57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5

Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 1

Chapter 5 Mass, Momentum, and Energy Equations

Flow Rate and Conservation of Mass

1. cross-sectional area oriented normal to velocity vector

(simple case where V ⊥ A)

U = constant: Q = volume flux = UA [m/s × m2 = m3/s]

U ≠ constant: Q = ∫ UdA
A
 = ∫ ρUdA
Similarly the mass flux = m
A

2. general case

Q = ∫ V ⋅ ndA
CS
= ∫ V cos θdA
CS
 = ∫ ρ(V ⋅ n )dA
m
CS
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 2
Q
average velocity: V =
A

Example:
At low velocities the flow through a long circular tube, i.e. pipe,
has a parabolic velocity distribution (actually paraboloid of
revolution).
⎛ ⎛ r ⎞2 ⎞
u = u max ⎜1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎝R⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
i.e., centerline velocity

a) find Q and V

Q = ∫ V ⋅ ndA = ∫ udA
A A

2π R
∫ udA = ∫ ∫ u (r ) rdθdr
A 0 0
R
= 2π ∫ u (r ) rdr
0
dA = 2πrdr
2π
u = u(r) and not θ ∴ ∫ dθ = 2π
0
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 3

R ⎛ ⎛ r ⎞2 ⎞ 1
Q = 2π ∫ u max ⎜1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟rdr = u max πR 2
⎜ ⎝R⎠ ⎟ 2
0 ⎝ ⎠
1
V = u max
2

Continuity Equation

RTT can be used to obtain an integral relationship expressing

conservation of mass by defining the extensive property B = M
such that β = 1.

B = M = mass
β = dB/dM = 1

General Form of Continuity Equation

dM d
=0= ∫ ρdV + ∫ ρV ⋅ dA
dt dt CV CS
or
d
∫ ρ V ⋅ dA = − ∫ ρdV
CS dt CV

net rate of outflow rate of decrease of

of mass across CS mass within CV

Simplifications:
d
1. Steady flow: − ∫ ρdV = 0
dt CV
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 4
2. V = constant over discrete dA (flow sections):

∫ ρV ⋅ dA = ∑ ρV ⋅ A
CS CS

3. Incompressible fluid (ρ = constant)

d
∫ V ⋅ dA = −
CS
∫
dt CV
dV conservation of volume

4. Steady One-Dimensional Flow in a Conduit:

∑ ρV ⋅ A = 0
CS

−ρ1V1A1 + ρ2V2A2 = 0

for ρ = constant Q1 = Q2

Some useful definitions:

Mass flux  = ∫ ρV ⋅ dA
m
A

Volume flux Q = ∫ V ⋅ dA
A

Average Velocity V = Q/A

1
Average Density ρ= ∫ ρdA
A

 ≠ ρQ unless ρ = constant
Note: m
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 5
Example

*Steady flow
*V1,2,3 = 50 fps
*@ u V varies linearly
from zero at wall to
Vmax at pipe center
 4 , Q4, Vmax
*find m
0 *water, ρw = 1.94 slug/ft3
d
∫ ρV ⋅ dA = 0 = − ∫ ρdV
CS dt CV 4
m

i.e., -ρ1V1A1 - ρ2V2A2 + ρ3V3A3 + ρ ∫ V4 dA 4 = 0

A4
ρ = const. = 1.94 lb-s2 /ft4 = 1.94 slug/ft3

 4 = ρ ∫ V4 dA 4 = ρV(A1 + A2 – A3)
m V1=V2=V3=V=50f/s

=
1.94
144
π
(
× 50 × 12 + 2 2 − 1.5 2
4
)
= 1.45 slugs/s
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 6
 4 ρ = .75 ft3/s
Q4 = m

= ∫ V4 dA 4
A4
velocity profile
⎛
ro 2 π ⎞
Q4 = ∫ ∫ Vmax ⎜⎜1 − r ⎟⎟rdθdr
0 0 ⎝ ro ⎠
dA4
V4 ≠ V4(θ)

