FORMATION OF THE

EARTH’S SOLAR SYSTEM

GEO01
 THE UNIVERSE
The universe is all of space and time, and all its contents
including galaxies, planets, stars, and many more.

Dark Energy Dark Matter Baryonic Matter The Universe is composed of the following:

BARYONIC MATTER
5% This is the matter that we are familiar with, composed of
protons, electrons, and neutrons.
25%
DARK MATTER
A form of matter that is probably composed of other
subatomic particles.

70%
DARK ENERGY
A theoretical force that pushes objects further apart allowing
the Universe to accelerate its expansion
 One of the cornerstone of the modern
cosmology is the idea that the universe is the
same wherever you are.
COSMOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLE This was a groundbreaking idea from the
former idea that the Earth was the center or
that we occupy a special place in the universe.
HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSEL DIAGRAM

Edward J. Tarbuck and

Frederick J. Lutgens
Earth Science 13th edition
OLDEST OBJECTS IN THE
UNIVERSE
POPULATION III STARS
First stars were massive and short-lived
Composed of H and He only
Formed the first heavy atoms
Evidence: Detection of dust in the early universe when the first supernovae
exploded (“early interstellar dust”)
OLDEST OBJECTS IN THE
UNIVERSE
GLOBULAR CLUSTERS
Spherical collection of stars orbiting a
galactic core
Oldest known clusters are stars
between 11 and 18 billion years old.
CALCULTING THE AGE USING
THE UNIVERSE’S EXPANSION
HUBBLE TIME
The estimate of the age of the Universe using the Hubble Law
The Hubble constant is used leading to the following calculation:
1012 1012
𝜏𝐻 = 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = ~ 14 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝐻0 70
 Two methods were used:
1. By studying the oldest objects (stars) within
the universe
2. By measuring how fast the universe is
AGE OF THE expanding

UNIVERSE
Age Limit of the Universe
The universe cannot be younger than the objects
contained inside of it (Ageuniverse > Ageobjects within it).
MODELS OF THE ORIGIN
OF THE UNIVERSE

STEADY STATE THEORY THE BIG BANG THEORY

The expanding universe is not The prevailing cosmological
changing in terms of the model for the universe with
density of matter within it. multiple evidences in support.

Note: There are many other models besides these two models
 Occurred approximately 13.7 billion years ago

The universe began in a hot, dense state where

all matter and energy were compressed into an
infinitely small high-temperature and high-density
THE BIG BANG state followed by expansion and cooling
THEORY
Space and time were all after the Big Bang

Occurred approximately 13.772 billion years ago

(WMAP) or 13.82 billion years ago (Planck
spacecraft)
 The Big Bang was not an explosion.

A common misconception is the Big Bang was

THE BIG BANG where a single point in the universe exploded
and from it sprung galaxies, stars and planets.
THEORY
EVIDENCE OF
THE BIG BANG THEORY
There are three main evidences to the Big Bang Theory
• Expansion of Universe
• Abundance of light elements
• Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
COSMIC MICROWAVE
BACKGROUND RADIATION
Discovered by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson of Bell Telephone
Laboratories who won the 1978 Nobel Prize

A pervasive background radiation everywhere in the universe

resulting from the expansion of the Universe.

Thought to be the fading afterglow of the Big Bang as it was

predicted that the radiation of the Big Bang would cool to about 3 K
and this radiation was measured to be at 2.725 K
COSMIC BACKGROUND RADIATION
 COSMIC
BACKGROUND
RADIATION
WAVES
Waves are disturbances that transmit energy from one point to another in
the form of periodic motions.
Wavelength – the distance between successive waves
Frequency – the number of waves that pass through a point a given
interval of time
DOPPLER EFFECT

Stephen Marshak
Essentials of Geology 4th edition
 RED SHIFT
PHENOMENON
Waves increases or decreases in frequency
when it either moves away or towards the
observer (Doppler Effect)

In light waves,
• The wavelength shifts to red when it
moves away from the observer
• Shits to blue when it moves towards
the observer
 HUBBLE LAW
Edwin Hubble observed that
• Light from galaxies
displayed the red shift (A
consequence of the
Doppler Effect)
• Distant Galaxies moved
away
 HUBBLE LAW
As such he thought that if
galaxies moved away from
the Earth, some must move
towards the Earth

However that was not the

case at all
HUBBLE LAW
He observed that all galaxies moved away from the Earth regardless
of direction.
As such he had this idea of an Expanding Universe
This idea became a law known as the Hubble Law
 HUBBLE LAW
The idea is not just limited to
the fact the Universe is
expanding.

