MODULE-1

PART-1

Metal casting processes

• Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing process. It is the first step in making most
of the products.
• Steps in making sand castings

Making mould cavity - Material is first liquefied by properly heating it in a suitable

furnace. - Liquid is poured into a prepared mould cavity - allowed to solidify - product is
taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed and made to shape We should concentrate on
the following for successful casting operation:
The six basic steps in making sand castings are, (i) Pattern making, (ii) Core making,
(iii) Moulding, (iv) Melting and pouring, (v) Cleaning
Pattern making - Pattern: Replica of the part to be cast and is used to prepare the
mould cavity. It is the physical model of the casting used to make the mould. Made of
either wood or metal.
-The mould is made by packing some readily formed aggregate material, such as
moulding sand, surrounding the pattern. When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint
provides the mould cavity. This cavity is filled with metal to become the casting.
- If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called ‘cores’, are used to form these
cavities .
Core making Cores are placed into a mould cavity to form the interior surfaces of
castings. Thus the void space is filled with molten metal and eventually becomes the
casting.

Moulding :Moulding is nothing but the mould preparation activities for receiving molten
metal. Moulding usually involves: (i) preparing the consolidated sand mould around a
pattern held within a supporting metal frame, (ii) removing the pattern to leave the
mould cavity with cores. Mould cavity is the primary cavity. The mould cavity contains
the liquid metal and it acts as a negative of the desired product. The mould also
contains secondary cavities for pouring and channeling the liquid material in to the
primary cavity and will act a reservoir, if required.
Melting and Pouring The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply
as melting. The molten metal is transferred to the pouring area where the moulds are
filled.
Cleaning Cleaning involves removal of sand, scale, and excess metal from the casting.
Burned-on sand and scale are removed to improved the surface appearance of the
casting. Excess metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed.
Inspection of the casting for defects and general quality is performed.
Advantages
• Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made
by this process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and
welding, can be minimized.
• Possible to cast practically any material: ferrous or non-ferrous.
• The necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As
a result, for production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.
• There are certain parts (like turbine blades) made from metals and alloys that can only
be processed this way. Turbine blades: Fully casting + last machining.
• Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

Limitations
• Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting
processes are a limitation to this technique.
• Many new casting processes have been developed which can take into consideration
the aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of these processes are
die casting process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed moulding process, and
shell moulding process.
• Metal casting is a labour intensive process
• Automation: a question
Typical sand mould
Mould Section and casting nomenclature, (a) top view, (b) front
view

Important casting terms

Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mould is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in the moulding structure, it is referred to by
various names such as drag – lower moulding flask, cope – upper moulding flask, cheek
– intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding.

Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mould cavity is made with
the help of pattern.

Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up
the mould.
Moulding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or
gases. It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.

Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner
surface of the mould cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.

Core: A separate part of the mould, made of sand and generally baked, which is used
to create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.

Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the
molten metal is poured.

Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches
the mould cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould.

Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the
gate.

Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity.

Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mould cavity to take care
of its own weight and overcome the metallostatic force.

Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mould to feed the castings as it shrinks
and solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.

Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape of air and gases
 PART-2
Pattern The pattern and the part to be made are not same. They differ in the following
aspects.

.A pattern is always made larger than the final part to be made. The excess dimension
is known as Pattern allowance. Pattern allowance are 3 types: shrinkage allowance,
machining allowance and draft allowance.

Shrinkage allowance: will take care of contractions of a casting which occurs as the
metal cools to room temperature. Liquid Shrinkage: Reduction in volume when the
metal changes from liquid state to solid state. Riser which feed the liquid metal to the
casting is provided in the mould to compensate for this. Solid Shrinkage: Reduction in
volume caused when metal looses temperature in solid state. Shrinkage allowance is
provided on the patterns to account for this. Shrink rule is used to compensate solid
shrinkage depending on the material contraction rate.