⎛
ro
r⎞
= 2π ∫ Vmax ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟rdr
0 ⎝ ro ⎠ 1 2
πr V
Q 3 o max
V4 = =
ro ⎡
r2 ⎤ A πro2
= 2πVmax ∫ ⎢r − ⎥dr 1
0⎣ ro ⎦ = Vmax
3

⎡r2 r0
r3
ro
⎤
= 2πVmax ⎢ − ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 0
3ro 0 ⎥
⎦

⎡1 1⎤ 1
= 2πVmax ro 2 ⎢ − ⎥ = πro 2 Vmax
⎣ 2 3⎦ 3
Q4
Vmax = = 2.86 fps
1 2
πro
3
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 7

Momentum Equation

RTT with B = MV and β = V

∑ [FS + F B ] =
d
∫ ρVdV + ∫ VρV R ⋅ dA
dt CV CS
V = velocity referenced to an inertial frame (non-accelerating)
VR = velocity referenced to control volume
FS = surface forces + reaction forces (due to pressure and
viscous normal and shear stresses)
FB = body force (due to gravity)

Applications of the Momentum Equation

Initial Setup and Signs
1. Jet deflected by a plate or a vane
2. Flow through a nozzle
3. Forces on bends
4. Problems involving non-uniform velocity distribution
5. Motion of a rocket
6. Force on rectangular sluice gate
7. Water hammer

Derivation of the Basic Equation General form for

dBsys d moving but
Recall RTT: = ∫ βρdV + ∫ βρ V R ⋅ dA non-accelerating
dt dt CV CS reference frame

VR=velocity relative to CS=V – VS=absolute – velocity CS

Subscript not shown in text but implied!
i.e., referenced to CV
Let, B = MV = linear momentum V must be referenced to
β=V inertial reference frame
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 8
d(M V) d
= ∑F = ∫ VρdV + ∫ VρV R ⋅ dA
dt dt CV CS
Must be relative to a non-accelerating
Newton’s 2nd law
inertial reference frame
where ΣF = vector sum of all forces acting on the
control volume including both surface and
body forces
= ΣFS + ΣFB
ΣFS = sum of all external surface forces acting at
the CS, i.e., pressure forces, forces
transmitted through solids, shear forces, etc.

ΣFB = sum of all external

body forces, i.e.,
gravity force
ΣFx = p1A1 – p2A2 + Rx
ΣFy = -W + Ry

R = resultant force on fluid

in CV due to pw and τw
free body diagram i.e., reaction force on fluid
Important Features (to be remembered)

1) Vector equation to get component in any direction must use

dot product
Carefully define coordinate
x equation
system with forces positive in
d
∑ Fx = ∫ ρudV + ∫ ρu V R ⋅ dA positive direction of
dt CV CS coordinate axes
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 9
y equation
d
∑ Fy = ∫ ρvdV + ∫ ρv V R ⋅ dA
dt CV CS

z equation
d
∑ Fz = ∫ ρwdV + ∫ ρw V R ⋅ dA
dt CV CS

2) Carefully define control volume and be sure to include all

external body and surface faces acting on it.
For example,

(Rx,Ry) = reaction
force on fluid

(Rx,Ry) = reaction
force on nozzle

3) Velocity V must be referenced to a non-accelerating inertial

reference frame. Sometimes it is advantageous to use a
moving (at constant velocity) reference frame. Note VR = V
– Vs is always relative to CS.
i.e., in these cases V used
for B also referenced to CV
(i.e., V = VR)
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 10
4) Steady vs. Unsteady Flow

d
Steady flow ⇒ ∫ ρVdV = 0
dt CV

5) Uniform vs. Nonuniform Flow

∫ VρV R ⋅ dA = change in flow of momentum across CS

CS
= ΣVρVR⋅A uniform flow across A
6) Fpres = − ∫ p ndA ∫ ∇fdV = ∫ f nds
V S
f = constant, ∇f = 0
= 0 for p = constant and for a closed surface

