CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

THE PHYLUM CHORDATA: BIG FOUR Head

Protochordates • Concentration of sense organs for monitoring

external environment
• No vertebral column • Brain for receiving and processing essential
• Share four morphological features with vertebral incoming information for provision of stimuli
animals • Jaws for acquiring, retaining and macerating
o Notochord food
o Dorsal hollow CNS • Gills for respiration (fishes)
o Postanal tail
o Endostyle (glandular groove at the floor Trunk
of the pharynx)
• These four features are the first to appear in • Contains a cavity (coelom) that houses most of
vertebrate embryos the viscera
• Protochordates and vertebrates are incorporated • Body wall – surrounds the coelom
into a single taxon called Phylum Chordata o Muscles, axial skeleton, ribs
• Chordates - animals that have a notochord in o Must be opened to expose the viscera
the embryo stage at least • Paired pectoral and pelvic appendages (fins and
• Craniates – chordates with a neurocranium limbs)
(braincase)
• Vertebrates – chordates with vertebrae
• Vertebrae – appear during the embryonic
development after the notochord is formed

THE CRANIATE BODY: GENERAL PLAN

• All craniates conform to a generalized pattern of

anatomic structure representing a collection of
primitive (plesiomorphic) and unique (derived)
anatomical features
• Exhibit similar but not identical patterns of
embryonic development
o Result of common ancestry
Neck
• Both morphology and developmental
processes have been altered during the • Narrow extension of the trunk of amphibians,
passage of time mammals, reptiles (including birds)
o Provides increasing opportunities for • Lacks a coelom
genetic changes that result in anatomic • Consists of vertebrae, spinal cord, muscles,
diversity nerves, and elongated tubes (blood vessels,
esophagus, lymphatics, trachea)
Regional Differentiation
• Connect structures of the head with that of the
• Three regional components trunk
o Head
Tail
o Trunk
o Postanal tail
• Commences at the anus or vent (postanal)
• Consists of a caudal continuation of body wall
muscles, axial skeleton, nerves, and blood
vessels

LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)

 • Some adult craniates lack a postanal tail o Paired external organs
though present in all embryos o Cartilage
• Larvae of frogs, toads, and wormlike
amphibians have a tail, but is reabsorbed at VERTEBRATE CHARACTERISTICS
metamorphosis
• Vertebrates are characterized by a number of
• Modern birds have tails reduced to a nubbin
morphological features
• Human beings have a vestigial postanal tail o Vertebral column
early in embryonic life; remnants remain in o Two semicircular ducts in each
adults as the tailbone (coccyx) membranous labyrinth
o Electroreception
Appendages
o Lateral line system with multicellular
• Pectoral and pelvic neuromasts
• Supported by an internal skeleton and operated o A number of additional soft tissue
by contributions from the trunk musculature specialization