The shrinkage allowance depends on the coefficient of thermal expansion of the

material (α). A simple relation indicates that higher the value of α, more is the shrinkage
allowance. For a dimension ‘l’, shrinkage allowance is αl (θf –θ0). Here θf is the freezing
temperature and θ0 is the room temperature.

Machining allowance: will take care of the extra material that will be removed to obtain
a finished product. In this the rough surface in the cast product will be removed. The
machining allowance depends on the size of the casting, material properties, material
distortion, finishing accuracy and machining method. For internal surfaces, the
allowances should be negative.

Draft allowance: All the surfaces parallel to the direction in which the pattern will be
removed are tapered slightly inward to facilitate safe removal of the pattern. This is
called ‘draft allowance’.
 Pattern materials

• Patterns for sand castings are subjected to considerable wear and tear due to
ramming action that is required and the abrasive action of the sand.

• Should be impervious to moisture because of changing surroundings .

• Made of: wood, metal, plastics, plaster and synthetic materials .

• Woods => white pine, sugar pine; The wood should be straight grain, light, easy to
work, little tendency to develop crack and warp.

• More durable: Mahogany

• For large castings: metal such as cast iron or aluminium

• When metal pattern are cast from the wooden master pattern, double shrinkage must
be provided on the wooden master pattern

TYPES OF PATTERNS

(i) Solid or single piece pattern: Such patterns are made in one piece and are suitable
only for very simple castings. There is no provision for runners and risers etc. Moulding
can be done either in the foundry floor (called pit moulding) or in a moulding box. There
is no difficulty in withdrawing the pattern from the mould as the broadest portion of the
pattern is at the top. As an example, if a cylindrical pin with a circular head has to be
cast, a one piece pattern shown in Fig. 6.1 will be adequate.

(ii) Split pattern: It is not practical to have one piece pattern for parts of complicated
shapes, because it would not be possible to withdraw the pattern from the mould. For
example, if a circular head was added to the bottom of the pin shown in Fig. 6.1, it
would make it necessary to go in for a split pattern as shown in Fig. 6.2.

One-half of the impression in the mould will be made by using piece no. 1 in one
moulding box and the other half of the impression will be made by using piece no. 2 in a
second moulding box. After withdrawing the pattern halves from the respective
moulding boxes, the two boxes will be assembled and clamped together, so that the
complete impression is available for pouring the metal. The two pattern halves are
provided with locating dowels, so that one-half may sit on the other half in the exact
position required with no mismatch. Also two tapped holes are provided on the flat
mating surface of each part. These tapped holes are used to provide a grip to lift the
pattern halves from the sand without damaging the mould-impression. The line along
which the pattern is divided into halves is called “parting line” and it usually follows the
broadest cross-section of the casting. Deciding where the parting line should be is a
matter of considerable skill and experience. Some of the more complicated castings
may require pattern to be split in three or even more pieces.

(iii) Loose piece pattern: In some cases, the casting may have small projections or
overhanging portions. These projections make it difficult to withdraw the pattern from
the mould. Therefore these projections are made as loose pieces. They are loosely
attached to the main part of the pattern and the mould is made in the usual way.
When the main pattern is withdrawn from the mould, the loose pieces slip off and
remain behind in the mould. After removing the main body of the pattern, the loose
pieces are taken out by first moving them laterally and then lifting them through the
space vacated by the main pattern. The method is illustrated in Fig. 6.3.

(iv) Match plate pattern: Match plate is a metal plate, usually made of aluminium. The
two halves of the split pattern are mounted on this match plate one on either side. While
fixing them to the match plate, care is taken so that there is no mismatch. These
patterns are used in conjunction with mechanically operated moulding machines.
Bottom side of match plate pattern is used for making the bottom half of the mould
impression in one moulding box (known as the drag). The upper side of the match plate
pattern is used for making the mould impression in another moulding box. Finally, the
two moulding boxes are kept on top of each other, the bottom box is known as the drag,
whereas the top one is called the cope.