i.e., always use gage pressure

7) Pressure condition at a jet exit

at an exit into the atmosphere jet

pressure must be pa

Application of the Momentum Equation

1. Jet deflected by a plate or vane

Consider a jet of water turned through a horizontal angle

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 11

CV and CS are
for jet so that Fx
and Fy are vane
reactions forces
on fluid

d
x-equation: ∑ Fx = Fx = ∫ ρudV + ∫ ρu V ⋅ dA
dt CS
Fx = ∑ ρu V ⋅ A steady flow
CS

= ρV1x (− V1A1 ) + ρV2 x (V2 A 2 )

continuity equation: ρA1V1 = ρA2V2 = ρQ for A1 = A2

V1 = V2
Fx = ρQ(V2x – V1x)

y-equation: ∑ Fy = Fy = ∑ ρv V ⋅ A
CS
Fy = ρV1y(– A1V1) + ρV2y(– A2V2)
= ρQ(V2y – V1y)

for above geometry only

where: V1x = V1 V2x = -V2cosθ V2y = -V2sinθ V1y = 0
note: Fx and Fy are force on fluid
- Fx and -Fy are force on vane due to fluid

If the vane is moving with velocity Vv, then it is convenient to

choose CV moving with the vane
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 12
i.e., VR = V - Vv and V used for B also moving with vane

x-equation: Fx = ∫ ρu V R ⋅ dA
CS

Fx = ρV1x[-(V – Vv)1A1] + ρV2x[-(V – Vv)2A2]

Continuity: 0 = ∫ ρV R ⋅ dA

i.e., ρ(V-Vv)1A1 = ρ(V-Vv)2A2 = ρ(V-Vv)A

Qrel
Fx = ρ(V-Vv)A[V2x – V1x]
Qrel

on fluid V2x = (V – Vv)2x

V1x = (V – Vv)1x

Power = -FxVv i.e., = 0 for Vv = 0

Fy = ρQrel(V2y – V1y)

2. Flow through a nozzle

Consider a nozzle at the end of a pipe (or hose). What force is

required to hold the nozzle in place?
CV = nozzle
and fluid
∴ (Rx, Ry) =
force required
to hold nozzle
in place
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 13
Assume either the pipe velocity or pressure is known. Then, the
unknown (velocity or pressure) and the exit velocity V2 can be
obtained from combined use of the continuity and Bernoulli
equations.

1 1
Bernoulli: p1 + γz1 + ρV12 = p 2 + γz 2 + ρV22 z1=z2
2 2
1 1
p1 + ρV12 = ρV22
2 2

Continuity: A1V1 = A2V2 = Q

2
A1 ⎛ D⎞
V2 = V1 = ⎜ ⎟ V1
A2 ⎝d⎠
1 2 ⎛⎜ ⎛ D ⎞ ⎞⎟
4
p1 + ρV1 1 − ⎜ ⎟ = 0
2 ⎜ ⎝d⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1/ 2
⎡ ⎤
⎢ − 2p1 ⎥
Say p1 known: V1 = ⎢ 4 ⎥
⎢ ρ⎜1 − d ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝
⎛ D
⎠⎦
( )
To obtain the reaction force Rx apply momentum equation in x-
direction

d
∑ Fx = ∫ uρdV + ∫ ρu V ⋅ dA
dt CV CS
= ∑ ρu V ⋅ A steady flow and uniform
CS flow over CS

Rx + p1A1 – p2A2 = ρV1(-V1A1) + ρV2(V2A2)