Bilateral Symmetry and Anatomic Planes OTHER CRANIATE CHARACTERISTICS

• Three principal body axes Integument

o Anteroposterior axis (longitudinal)
• Epidermis
o Dorsoventral axis
o Multilayered
o Left-right axis
o Defensive, lubricatory, nutritive,
Bilateral Symmetry pheromonal, and homeostasis-
maintaining glands develop here
• Right and left sides are mirror images of each o For terrestrial craniates:
other, but head differs from the tail and dorsum ▪ Cornified (horny) appendages
differs from the venter form
• Spines
Principal Anatomic Planes • Reptilian scales
• Feathers
• Two axes define a plane
• Hair
• Transverse Plane - left-right and dorsoventral
• Claws
axes (cut: cross section)
• Hooves
• Frontal Plane – longitudinal and left-right axes
▪ Has a layer of dead (cornified)
(cut: frontal section)
cells that protect them from
• Sagittal Plane – longitudinal and dorsoventral
becoming dehydrated
axes (cut: sagittal section; parallel sections:
• Dermis
parasagittal)
o Bone in the dermis provides a heavy
Metamerism coat of armor for gars and another relict
of the Mesozoic Era
• Serial repetition of structures in the longitudinal ▪ Contributes to the dense, sharp,
axis of the body pointed scales of sharks
• Manifested in craniate embryos and is retained ▪ Contributes to the thin, flexible
in many adult systems scales of modern bony fishes
o Dense fibrous tissue is common here
INSERT PICTURES HERE o In bovines, the dermis is made into
leather through a tanning process
CRANIATE CHARACTERISTICS
Respiratory Mechanism
• Craniates exhibit a unique combination of
morphological features: • Most craniates carry on external respiration by
o Cranium means of highly vascularized membranes
o Three-part brain (gills)
o Neural crest and its derivatives
LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)
 • In some species, respiration takes place through o Processing
the skin or the lining of the oral and o Temporary storage
pharyngeal cavities o Digestion
• In embryos that develop within a porous o Absorption of food
eggshell or body of a parent o Elimination of the unabsorbed residue
o Gas exchange through special • Intestine is often coiled or has within it a spiral
extraembryonic membranes inside the valve which increases absorptive area without
shell or in contact with the lining of the increasing the body length
mother’s uterus • May exhibit one or more diverticula (or ceca)
• Terminates in the cloaca
Coelom o Common chamber that also receives the
urinary and reproductive ducts
• Trunk
o Opens to the exterior via a vent
o Built like a tube within a tube (outer –
o Modern fishes and tetrapods have very
body wall; inner – gut) being separated
shallow to no cloaca at all
by a cavity
o In mammals, the embryonic cloaca
• Pericardial cavity
separates into two to three pathways
o Fishes, amphibians, and some non-
▪ Exit from the intestine is the
avian reptiles
anus
o Houses the heart
• Pleuroperitoneal cavity Urogenital Organs
o Houses most of the viscera including
the lungs of the tetrapod • Kidneys and gonads arise close together in the
• Transverse Septum roof of the coelom and share certain pathways
o Separates the pericardial and • Kidneys
pleuroperitoneal cavity o Nephroi
o Fibrous o Organs for elimination of water
• In reptiles and mammals o The ease of diffusion in an aquatic
o The pericardial cavity houses the heart, environment – reduction of water
while each lung has a separate pleural o Highly derived system for reabsorption
cavity often found in desert animals –
o Digestive tract caudal to the esophagus reduction elimination of water
occupies an abdominal cavity o Assist in maintaining an appropriate
(peritoneal) electrolyte balance in the blood
o In most male mammals, a pair of o Most basal fishes accumulate their fluid
scrotal cavities houses the testes wastes in the coelom and are removed
• Peritoneal membrane by simple kidney tubules
o Encloses the abdominal cavity o Most craniates have more complex
o Lines the body wall and invests the kidney tubules to collect fluids directly
coelomic viscera (parietal and visceral from blood capillaries
peritoneum) • Reproductive Organs
o Continuous via dorsal mesenteries and o Include gonads, ducts, accessory
when present, via ventral mesenteries glands, storage chambers, and
o Kidneys do not develop mesenteries copulatory mechanisms
but lie against the dorsal body wall o Early development – craniate embryos
(retroperitoneal) are bisexual
o Female animals → gonad primordia are
Digestive System ovaries → female ducts differentiate
o Male animals → gonad primordia are
• Consists of the digestive tract and several testes → male ducts differentiate
auxiliary organs (liver, gallbladder, and o Jawless craniates lack reproductive
pancreas) ducts
• Digestive tracts have specialized regions for
o Acquisition
LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)
Circulatory System o Longitudinal axial skeleton (skull and
vertebral column)
• Whole blood (RBC, WBC and platelets) is o Pharyngeal skeleton (best-developed
confined to arteries, veins, and sinusoids in fishes since it supports the gills)
• Sinusoids o Appendicular skeleton
o Broad channels rather than tubes
o Prominent feature of many invertebrate Muscles
circulatory systems
o More common in fishes than in • Axial skeleton is moved principally by trunk and
tetrapods tail muscles that are metameric
• Craniates have a system of lymph vessels that • Appendicular skeleton is operated primitively by
collect some of the interstitial fluids and conduct budlike extensions of the body muscles onto the
them to large veins fins or limbs
• Heart • Pharyngeal arch muscles
o Forms immediately ventral to the o Branchiomeric muscles
embryonic pharynx o Operate the pharyngeal skeleton
o Remains in that position close to the • Nonstriated (Smooth) Muscles
gills (for fishes) o Found principally in the walls of hollow
o Displaced somewhat caudad during viscera other than the heart and in the
subsequent development (tetrapods) walls of tubes and vessels
o Blood pathway • Striated Muscles
▪ Ventral aorta (foreshortened in o Cardiac Muscle
tetrapods) → aortic arches → ▪ Heart muscle
dorsal aorta (blood courses ▪ Special variety of striated
caudad) muscle tissue
▪ Branches from the anterior-most ▪ Non-voluntary
aortic arches carry blood to the o Voluntary muscles
head • Cardiac and smooth muscles only respond to
• Most fishes have a single-circuit heart reflex control
o Heart → gills (oxygen is acquired) →
Sense Organs
blood tissues (oxygen is given up) →
heart (to recirculate) • Craniates have a wider variety of sense organs
• Loss of gills and dependence on lungs results in than any other animal
two-circuit hearts • Exteroceptors
o Craniates o Monitor the external environment
▪ Heart (oxygenated blood) → all o Include mechanoreceptors,
parts of the body (oxygen is chemoreceptors, electroreceptors,
released) → heart thermoreceptors, and receptors for
(deoxygenated blood)
radiation
▪ Oxygenated and deoxygenated o Mechanoreceptors
blood are kept separate through ▪ Stimulated by vibrations of
the chambers
varying amplitudes in water or
air
Skeleton
o Distributed widely on the head, trunk,
• Jointed framework and tail of fishes
o Cartilage, bone, ligaments o Exteroceptors in tetrapods are generally
o Rigid or semirigid components that confined in the head except for touch
▪ Give the body its shape and temperature
▪ Protects vital organs • Proprioceptors
▪ Provides a site for attachment of o Monitor the activity of muscles, joints,
locomotor and other muscles and tendons
o Consists of • Visceral receptors

LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)

 o Monitor the rest of the internal o Photo → plant
environment o Hetero → fungi
• Carl Woese and Friends (1970)
o Based on nitrogenous bases of archaea
(rRNA)
CANTILLER DISCUSSION
o Organisms that are genetically related,
Comparative Anatomy are most likely to be related
o 3-DOMAIN SYSTEM
• Descriptive morphology ▪ Bacteria
o Parts of the organism ▪ Archaea
o <STRUCTURE = FUNCTION> ▪ Eucaryota
• Functional morphology o 6-KINGDOM SCHEME
• Structure entails ontogenesis and phylogenesis ▪ Archaebacteria
o Life stages/cycles → ontogenesis • All organisms evolved out from a single ancestry
o Evolutionary history → phylogenesis • 95% of animals are invertebrates
• Study of: • 5% are chordates
o Structure o 97% of that 5% are vertebrates
o Function of structure • Embryonic Development
o The range of variation in structure and o Deuterostome
function among vertebrates ▪ 2nd mouth aka anus
• Better understanding of animal design ▪ Radial cleavage
• Arouses curiosity of the origin of species ▪ Enterocoelic coelom
• Survive → adapt = evolution ▪ Closer together than protostome
o Takes about 1 million years for change o Protostome
to accumulate ▪ 1st mouth
▪ Spiral cleavage
History of Classification Scheme ▪ Schizocoelic coelom

• 1st Classification Kingdom Animalia (Deuterostomata)

o Anything that moves → animal
o Anything that doesn’t move → plants • Phylum Echinodermata
o 2-KINGDOM SCHEME • Phylum Hemichordata
• nd
2 Classification • Phylum Chordata
o 3rd kingdom → Protista o Subphylum Urochordata (Tunicates)
o 3-KINGDOM SCHEME o Subphylum Cephalochordata (Lancelet
o Haeckel (1866) or Amphioxus)
• Further Development of the Microscope o Subphylum Craniata or Verbrata
o Differentiating prokaryotic and (Haeckel said this)
eukaryotic cells ▪ Myxin. Hagfish (without
o 4-KINGDOM SCHEME vertebrae)
o 1950’s ▪ Vertebrata. Vertebrates (with
▪ Kingdom Monera vertebrae)
o 1969
▪ Kingdom Fungia Phylum Chordata: Big Four
▪ 5-KINGDOM SCHEME
• Dorsal hollow CNS
Basis • Pharynx (endostyle)
o groove on the ventral wall of the
• Type of Cell pharynx
o Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic o produces mucus to gather food
• If multicellular or unicellular • Notochord
• Presence of a cell wall • Postanal tail
o Plant cell and Fungi
• Phototrophic or Heterotrophic
LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)
 1. Notochord o Segmental structure: muscles, vertebrae,
• Embryos all have a common skeleton ribs, spinal nerves, embryonic kidney
structure (Notochord) tubules, arteries, and veins
• Flexible rod located between the o Myotome → repeated segment
digestive tube and nerve chord
Characteristics
• Provides skeletal support
• In most vertebrates, it’s replaced by a • Cranium
jointed skeleton o 3-part brain
• Remains as it is between the vertebrae o Neural crest
2. Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord o Paired external sense organs
• Develops into the brain and spinal cord o Cartilage
of the adult • Vertebrate
3. Pharyngeal Slit o Vertebral column
• Used as a food capture for embryos o 2 semicircular canals
• Slits have been modified in more o Electroreception
evolved vertebrates for: o Lateral line system with multicellular
o Gas exchange neuromast
o Hearing o Additional soft tissue specialization
o Jaw support
• Water enters through the mouth and Structures Common to Craniate and Vertebrate
passes out through the slits of the
pharynx without going through the • Notochord and Vertebral Column
digestive system o Rod of living cells
4. Postanal Tail o First skeletal structure to appear in
• Propulsion for swimming craniate embryos
o Vertebrate provide more rigid support
The Craniate General Body Plan • Pharynx
o Vital part of craniate embryos
• Regional Differentiation o Gills of fishes
o Head (Cephalization) o Lungs of tetrapods
▪ All sensory organs are in the o Skeleton, muscles of the jaws
head o Endocrine glands
o Trunk ▪ Metabolic rate, calcium level
o Tail o Middle ear cavity of tetrapods
o Body Cavities o Initial cells of the immune system
▪ Dorsal • Dorsal Hollow CNS
▪ Spinal o Neurulation
▪ Thoracic o Brain and spinal cord and neurocoele
▪ Abdominal (Peritoneal) o Peripheral Nervous System
▪ Ventral
▪ Pericardial Other Craniate Characteristics
▪ Pleural cavity (each lung)
▪ Pleuroperitoneal cavity → frog • Integument
▪ Abdominopelvic cavity • Respiratory
• Bilateral Symmetry and Anatomical Planes • Coelom
o Principal Body Axes • Digestive system
▪ Anteroposterior • Urogenital
▪ Dorsoventral • Circulatory
▪ Left-right • Skeletal
o Planes • Muscles
▪ 2 axes • Sense organs
• Metamerism
o Seen in the embryo
LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)
 CHAPTER 3: PROTOCHORDATES AND THE ORIGIN OF CHORDATES

