teflon, for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. A
value of zero would mean no friction at all, an elusive property. Rubber in contact with other
surfaces can yield friction coefficients from 1 to 2. Occasionally it is maintained that µ is always
< 1, but this is not true. While in most relevant applications µ < 1, a value above 1 merely
implies that the force required to slide an object along the surface is greater than the normal force
of the surface on the object. For example, silicone rubber or acrylic rubber-coated surfaces have
a coefficient of friction that can be substantially larger than 1.
While it is often stated that the COF is a "material property," it is better categorized as a "system
property."

Static friction
An object experiences static friction when the object is not moving. The friction increases as the
applied force increases until the block moves. After the block moves, it experiences kinetic
friction, which is less than the maximum static friction.
Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects that are not moving relative to each
other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped surface. The
coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as μs, is usually higher than the coefficient of
kinetic friction.
The static friction force must be overcome by an applied force before an object can move. The
maximum possible friction force between two surfaces before sliding begins is the product of the
coefficient of static friction and the normal force. The instant sliding occurs, static friction is no
longer applicable—the friction between the two surfaces is then called kinetic friction.
An example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping as it rolls on the
ground. Even though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in contact with the ground is
stationary relative to the ground, so it is static rather than kinetic friction.
The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes referred to as
limiting friction.

Kinetic friction
Kinetic friction, also known as dynamic friction or sliding friction, occurs when two objects
are moving relative to each other and rub together. The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically
denoted as μk, and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the same materials. The
friction force between two surfaces after sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of kinetic
friction and the normal force.
New models are beginning to show how kinetic friction can be greater than static friction.
Kinetic friction is now understood, in many cases, to be primarily caused by chemical bonding
between the surfaces, rather than interlocking asperities; however, in many other cases roughness
effects are dominant, for example in rubber to road friction. Surface roughness and contact area
affect kinetic friction for micro- and nano-scale objects where surface area forces dominate
inertial forces.
Angle of friction

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MCE 321 Friction
Lecture Note

Angle of friction, θ, when block just starts to slide.

For certain applications it is more useful to define static friction in terms of the maximum angle
before which one of the items will begin sliding. This is called the angle of friction or friction
angle.

Fluid friction
Fluid friction occurs between fluid layers that are moving relative to each other. This internal
resistance to flow is named viscosity. The viscosity of a fluid is described as its "thickness".
Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity.
The less viscous the fluid, the greater its ease of deformation or movement.
All real fluids (except superfluids) offer some resistance to shearing and therefore are viscous.

Lubricated friction
Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces.
Lubrication is a technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity
moving relative to each another by interposing a substance called a lubricant between the
surfaces.
In most cases the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to the
frictional viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces. Adequate
lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and without
excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. When lubrication breaks down, metal or other
components can rub destructively over each other, causing heat and possibly damage or failure.

Skin friction
Skin friction arises from the interaction between the fluid and the skin of the body, and is directly
related to the area of the surface of the body that is in contact with the fluid. Skin friction follows
the drag equation and rises with the square of the velocity.
Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the boundary layer around the object. There are two
ways to decrease skin friction: the first is to shape the moving body so that smooth flow is
possible, like an airfoil. The second method is to decrease the length and cross-section of the
moving object as much as is practicable.

Internal friction
Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material
while it undergoes deformation.

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MCE 321 Friction
Lecture Note

Plastic deformation in solids is an irreversible change in the internal molecular structure of an

object. This change may be due to either (or both) an applied force or a change in temperature.
The change of an object's shape is called strain. The force causing it is called stress.
Elastic deformation in solids is reversible change in the internal molecular structure of an object.
Stress does not necessarily cause permanent change. As deformation occurs, internal forces
oppose the applied force. If the applied stress is not too large these opposing forces may
completely resist the applied force, allowing the object to assume a new equilibrium state and to
return to its original shape when the force is removed. This is known as elastic deformation or
elasticity.

Reducing friction
Devices
Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and air cushion or other types of fluid
bearings can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling friction.
Many thermoplastic materials such as nylon, HDPE and PTFE are commonly used in low
friction bearings. They are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with
increasing imposed load. For improved wear resistance, very high molecular weight grades are
usually specified for heavy duty or critical bearings.

Lubricants
A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, water, or grease, which is
placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The
science of friction and lubrication is called tribology. Lubricant technology is when lubricants
are mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives.
Superlubricity, a recently discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the substantial
decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels. A very small amount
of frictional energy would still be dissipated.
Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such
as graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant.
Another way to reduce friction between two parts is to superimpose micro-scale vibration to one
of the parts. This can be sinusoidal vibration as used in ultrasound-assisted cutting or vibration
noise, known as dither.

Applications
Friction is an important factor in many engineering disciplines.
Transportation
 Automobile brakes inherently rely on friction, slowing a vehicle by converting its kinetic
energy into heat. Incidentally, dispersing this large amount of heat safely is one technical
challenge in designing brake systems.
 Rail adhesion refers to the grip wheels of a train have on the rails.
 Road slipperiness is an important design and safety factor for automobiles
o Split friction is a particularly dangerous condition arising due to varying friction
on either side of a car.
o Road texture affects the interaction of tires and the driving surface.
Household usage

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MCE 321 Friction
Lecture Note

 Friction is used to heat and ignite matchsticks (friction between the head of a matchstick
and the rubbing surface of the match box).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction

Advantages of friction:
 Friction enables us to walk freely.
 It helps to support ladder against wall.
 It becomes possible to transfer one form of energy to another.
 Objects can be piled up without slipping.
 Breaks of vehicles work due to friction.

Disadvantages of friction:
 It always resists the motion, so extra energy is required to overcome it.
 It causes wear and tear of machines.
 It decreases the life expectancy of moving parts of vehicles.
Since friction is very useful in some cases while harmful in some cases, friction is called
a necessary evil.
Methods of increasing friction: In many cases, friction is very useful. So, enough friction is
required and hence become necessary to increase the friction. Some of the common methods of
increasing friction are:
 Spreading sand in slippery roads.
 Making rough shoe soles.
 Making surface of footpath rough.
 Fitting spikes in sport shoes.
Methods of reducing friction: In many cases, friction is very harmful. So, friction needs to be
reduced. Some of the ways of reducing frictions are:
 Polishing or smoothing the surfaces.
 By the use of lubricants which increases the smoothness of the surface.
 Giving streamlines shape to submarines, jets etc
 By using ball bearing in wheels.

Review Questions
1. What is friction?
2. Describe the following: dry friction, fluid friction, lubricated friction, skin friction and internal friction.
3. Explain the term “coefficient of friction”
4. How can friction be reduced?
5. What are the applications of friction?
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of friction?
7. How can friction be increased?

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