= ρQ(V2 - V1)
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 14

Rx = ρQ(V2 - V1) - p1A1

To obtain the reaction force Ry apply momentum equation in y-

direction

∑ Fy = ∑ ρvV ⋅ A = 0 since no flow in y-direction

CS
Ry – Wf − WN = 0 i.e., Ry = Wf + WN

Numerical Example: Oil with S = .85 flows in pipe under

pressure of 100 psi. Pipe diameter is 3” and nozzle tip diameter
is 1” Sγ
ρ= = 1.65
g
V1 = 14.59 ft/s
D/d = 3
V2 = 131.3 ft/s 2
π⎛ 1 ⎞
Q = ⎜ ⎟ V2
Rx = 141.48 – 706.86 = −569 lbf 4 ⎝ 12 ⎠
Rz = 10 lbf = .716 ft3/s

This is force on nozzle

3. Forces on Bends

Consider the flow through a bend in a pipe. The flow is

considered steady and uniform across the inlet and outlet
sections. Of primary concern is the force required to hold the
bend in place, i.e., the reaction forces Rx and Ry which can be
determined by application of the momentum equation.
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 15

Rx, Ry = reaction force on

bend i.e., force
required to hold
bend in place

Continuity: 0 = ∑ ρV ⋅ A = −ρV1A1 + ρV2 A 2

i.e., Q = constant = V1A1 = V2 A 2

x-momentum: ∑ Fx = ∑ ρu V ⋅ A
p1A1 − p 2 A 2 cos θ + R x = ρV1x (− V1A1 ) + ρV2 x (V2 A 2 )
= ρQ(V2 x − V1x )

y-momentum: ∑ Fy = ∑ ρv V ⋅ A
p 2 A 2 sin θ + R y − w f − w b = ρV1y (− V1A1 ) + ρV2 y (V2 A 2 )
= ρQ(V2 y − V1y )

4. Problems involving Nonuniform Velocity Distribution

See text pp. 215− 216
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 16
5. Force on a rectangular sluice gate
The force on the fluid due to the gate is calculated from the x-
momentum equation:

∑ Fx = ∑ ρu V ⋅ A

F1 + FGW − Fvisc − F2 = ρV1 (− V1A1 ) + ρV2 (V2 A 2 )

FGW = F2 − F1 + ρQ(V2 − V1 ) + Fvisc

usually can be neglected

y y
= γ 2 ⋅ y 2 b − γ 1 ⋅ y1b + ρQ(V2 − V1 )
2 2
1
( )
FGW = bγ y 22 − y12 + ρQ(V2 − V1 )
2 V1 =
Q
y1b
ρQ 2 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎜ − ⎟
b ⎝⎜ y 2 y1 ⎟⎠ V2 =
Q
y2b
Moment of Momentum Equation
See text pp. 221 − 229
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 17

Energy Equations

Derivation of the Energy Equation

The First Law of Thermodynamics

The difference between the heat added to a system and the work
done by a system depends only on the initial and final states of
the system; that is, depends only on the change in energy E:
principle of conservation of energy

∆E = Q – W

∆E = change in energy
Q = heat added to the system
W = work done by the system

E = Eu + Ek + Ep = total energy of the system

potential energy
kinetic energy

Internal energy due to molecular motion

The differential form of the first law of thermodynamics

expresses the rate of change of E with respect to time

dE  
=Q−W
dt
rate of work being done by system

rate of heat transfer to system

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 18
Energy Equation for Fluid Flow
The energy equation for fluid flow is derived from Reynolds
transport theorem with

Bsystem = E = total energy of the system (extensive property)

β = E/mass = e = energy per unit mass (intensive property)

= û + ek + ep

dE d
= ∫ ρedV + ∫CS ρeV ⋅ dA
dt dt CV
d
Q − W = ∫ ρ (uˆ + ek + e p )dV + ∫ ρ (uˆ + ek + e p )V ⋅ dA
dt CV CS

This can be put in a more useable form by noting the following:

Total KE of mass with velocity V ∆MV 2 / 2 V 2

ek = = = V2 = V
mass ∆M 2
E p γ∆Vz
ep = = = gz (for Ep due to gravity only)
∆M ρ∆V

d ⎛ V 2
⎞ ⎛ V 2
⎞
Q − W = ∫ ρ ⎜ + gz + uˆ ⎟ dV + ∫ ρ ⎜ + gz + uˆ ⎟ V ⋅ dA
dt CV ⎝ 2 ⎠ Cs
⎝ 2 ⎠

rate of work rate of change flux of energy

done by system of energy in CV out of CV
(ie, across CS)
rate of heat
transfer to sysem
 57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 19

Rate of Work Components: W  =W s +W f

For convenience of analysis, work is divided into shaft work Ws
and flow work Wf

Wf = net work done on the surroundings as a result of

normal and tangential stresses acting at the control
surfaces
= Wf pressure + Wf shear

Ws = any other work transferred to the surroundings

usually in the form of a shaft which either takes
energy out of the system (turbine) or puts energy into
the system (pump)

Flow work due to pressure forces Wf p (for system)

Note: here V uniform over A
CS

System at time t + ∆t
CV

System at time t

Work = force × distance

at 2 W2 = p2A2 × V2∆t (on surroundings)
rate of work⇒ W  2 = p 2 A 2 V2 = p 2 V 2 ⋅ A 2

neg. sign since pressure at 1 W1 = −p1A1 × V1∆t

force on surrounding  1 = p1 V1 ⋅ A1
W
fluid acts in a direction
opposite to the motion
of the system boundary
 57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 20
In general,

 fp = p V ⋅ A
W

for more than one control surface and V not necessarily uniform
over A:

 fp = ∫ pV ⋅ dA = ∫ ρ⎜⎛ p ⎞⎟V ⋅ dA
W
⎝ρ⎠
CS CS

f =W
W  fp + W
 fshear

Basic form of energy equation

⎛ p⎞
Q − Ws − W fshear − ∫ ρ ⎜ ⎟ V ⋅ dA
CS
⎝ρ⎠
d ⎛V 2 ⎞ ⎛V 2 ⎞
= ∫ ρ⎜ + gz + uˆ ⎟ dV + ∫ ρ ⎜ + gz + uˆ ⎟ V ⋅ dA
dt CV ⎝ 2 ⎠ CS
⎝ 2 ⎠

d ⎛V 2 ⎞
Q − Ws − W fshear = ∫ ρ⎜ + gz + uˆ ⎟ dV
dt CV ⎝ 2 ⎠
Usually this term can be ⎛V 2 p⎞
eliminated by proper choice of +∫ ρ⎜ + gz + uˆ + ⎟ V ⋅ dA
CV, i.e. CS normal to flow lines. CS
⎝ 2 ρ⎠
Also, at fixed boundaries the
velocity is zero (no slip h=enthalpy
condition) and no shear stress
flow work is done. Not included
or discussed in text!
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 21

Simplified Forms of the Energy Equation

Energy Equation for Steady One-Dimensional Pipe Flow

Consider flow through the pipe system as shown

Energy Equation (steady flow)

⎛ V 2
p ⎞
Q − Ws = ∫ ρ ⎜ + gz + + uˆ ⎟ V ⋅ dA
CS
⎝ 2 ρ ⎠
  ⎛ p1 ⎞ ρ1V13
Q − Ws + ∫ ⎜ + gz1 + uˆ1 ⎟ ρ1V1 A1 + ∫ dA1
A1
⎝ρ ⎠ A1 2
⎛ p2 ⎞ ρ 2V23
= ∫ ⎜ + gz2 + uˆ2 ⎟ ρ 2V2 A2 + ∫ dA2
A2
⎝ ρ ⎠ A2 2