It
Stephen Marshak
Essentials of Geology 4th edition
 AFTER A FEW
FIRST SECOND SECONDS
Matter and Energy (the Hydrogen atoms began to form
components of the Universe) was
initially packed into an
infinitesimally small point.

The point “exploded” and the

Universe began

During the first instant, the

universe consisted entirely of
energy. Atoms or even the sub-
atomic particles could not even
exist at this time.
 BIG BANG
THREE MINUTES NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
The temperature has fallen below This is due to the formation of new
1 billion degrees and the diameter nuclei, before stars existed.
f the universe had grown to about
53 million kilometers. The process could only produce
light atoms (elements with an
At this time the Hydrogen atoms atomic number of less than 5)
began to fuse together to form
Helium. This happened very quickly, and
most the nuclei formed in this
manner existed by the end of 5
minutes.
AFTER FIVE
MINUTES
The Universe began to cool down
even further such that the
elements could form bonds to
form molecules.

Such two hydrogen atoms to form

H2

As the universe continued to

expand and cool down even
further, the atoms and molecules
would accumulate into clouds
called Nebulae.
https://mic.com/articles/85527/scientists-have-found-evidence-of-the-big-bang-3-graphs-explain-why-this-is-a-huge-deal
 A.) The clouds of
gas began to
collapse

B.) Gravity
causes it to form
and disk and
spin rapidly

C.) The spinning

disk forms a
proto-star

D.) The current

solar system

Stephen Marshak
Stephen Marshak
Essentials of Geologyof4th
Essentials edition
Geology 4th edition
FORMATION OF THE
SOLAR SYSTEM
Outside the infant star, matter was coalescing to
form planets in a process known as planetesimal
accretion

Tiny particles of metal, rock, and ice began colliding

with one another and formed larger masses of rock.
FORMATION OF THE
SOLAR SYSTEM
These larger masses of rock developed gravitational
fields, causing smaller particles to be pulled in.
These objects grew larger becoming planetesimals.
Planetesimals then coalesced to form planetary
embryos.
Then these embryos combined to form planets.
THE SUN
The center of our Solar System
Generates energy through Nuclear
Fusion
Interior temperatures exceeding 20
million degrees Celsius
1.5 km in diameter
Contains 98.8% of the material in the
Solar System

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TERRESTIAL VS JOVIAN
PLANETS
TERRESTIAL PLANETS JOVIAN PLANETS
The four closest planets to the The planets farthest from the
sun sun in the Solar System
Relatively small, rocky planets Gaseous, relatively large
Formed near the sun, where planets with low densities
the heat was too high to allow Occurred far away from the
volatile gases to accumulate sun, where the temperatures
are cold. Allowing ice and
gases to accumulate
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MERCURY
The closest planet to the Sun
Surface temperatures may exceed 227 oC
or plummet to -137 oC
The surface is heavily marked by impact
craters
Very thin atmosphere composed of Sodium
and smaller amounts of Helium, Oxygen,
Potassium, and Hydrogen
Revolves around the sun in 88 Earth Days

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VENUS
The Earth’s Twin planet due to similar
density and gravity
Thick atmosphere of 98% Carbon Dioxide
with clouds of sulfuric acid
Surface temperatures can reach 477oC
Revolves around the sun every 243 Earth
Days
Rotates in the opposite (retrograde)
direction to its revolution

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EARTH
The only known planet to support life
The average density is 5.5 g/cm3
Revolves around the sun in 365 ½
Earth days
Tilted at an axis at a 23.5 degree
angle
Has a single moon

Blue Marble
NASA
 PERIHELION AND APHELION

PERIHELION
The point where the Earth is
the closest to the sun

APHELION
The point where the Earth is
farthest from the sun

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EARTH’S VITAL
STATISTICS
Equatorial Radius = 6,378 km
Polar Radius = 6,357 km
Equatorial Circumference = 40,076 km
Polar Circumference = 40,008 km
Volume = 260,000,000,000 cu. miles
Density = 5.52 g/cm3

Blue Marble
NASA
MOON
The size is ¼ the diameter of Earth
Rotates on its axis at 29.5 days, which is the
same time it takes to orbit the Earth

LUNAR MARIA
HIGHLANDS Darker areas of the
moon
Lighter-hued craggy
Floors of immense
and heavily cratered basins flooded with
regions of the Moon basaltic lava

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PHASES OF
THE MOON
The appearance of the
moon as it revolves around
the Earth.