CANTILLER DISCUSSION Subphylum Urochordates

Phylum Hemichordata • Big 4 is present at some point in their life cycle

• Notochord present → restricted to the tail of the
• Acorn worm → Saccoglossus larva
o Filter feeders • Notochord usually lost and nervous system
o Sessile largely disintegrates or altered in terms of its
o Bottom-dwelling structure and location in adults
o Classified by Karl Gegenbeur (1870)
• Tunicates → delicate, nonliving, colorful tunic
▪ Enteropneusta
• Adult body usually a sac of two siphons
o Bateson (1884) → Phylum Chordata
• filter feeders → organic matter
(Hemichordate)
• Problem: Three Classes Under Urochordata
o Relationship is uncertain (incertae
sedis) • Ascidiaceae
▪ Has a stomochord o Sea squirts
▪ Have pharyngeal slits o Single or group, larvae (free-swimming)
▪ Invaginated dorsal nerve cord in o Known to have a complete life cycle
juvenile, solidifies at adulthood o Adult → benthic/sessile plankton
▪ Tornaria larva similar to feeders
echinoderms o Larvae swims to look for a substrate
▪ No CNS, have ventral nerve o Larval stage is less than 5 minutes
strands o Becomes an adult in 48 months
• Hemichordates have chordates and invertebrate o Juvenile settles and cements itself to the
features substrate (benthic)
• Solution: separate hemichordates into a different o Molgula, Pandocia
phylum • Larvacea
o Phylum Echinodermata o Planktonic (pelagic) or deep
o Phylum Hemichordata o Exhibit Neoteny → retention of larval
o Phylum Chordata traits into later life
o Surrounded by mucous
Phylum Chordata o 3-5 days larval stage
• Thaliaceans
• Protochordates
o Single or group, resembles adult
o Subphylum Urochordata
ascidians
o Subphylum Cephalochordata
o No larval stage
• Subphylum Craniata
o Barrel-shaped, planktonic tunicates
Protochordates o Salps → MOST without larval stage,
notochord, and tail
• Small aquatic animals with notochords
Subphylum Cephalochordata
• Cousins of craniates (Big 4 characteristics)
• Relationship with craniates: • Amphioxus → “sharp at both ends” →
o The ammocoete larva: vertebrate larva lancelet/little spear
(lamprey larva) • Marine organism → burrow → U-turn → emerge
▪ Once named Ammocoetes oral head → filter feeding
(protochordate)
• Pharyngeal filtering apparatus → phytoplankton,
▪ Have many features of an
microorganisms
amphioxus-like protochordate
• Adults (2 cm – 8 cm), semitransparent, a table
▪ Compelling support → concept
delicacy(?)
that vertebrates and
• Branchiostoma → Scientific name for
protochordates share a common
Amphioxus (common name)
ancestor
LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)
 CHAPTER 4: PARADE OF THE CRANIATES IN TIME AND TAXA