*Although the velocity varies across the flow sections the

streamlines are assumed to be straight and parallel;
consequently, there is no acceleration normal to the streamlines
and the pressure is hydrostatically distributed, i.e., p/ρ +gz =
constant.
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 22
*Furthermore, the internal energy u can be considered as
constant across the flow sections, i.e. T = constant. These
quantities can then be taken outside the integral sign to yield
  ⎛ p1 ⎞ V13
Q − Ws + ⎜ + gz1 + uˆ1 ⎟ ρ ∫ V1dA1 + ρ ∫ dA1
⎝ρ ⎠ A1 A1 2
⎛ p2 ⎞ V23
= ⎜ + gz2 + uˆ2 ⎟ ρ ∫ V2 dA2 + ρ ∫ dA2
⎝ ρ ⎠ A2 A2 2

Recall that Q = ∫ V ⋅ dA = VA
So that ρ ∫ V ⋅ dA = ρVA = m
 mass flow rate

3 2
V3 ρV A V
Define: ρ ∫ dA = α =α 
m
A 2 2 2
K.E. flux K.E. flux for V= V =constant across pipe
3
1 ⎛V⎞
i.e., α = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ dA = kinetic energy correction factor
A A⎝ V ⎠
⎛p V
2
⎞ ⎛p V
2
⎞
 
Q − W + ⎜ + gz1 + uˆ1 + α1
1 1
⎟ m = ⎜ + gz2 + uˆ2 + α 2
2 2
⎟ m
⎜ρ 2 ⎟ ⎜ ρ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 2

m
(
1   p
ρ
)
Q − W + 1 + gz1 + uˆ1 + α1
V 1 p2
2
=
ρ
+ gz2 + uˆ2 + α 2
V2
2

Nnote that: α = 1 if V is constant across the flow section

α > 1 if V is nonuniform

laminar flow α = 2 turbulent flow α = 1.05 ∼ 1 may be used

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 23
Shaft Work
Shaft work is usually the result of a turbine or a pump in the
flow system. When a fluid passes through a turbine, the fluid is
doing shaft work on the surroundings; on the other hand, a pump
does work on the fluid
Ws =W  t −W
p where W  t and W p are
⎛ work ⎞
⎜ ⎟
magnitudes of power
⎝ time ⎠
Using this result in the energy equation and deviding by g
results in

W p p1 V12 Wt p2 V22 uˆ2 − uˆ1 Q

+ + z1 + α1 = + + z2 + α 2 + −

mg γ 2 mg γ 2 g 
mg

mechanical part thermal part

Note: each term has dimensions of length

Define the following:

p
W p
W p
W
hp = = =
g
m ρQg γQ

t
W
ht =
g
m

uˆ2 − uˆ1 Q
hL = − = head loss
g 
mg
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 24
Head Loss
In a general fluid system a certain amount of mechanical energy
is converted to thermal energy due to viscous action. This effect
results in an increase in the fluid internal energy. Also, some
heat will be generated through energy dissipation and be lost
 ). Therefore the term
(i.e. -Q
from 2nd law

uˆ2 − uˆ1 Q represents a loss in

hL = − >0 mechanical energy due
g gm
to viscous stresses
Note that adding Q to system will not make hL = 0 since this
also increases ∆u. It can be shown from 2nd law of
thermodynamics that hL > 0.

Drop ⎯ over V and understand that V in energy equation refers

to average velocity.

Using the above definitions in the energy equation results in

(steady 1-D incompressible flow)

p1 V12 p2 V22
+ α1 + z1 + h p = + α2 + z2 + h t + h L
γ 2g γ 2g

form of energy equation used for this course!