(v) Gated patterns: Sometimes alongwith the pattern for the casting, another portion is
added so that when the impression is made in the moulding box, the cavity contains a
shallow channel along with the main cavity for the object to be cast. This channel will be
used for feeding molten metal into the main cavity and is known as the “gate”. Such
patterns where provision for gating has been made are called gated patterns. It
removes the necessity of making a gate separately.

Sweep pattern: A sweep pattern consists of a board having a profile of the desired
mold, which is revolved around a spindle or guide produces the mold. Two are used –
one for sweeping the cope and other for drag.

Segmental pattern: meant for circular ring shaped large sections. Instead of using a
full pattern, part pattern is used. Once molding is done at one place, it is rotated to the
adjacent region and molding is done.
Skeleton pattern:

This consists of frame of wood representing the interior and exterior forms. They define
the borders of pattern and then gaps are filled with clay and sand to form actual pattern.
They are used for very large components having simple shapes and when its not
economical to make the entire surface. Strickles (like strike off bars) are used to remove
excess sand which is purposely rammed with extra thickness than required for desired
mold surfaces

COLOUR CODING FOR PATTERN DURING MANUFACTURING

Patterns have also some identifiers such as colors on them, each of which has different
meaning that

represent different treatments and requirements far the patterns. The color-coding for
patterns in sand casting is as follows

1) Red indicates that the surface of the material should be left as it is after casting.

2) Black indicates that the surface needs core and shows the position of the sand core.

3) Yellow indicates that the surface needs machining.

4) Loose piece pattern resting portion is made green.

 PART-3

Ingredients used in sand for making molds/cores

MOULDING SAND AND ITS PROPERTIES

In foundries, sand is used for making moulds. Natural sand found on the bed and banks
of rivers provides an abundant source, although high quality silica sand is also mined.
Sand is chemically SiO2 – silicon dioxide in granular form. Ordinary river sand contains
a contain percentage of clay, moisture, non-metallic impurities and traces of magnesium
and calcium salts besides silica grains. This sand, after suitable treatment, is used for
mould making. A good, well prepared moulding sand should have the following
properties:
(i) Refractoriness i.e., it should be able to with stand high temperatures.
(ii) Permeability i.e., ability to allow gases, water vapour and air to pass through it.
(iii) Green sand strength i.e., when a mould is made with moist sand, it should have
sufficient strength, otherwise mould will break.
(iv) Good flowability i.e., when it is packed around a pattern in a moulding box, it
should be able to fill all nooks and corners, otherwise the impression of pattern in mould
would not be sharp and clear.
(v) Good collapsibility i.e., it should collapse easily after the casting has cooled down
and has been extracted after breaking the mould. It is particularly important in case of
core making.
(vi) Cohesiveness i.e., ability of sand grains to stick together. Without cohesiveness,
the moulds will lack strength.
(vii) Adhesiveness i.e., ability of sand to stick to other bodies. If the moulding sand
does not stick to the walls of moulding box, the whole mould will slip through the box.

Properties like permeability, cohesiveness and green strength are dependent

upon size and shape of sand grains, as also upon the binding material and
moisture content present in sand. Clay is a natural binder. Chemical binders like
bentonite are sometimes added if clay content in natural sand is not enough.

Standard tests have been devised by foundry men to determine properties of sand.
Generally fresh moulding sand prepared in the foundry has the following composition:
Silica 75% (approx.), Clay 10–15%, Bentonite 2–5% (as required), Coal dust 5–10%,
Moisture 6–8%.
Core sand has oil as the main binding material. A core gets surrounded by molten metal
which causes the oil to vaporise. This increases collapsibility of sand and makes it easy
to remove sand from the holes in the casting.
Natural and Synthetic molding sand
Natural molding sand: This is ready for use as it is dug from the ground. The following
average compositions are seen in natural molding sand: 65.5% silica grains, 21.7% clay
content, 12.8% undesirable impurities. Too much clay content and other impurities fill up
the gaps between the sand grains. This will hinder the necessary passage of steam and
other gases during pouring of the mold.