Photo taken in
accordance with free use
policy from NASA
FORMATION OF THE
EARTH MOON SYSTEM
CAPTURE HYPOTHESIS DOUBLE PLANET
Earth’s gravity captured a HYPOTHESIS
passing planetesimal A local cloud of gas and dust
formed the earth and the moon
at the same time

FISSION HYPOTHESIS IMPACT HYPOTHESIS

The Earth’s spin caused a A large object named “Theia”
bulge of material to separate collided with the Earth while
from the Earth the Earth was still forming
leading to the formation of the
moon
SOLAR ECLIPSE
Solar Eclipse is a phenomenon when the
Moon can fully or partially blocks the Sun.

This occurs when the Sun, Moon, and

Earth are nearly aligned in a straight line.

TOTAL SOLAR PARTIAL SOLAR

ECLIPSE ECLIPSE
The sun is fully Only a portion of
blocked by the moon the Sun is blocked

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Photo taken from Romeel
Dave’s answer at
Quora.com
 Photo taken in
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Geographic

LUNAR ECLIPSE
Occurs when the Sun, Earth, and Moon
are exactly or closely aligned and the
Earth is in between the two.

Can only occur on a night of a full moon

 Photo taken in
accordance with free use
policy from National
Geographic

LUNAR ECLIPSE
When the Earth blocks direct sunlight
from the moon, the light would appear
reddish.

As such, the moon has a red color

which is sometimes called a Blood
Moon.
Photo taken from Romeel
Dave’s answer at
Quora.com
LUNAR ECLIPSE
Penumbral Lunar Eclipse – occurs when the
moon passes through the Earth’s penumbra

Partial Lunar Eclipse – Occurs when only a

portion of the Moon enters the Earth’s umbra

Total Lunar Eclipse – When the entire moon

enter the planet’s umbra

Central Lunar Eclipse – when the Moon passes

through the center of Earth’s shadow. Very rare.
LUNAR ECLIPSE
PENUMBRAL LUNAR PARTIAL LUNAR ECLIPSE
ECLIPSE Occurs when only a portion of
Occurs when the moon passes the Moon enters the Earth’s
through the Earth’s penumbra umbra

TOTAL LUNAR ECLIPSE CENTRAL LUNAR ECLIPSE

When the entire moon enter When the Moon passes
the planet’s umbra through the center of Earth’s
shadow. Very rare.
MARS
The most “Earth-like” planet
24-hours in a day
A very thin atmosphere (1% of the Earth)
Two Moons: Phobos and Deimos
Is thought to have contained water
Dry river channels
Physical features that resembles
shorelines, riverbeds, islands, and
gorges

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THE ASTEROID BELT
Between Mars and Jupiter
A wide belt of numerous
asteroids composed of rocks
and metals
Some of the asteroids within
this belt are termed to be
dwarf planets.

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 Photo taken in
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CERES VESTA
The largest asteroid (1/10 the Earth)
1/3 of the asteroid belt’s total mass Slightly smaller than Ceres
Hypothesized to have a warm surface, a rocky Surface composed of basaltic rock
core with an icy mantle
May contain 200 million km3 of water
JUPITER
The largest planet in the solar system (11
times larger than Earth)
¼ the density of the Earth
Great Red Spot
Have 67 moons
• Largest of which are
• Io
• Europa
• Ganymede
• Callisto

Jupiter
Solarsytem.nasa.gov
SATURN
Second largest planet after Jupiter
The density is 70% of water
Known for its rings composed of water, ice
with some sillicates
Has 60 moons
• Titan
• An especially large moon the size
of Mercury

Jupiter
Solarsytem.nasa.gov
URANUS
Twin planets with Neptune
The atmosphere is rich in methane
and hydrogen
Rotates on its side
Has 27 moons

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NEPTUNE
The farthest planet from the sun in the solar
system
Hypothesized to be composed 2/3 of a mixture of
molten rock, water, liquid ammonia, and methane
1/3 is composed of hydrogen, helium, water and
methane
The methane is notable for giving Neptune its
blue color
Four faint rings composed of dust particles
13 known moons
• Triton
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KUIPER BELT
A sea of icy bodies beyond Neptune
Also known as the Trans-Neptunian
Objects
Contains three known Dwarf Planets
• Pluto
• Haumea
• Makemake

Jupiter
Solarsytem.nasa.gov
PLUTO
No longer considered to be a planet
Designated to be a plutoid in 2008 by the
International Astronomical Union
Orbits on its side and makes one rotation
every 6.39 days
Has an orbit that is at an angle to the rest of
the planets in the solar system
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HAUMEA MAKEMAKE
A dwarf planet found in the Kuiper Belt Located a Kuiper Belt
Radius of 620 kilometers
¼ the size of the Earth Approximately 715 kilometers (1/9
the radius of the Earth)