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 25
Comparison of Energy Equation and Bernoulli Equation

Apply energy equation to a stream tube without any shaft work

Infinitesimal stream tube ⇒ α1=α2=1

p1 V12 p 2 V22
Energy eq : + + z1 = + + z2 + h L
γ 2g γ 2g

•If hL = 0 (i.e., µ = 0) we get Bernoulli equation and

conservation of mechanical energy along a streamline

•Therefore, energy equation for steady 1-D pipe flow can be

interpreted as a modified Bernoulli equation to include viscous
effects (hL) and shaft work (hp or ht)

Summary of the Energy Equation

The energy equation is derived from RTT with

B = E = total energy of the system

β = e = E/M = energy per unit mass

 57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 26
1 2
= û + V +gz
2

internal KE PE

dE d  −W

= ∫ ρedV + ∫ ρeV ⋅ dA = Q from 1st Law of
dt dt CV CS Thermodynamics
heat work
add done
Neglected in text presentation
 =W
W s +W
 p +W
v

shaft work
done on or pressure Viscous stress
by system work done work on CS
(pump or on CS
turbine)

 p = ∫ p V ⋅ dA = ∫ ρ(p ρ )V ⋅ dA
W
CV CS

s =W
W  t −W
p

 −W
Q  p = d ∫ ρedV + ∫ ρ(e + p e )V ⋅ dA
 t +W
dt CV CS
1
e = uˆ + V 2 + gz
2

For steady 1-D pipe flow (one inlet and one outlet):
1) Streamlines are straight and parallel
⇒ p/ρ +gz = constant across CS
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 27

2) T = constant ⇒ u = constant across CS

3
1 ⎛V⎞
3) define α = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ dA = KE correction factor
A CS ⎝ V ⎠

3 2
ρ 3 ρV V
⇒ ∫ V dA = α A = α 
m
2 2 2
mechanical energy Thermal
energy
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ α1 + z1 + h p = + α2 + z2 + h t + h L
γ 2g γ 2g

p m
hp = W g Note: each term
has
units of length
t m
ht = W g
V is average velocity
uˆ2 − uˆ1 Q (vector dropped) and
hL = − = head loss corrected by α
g 
mg
> 0 represents loss in mechanical energy due to viscosity
 57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 28

Concept of Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines

p1 V12 p2 V22
+ α1 + z1 + h p = + α2 + z2 + h t + h L
γ 2g γ 2g
p
Define HGL = + z point-by-point
γ application is
p V2 graphically
EGL = + z + α displayed
γ 2g

HGL corresponds to pressure tap measurement + z

EGL corresponds to stagnation tube measurement + z
EGL = HGL if V = 0
EGL1 = EGL2 + hL L V2
for hp = ht = 0 hL = f
D 2g
i.e., linear variation in L for D,
V, and f constant

f = friction factor
f = f(Re)

p2
pressure tap: =h
γ
h = height of fluid in
p2 V22
stagnation tube: +α =h tap/tube
γ 2g

EGL1 + hp = EGL2 + ht + hL
EGL2 = EGL1 + hp − ht − hL
abrupt L V2
change due f
D 2g
to hp or ht
 57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 29
Helpful hints for drawing HGL and EGL

1. EGL = HGL + αV2/2g = HGL for V = 0

L V2
2.&3. h L = f in pipe means EGL and HGL will slope
D 2g
downward, except for abrupt changes due to ht or hp

2 2
p1 V1 p2 V2
+ z1 + = + z2 + + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
HGL2 = EGL1 - hL
2
V
hL = for abrupt expansion
2g
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 30

4. p = 0 ⇒ HGL = z

L V2
5. for h L = f = constant × L
D 2g
i.e., linearly increased for
EGL/HGL slope downward f V2
increasing L with slope
D 2g
6. for change in D ⇒ change in V

i.e. V1A1 = V2A2

change in distance between
πD12 πD 22
V1 = V2 ⇒ HGL & EGL and slope
4 4 change due to change in hL
V1D1 = V1D 2
2 2
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 31

7. If HGL < z then p/γ < 0 i.e., cavitation possible

condition for cavitation:

N
p = p va = 2000
m2

N
gage pressure p va ,g = p A − p atm ≈ − p atm = −100,000
m2

p va ,g
≈ −10m
γ

9810 N/m3
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 32
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 33
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 34