Synthetic molding sand Synthetic molding sand is made by mixing together specially
selected high quality clay free silica, with about 5% of clay. They are tailor made to give
most desirable results. Some of the advantages of synthetic molding sand are:

1.Refractory grain sizes are more uniform, 2. Higher refractoriness (= 3000oF), 3. less
bonding agent is required (about 1/3rd of the clay percentage found in natural molding
sand), 4. More suitable for use with mechanical equipment Advantages of natural
molding sand: 1. moisture content range is wide, 2. molds can be repaired easily

Sand testing

Criteria used for sand testing: Moisture content, green and dry sand permeabilities,
compression, tension, transverse and shear strengths, deformation during compression
tests, green and dry hardness, clay content, grain-size distribution, combustible content,
pressure, volume of gases evolved, flowability, sintering point, resistance to spalling etc.
Moulding sand preparation and moisture content determination:

The moisture content controls practically all other properties of the sand. It is a varying
property since water content constantly evaporates during mold preparation. Purpose:
adding sufficient water to bring the moisture content to within desired limits, uniform
distribution of water, adequate coating of colloidal clay to each sand grain.

Moisture content determination:

• The simplest method is to dry a sample thoroughly at a few degrees above 212oF and
to consider its loss in weight as moisture. • Drying can be done in a thermostatically
controlled oven or in a instrument designed for this purpose • There is one MOISTURE
TELLER which blows air through a 50 gm sample of sand that is placed in a plate.

Testing rammed sand:

• Green permeability, green compression and few other properties are tested when the
sand is in rammed condition. • The rammed densities should be within some range
which is actually encountered in the sand molds • A predetermined weight of sand is
placed into the hardened steel tube, which is closed at the bottom by a pedestal •
Actually the tube filled with sand and the pedestal are weighed • the entire set up is
placed into the sand rammer and the rammer is dropped few times depending on
particular standards, like three times etc. • the weight used will be a standard one.
Depending on the ramming times, a standard density is obtained. • once the ramming is
completed, the height of the rammed sand is evaluated and this should be equal to 2
inches in length. If it is equal to this height, required density is expected to be in the
rammed sand. • If the sand height is outside the range, the entire procedure will be
repeated.

Green compression strength The sand specimen is compressed between two plates
connected to the ram of the universal testing machine. The load at which the sand
sample breaks will give the compression strength. The same tests can be performed at
high temperatures in furnaces to find the compression strength at elevated
temperatures.

Deformation and green hardness During compression tests, the deformation of the
sample can be recorded. The toughness can be obtained from its ultimate strength
times its corresponding deformation. Green hardness is the hardness of the rammed
sand that is measured by hardness tester like Brinell hardness tester. A ½ inch
diameter, spring loaded ball indenter is forced into the rammed sand surface. The
resistance to penetration will give the hardness of the sand surface.
 PART-4

CORES
Whenever a hole, recess, undercut or internal cavity is required in a casting, a core,
which is usually made up of a refractory material like sand is inserted at the required
location in the mould cavity before finally closing the mould. A core, being surrounded
on all sides by molten metal, should be able to withstand high temperature. It should
also be adequately supported otherwise due to buoyancy of molten metal, it will get
displaced. When the molten metal around the core solidifies and shrinks, the core
should give way, otherwise the casting may crack (hot tear). Cores, as explained
previously, should be made of oil sand and dried in owens before use. Cores are made
with the help of core boxes. Core boxes are made of wood and have a cavity cut in
them, which is the shape and size of the core. The sand in mixed and filled in the core
boxes. It is then rammed. A core box is made in two halves, each half contains half
impression of core. Sometimes a core may need reinforcements to hold it together. The
reinforcements are in the shape of wire or nails, which can be extracted from the hole in
the casting along with core sand.
Core making

• Generally Cores are used for making interior surfaces of hollow castings and now-a-
days it is used for making exterior surfaces and for other purposes.

• Green sand cores contain ordinary molding sand and dry sand core contains hardened
or baked sand.