Application of the Energy, Momentum, and

Continuity Equations in Combination

In general, when solving fluid mechanics problems, one should

use all available equations in order to derive as much
information as possible about the flow. For example, consistent
with the approximation of the energy equation we can also apply
the momentum and continuity equations

Energy:
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ α1 + z1 + h p = + α2 + z2 + h t + h L
γ 2g γ 2g

Momentum:
∑ Fs = ρV2 A 2 − ρV1 A1 = ρQ(V2 − V1 )
2 2 one inlet and
one outlet
Continuity: ρ = constant
A1V1 = A2V2 = Q = constant
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 35
Abrupt Expansion
Consider the flow from a small pipe to a larger pipe. Would like
to know hL = hL(V1,V2). Analytic solution to exact problem is
extremely difficult due
to the occurrence of
flow separations and
turbulence. However, if
the assumption is made
that the pressure in the
separation region
remains approximately
constant and at the
value at the point of
separation, i.e, p1, an approximate solution for hL is possible:

Apply Energy Eq from 1-2 (α1 = α2 = 1)

p1 V12 p 2 V22
+ z1 + = + z2 + + hL
γ 2g γ 2g

Momentum eq. For CV shown (shear stress neglected)

∑ Fs = p1A 2 − p 2 A 2 − W sin α = ∑ ρu V ⋅ A
= ρV1 (− V1A1 ) + ρV2 ( V2 A 2 )
∆z = ρV22 A 2 − ρV12 A1
γA 2 L
L
W sin α
next divide momentum equation by γA2
 57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 36

p1 p 2 V22 V12 A1 V12 A1 ⎛ A1 ⎞

÷ γA2 − − (z1 − z 2 ) = − = ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
γ γ g g A2 g A2 ⎝ A2 ⎠

from energy equation

⇓
V2 V12
2
V22 V12 A1
− + hL = −
2g 2g g g A2

V22 V12 ⎛ 2A1 ⎞

hL = + ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
2g 2g ⎝ A2 ⎠

1 ⎡ 2 2 A1 ⎤ continutity eq.
hL = + 2
−
2g ⎢⎣ A 2 ⎥⎦
V2 V1 2 V1 V1A1 = V2A2
A1 V2
=
−2V1V2 A 2 V1

hL =
1
[V2 − V1 ]2
2g

If V2  V1 ,
1 2
hL = V1
2g
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 37
Forces on Transitions

Example 7-6
Q = .707 m3/s
V22
head loss = .1
2g
(empirical equation)

Fluid = water
p1 = 250 kPa
D1 = 30 cm
D2 = 20 cm
Fx = ?

First apply momentum theorem

∑ Fx = ∑ ρu V ⋅ A

Fx + p1A1 − p2A2 = ρV1(−V1A1) + ρV2(V2A2)

Fx = ρQ(V2 − V1) − p1A1 + p2A2

force required to hold transition in place

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 5
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 38
The only unknown in this equation is p2, which can be obtained
from the energy equation.

p1 V12 p 2 V22
+ = + + hL note: z1 = z2 and α = 1
γ 2g γ 2g

⎡ V22 V12 ⎤
p 2 = p1 − γ ⎢ − + hL ⎥ drop in pressure
⎣ 2g 2g ⎦

⎡ ⎛ V22 V12 ⎞⎤
⇒ Fx = ρQ(V2 − V1 ) + A 2 ⎢p1 − γ⎜⎜ − + h L ⎟⎟⎥ − p1A1
⎣ ⎝ 2g 2g ⎠⎦

p2 (note: if p2 = 0 same as nozzle)

In this equation, continuity A1V1 = A2V2

A
V1 = Q/A1 = 10 m/s V2 = 1 V1
A2
V2 = Q/A2 = 22.5 m/s
i.e. V2 > V1
V22
h L = .1 = 2.58m
2g

Fx = −8.15 kN is negative x direction to hold

transition in place