• Core mix contains clay free silica sand. This is suitably mixed with binders, water and
other ingredients to produce a core mix.

• Synthetic core binders have some unusual properties like shorter baking times and
excellent collapsibilities which reduces the defect castings.

• Urea formaldehyde binders burn out faster and collapse at lower temperature as
compared to phenol formaldehyde binders. Thus urea formaldehyde binders are
suitable for use at lower temperature metals like Al, Mg, thin sections of brass, bronze.
• Phenol formaldehyde binders are employed for thick sections of CI, steel castings

Core characteristics

Good dry sand cores should have the following characteristics:

1.Good dry strength and hardness after baking

2.Sufficient green strength to retain the shape before baking

3.Refractoriness

4.Surface smoothness

5.Permeability

6.Lowest possible amount of gas created during the pouring of casting

Types of core

1 According to the state or condition of core

A . Green sand core

Green sand cores are formed by pattern itself.  A green sand core is a part of the mold
 A green sand core is made out of the same sand from which the rest of mold has been
made i.e molding steel.

B. Dry Sand cores : Dry sand cores, unlike green sand cores are not produced as a
part of the sand.  Dry sand cores are made separately and independent of that mold 
A dry sand core is made up of core sand which differs very much from the sand out of
which the mold is constructed.

 A dry sand core is made in a core box and it is baked after ramming.  A dry sand core
is positioned in the mold on core seats formed by core print on the pattern.  A dry sand
core is inserted in the mold before closing the same.
3.2 According to the nature of core materials employed:

A .Oil bonded cores

Conventional sand cores are produced by mixing silica sand with a small percentage of
linseed sand

B. Resin – bonded cores  Phenol resin bonded sand is rammed in a core box  The
core is removed from the core box and baked in a core oven at 375 to 450 f to harden
the core

C . Shell cores  Shell cores can be made manually or on machines. Sand mixed with
about 2 to 5 % thermosetting resin of phenolic type is either dumped or blown into the
preheated metal core box. ii. Where sand blowing is employed, it is preferred to use
resin precoated sand to avoid resin segregation. iii. The resin is allowed to melt to the
specified thickness. iv. The resin gets cured. v. The excess sand is dumped and
removed. vi. The hardened core is extracted from the core box. vii. Cores thus produced
needs no further baking.

D. Sodium silicate – CO2 cores  These cores use a core material consisting of clean,
dry sand mixed with a solution of sodium silicate.
 CORE PRINTS
A core must be supported in the mould cavity. Wherever possible, this is done by
providing core prints. Core prints are extensions of the core which rest in similar
extensions of the mould cavity so that core remains supported in the mould cavity
without the core falling to the bottom of the cavity. For example, if the pin with collars
shown in Fig. 6.5 had a central hole, the hole could be produced by inserting a
core in mould cavity as shown in Fig. 6.5.
 CHAPLETS

Another device to support cores is “chaplets”. These are clips made of thin sheets of the
same metal as the casting. These clips are used to support the weight of cores. When
the molten metal is poured, chaplets melt and merge into the molten metal. Chaplets
are used to support a core and are placed between a core and the mold wall. - As the
mold is filled with molten metal, the chaplet prevents the core to float and move
upwards dislocating from its position. - The part of chaplet in mold will be fused into the
casting. - chaplets not fused properly will create mechanical weakness and mold wall
leak. - They are generally made heavier rather than lighter, such that they seldom unite
with the surrounding metal. - Tin or copper plated chaplets are used for ferrous castings
to avoid rusting. - Radiator chaplets having a flat square ends are fixed in the pattern
itself and will provide good support to core along with rammed sand..
 PART-5

Pouring Basin: The molten metal is not directly poured into the mould cavity because it
may cause mould erosion. Molten metal is poured into a pouring basin which acts as a
reservoir from which it moves smoothly into the sprue. The pouring basin is also able to
stop the slag from entering the mould cavity by means of a skimmer or skim core as
shown in Fig. It holds back the slag and dirt which floats on the top and only allows the
clean metal underneath it into the sprue. The pouring basin may be cut into the cope
portion directly or a separated dry sand pouring basin may be prepared and used as
shown in Fig. The molten metal in the pouring basin should be full during the pouring
operation, otherwise a funnel is likely to form through which atmospheric air and slag
may enter the mould cavity. One of the walls of the pouring basin is made inclined at
about 45" to the horizontal. The molten metal is poured on this face such that metal
momentum is absorbed and vortex formation is avoided. In some special cases the
pouring basin may consist of partitions to allow for the trapping of the slag and
maintaining constant metal height in the basin.

Sprue base well: This is a reservoir for metal at the bottom of the sprue to reduce the
momentum of the molten metal. The molten metal as it moves down the sprue gains in
velocity, some of which is lost in the sprue base well by which the mould erosion is
reduced. This molten metal then changes direction and flows into the runners in a more
uniform way.

Runner: It is generally located in the horizontal plane (parting plane) which connects
the sprue to its ingates, thus letting the metal enter the mould cavity. The runners are
normally made trapezoidal in cross section. It is a general practice for ferrous metals to
cut the runners in the cope and the in-gates in the drag. The main reason for this is to
trap the slag and dross which are lighter and thus trapped in the upper portion of the
runners. For effective trapping of the slag, runners should flow full as shown in the Fig.
When the amount of molten metal coming from the down sprue is more than the amount
flowing through the ingates, the runner would always be full and thus slag trapping
would take place. But when the metal flowing through the ingates is more than that
flowing through the runners then the runner would be filled only partially as shown in
Fig. and the slag would then enter the mould cavity.

Runner Extension: The runner is extended a little further after it encounters the ingate.
This extension is provided to trap the slag in the molten metal. The metal initially comes
along with the slag floating at the top of the ladle and these flows straight, going beyond
the ingate and then trapped in the runner extension.
Riser: Most of the foundry alloys shrink during solidification. Table 10.1 shows the
various volumetric shrinkages for typical materials. As a result of this volumetric
shrinkage during solidification, voids are likely to form in the castings as shown in Fig.
unless additional molten metal is fed into these places which are termed as hot spots
since they remain hot till the end. Hence a reservoir of molten metal is to be maintained
from which the metal can flow readily into the casting when the need arises. These
reservoirs are called risers. As shown in Table, different materials have different
shrinkages and hence the risering requirements vary for the materials. In grey cast iron,
because of graphitization during solidification, there may be an increase in volume
sometimes. This of course, depends on the degree of graphitization in grey cast iron
which is controlled by the silicon content. In order to make them effective, the risers
should be designed keeping the following in mind. • The metal in the riser should solidify
in the end. • The riser volume should be sufficient for compensating the shrinkage in the
casting. In order to satisfy the above requirements, risers of large diameters are
generally used. But it proves to be a very expensive solution since the solidified metal in
the riser is to be cut off from the main casting and is to be melted for reuse. Higher the
riser volume, lower is the casting yield and as such it is very uneconomical. The risers
are normally of the following types, top risers which are open to the atmosphere; blind
risers which are completely concealed inside the mould cavity itself and internal risers
which are enclosed on all sides by the casting.

The top riser is the most conventional and convenient to make. But the position where
it can be placed is limited. The top being open loses heat to the atmosphere by radiation
and convection. To reduce this, often insulation it provided on the top such as plaster of
Paris, asbestos sheet. The blind riser since it is surrounded by the moulding sand
would lose heat slowly and thus would be more effective. Also it can be located more
conveniently than an open riser. The best is the internal riser which is surrounded on
all sides by the casting such that heat from the casting keeps the metal in the riser hot
for a longer time. These are normally used for castings which are cylindrically shaped or
have a hollow cylindrical portion.
PRODUCT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR DEFECT FREE CASTING
PRODUCT DESIGN FOR ECONOMICAL CASTING

The main area for optimization in green sand casting process for efficient and economical quality
casting are:

• Optimizing and reducing riser mass • Optimizing gating system • Simulation of mould filling and
solidification to avoid casting defects • Optimizing process parameters of sand mold • Optimizing
pattern plate utilization • Optimization of mould yield • Optimum use of pads and chills • Optimization
of melt composition and temperature • Efficient cooling during solidification • Reducing oxidation and
controlling deformation of casting in heat treatment • Dimensional control and reducing machining
allowance • Efficient Shake out• Efficient sand reclamation and recycling • Foundry mechanization •
Data acquisition system and automatic control.
1. Optimal riser design Risers are used for prevention of shrinkage defects .
However, they decrease the usage rate of metal and extend the cooling time of castings after
solidification as well. Therefore, proper riser size needs to be designed to satisfy feeding with
the smallest volume.

2. Optimal gating design The gating design and ingate position (Figure 3) plays an important role in
the quality and cost of a metal casting. Due to the lack of theoretical procedure to follow, the
design process is normally carried out on a trial and error basis. In production, traditional
methods and computer- aided design and computer aided engineering are combined for gating
design recently. But potential exists for further optimization of gating system.
3. Simulation of mould filling, solidification and casting defects The defects such as shrinkage,
crack and deformation were the key topics in castings production. Once the shrinkage
deformation and the cracks appear in castings, it will cost much fees and time for repair welding.
The casting might be discarded if these problems are severe. The stress is one of the main
factors that cause deformation and cracks in castings during casting, heat treatment, machining,
and service. Deformation, tendency to hot tearing, and residual stress in casting could be
predicted by numerical simulation of the thermal and stress fields in casting during casting and
heat treatment, which is helpful for optimizing the foundry technology.
4. Optimizing process parameters of sand mold Sand mold is one of the key factors that directly
affect the production rate and product quality. Metal casting industries are actively involved to
reduce the scrap rejection and rework during the manufacturing process of the components. To
achieve this, the production concerns must follow the quality control procedures correctly and
perfectly without any negligence. Timely implementation of the modified techniques based on
the quality control research is a must to avoid defects in the products.
5. Deformation control The casting volume and shape will change, and even distort under the
action of thermal stress and phase transformation during heat treatment. The final shape of
casting is affected by thermal strain, elastic strain, traditional plastic strain, phase strain, and
phase transformation- induced plastic strain. It is necessary to optimize heat treatment for
controlling the deformation of casting, which will reduce or avoid the possible repair welding
and shape correction work, and also decrease the machining layer thickness and time greatly
affects the production cost and the casting quality in production. Large machining allowance will
result in extension of machining period and cost.
6. Efficient cooling in the casting process The production rate in the casting process is related to
the solidification rate. The production period for sand casting is long enough, Therefore, it is
critical to increase the cooling rate after solidification and shorten the cooling period in mold To
realize efficient cooling some kind of methods were proposed.
CASTING DEFECTS
CASTING CLEANING

Casting cleaning basically involves taking out the casted component out of mold
cavity, removing all the feeding elements like sprue, runner, ingate, riser etc from
the casted component. In addition to that core, which forms internal feature, also
has to be removed.

Methods:

1. Core sand can be removed by knocking the casting with soft hammer.

2. Hydroblasting, ie high pressure water jets are also used to remove the core
sand.
3. A vibrating platform can also be used to remove cores.

4. For removing gates and risers, hammering is possible for thin section.
Sometimes thermal cutting methods like gas cutters are used for heavy sections.

Cast iron metal- Hammering, Steel- thermal cutting

5. Thin projections formed due to defects, flashes etc can be removed by chipping
off manually.

6. For removing fused sand grains from the casting surface, sand blasting /steel
grit blasting and hammering is used. Blasting involves high velocity air jet with
abrasive particles are directed to the surface.

7. Another common method is tumbling, which is a container in which multiple

castings are placed, and are rotated at moderate speeds 30 to 40 rpm, the friction
between casting surfaces remove projections and fused sands.
Shell moulding
Permanent mold casting
The Investment Casting Process