Linnaean Taxonomy

• Uses a system of hierarchal groupings Lamprey

• Arranging organisms into an ascending series of
groups of ever-increasing inclusiveness • With vertebral column
• Have tongues with teeth that rasp the meat of
Cladistics the prey

• Phylogenetic systematics Gnathostomes

• System of classifying living and extinct
organisms based on evolutionary ancestry as • Jawed fishes
determined by grouping taxa according to • Paired appendages
derived characters that is characteristics or • Skeleton
features shared uniquely by the taxa and their • Vertebrate jaws evolved from modification of the
common ancestor skeletal elements of the anterior pharyngeal gill
• Have two pairs of fins
Craniates/Vertebrates • Jaws and fins allowed fish to become active in
pursuit of food and in biting off chunks of food
1. Neural crest
• Their jaws are separated from their cranium
• Embryonic feature that allows many
• Ostracoderms → Placoderms → Chondrichthyes
unique vertebrate characteristics
→ Acanthodians
• Bones and cartilage (e.g.)
• Forms at the dorsal side of the embryo Placoderms
2. Cranium (Braincase)
• Allow the big evolution of vertebrates • Sister group to Chondrichthyes and Teleostons
(Cephalization) • Basal gnathostome group
3. Vertebral Column • Evolved from Ostracoderms
• Main support for the body axis • Extinct(?) primitive jawed fishes
• Large size, fast movement, and • Heavily armored bony plates on head and thorax
protection of nerve cord • Often cartilaginous skeleton; presence of paired
4. Closed Circulatory System fins
• Allows rapid metabolism, search for • “Early experiment” in the evolution of jawed
food, escapes predators fishes
• Pumps oxygenated blood to cells • “Light bulb that burned out” → sudden and
unknown extinction
Agnathans (Jawless Fishes) • Lasted about 50 million years
• Cyclostomes (living Agnathans) Chondrichthyes
o Hagfishes and lampreys
o Round-mouthed • 2 groups
• Astracoderms o Elasmobranchs
o Extinct o Holocephalans
o Armored jawless fishes
Elasmobranchs
Hagfishes
• Cartilaginous
• Knotting behavior • Spiracles (no bony operculum)
• They do it to remove skin from their prey or get • Heterocercal caudal fin
away from their predators • Paired fins
• They have arrived at a body plan that already • Pelvic claspers
makes them capable of survival • Placoid scales
• No vertebral column • Jaws ventral, not firmly attached to cranium

LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)

Skates and Rays • Bony fishes
• Operculum
• Enlarged pectoral fins that undulate gracefully • Homocercal caudal fin
during swimming: tail fin is reduced or absent
• “True fishes” because the mouth is found on the
• Few scales for bottom-dwelling animals terminal side
• Skates • 2 groups
o Small teeth o Actinopterygians
o Oviparous (mermaid’s purse) ▪ Ray finned fishes
o Prominent dorsal fins o Sarcopterygians
• Rays ▪ Fleshy finned fishes
o Plate-like and adapted for crushing prey ▪ Lobed fins
o Absent or reduced dorsal fin
o Viviparous Actinopterygians
o Few electric rays can deliver powerful
electric shock and some sting rays have • Presence of rays supporting the fins
large barbed stingers • Membranous fins supported by fin rays radiating
from basal skeletal elements
Holocephalans • Divided into 2 groups
o Palaenisciformes
• Chimaeras or ratfishes
o Neopterygians
• Still under Chondrichthyes because of its
cartilages Palaeonisciformes
• Ventral mouth
• Dorsal fins • Palaeoniscoids
• Pectoral 8 pelvic fins o Oldest ray-finned fishes
• Pelvic claspers o Only relics (remnants) have remained
• Mostly scale less, spine at the base of dorsal fin o Descendants:
said to be a modified scale ▪ Bichirs
▪ Chondrosteans
• Fleshy operculum covering the gills
• Sturgeons
• Jaws firmly attached to cranium
• Paddle fishes
• Males with cephalic claspers (clasper on the
head) Birchirs
o Retractable
o To hold on to the female during • Polypiers
copulation • Are unique in that they seem to have re-evolved
• Tenaculum anterior to the eyes somewhat lobe-like paired fins
o Unique, club-like organ not found in • Have paired lungs
other vertebrates • Ganoid scales
• Diphycercal caudal fin (most primitive type)
Acanthodians
Chondrosteans
• Link from cartilaginous to bony fishes
• Spines associated with the median and paired • Sturgeons and paddle fishes have an almost
fins; skeleton of bone and cartilage entirely cartilaginous skeleton (some degree of
• Presence of operculum ossification)
• Spines supported with web of skin • Swim bladder present
• “Spiny sharks” → bony fish with shark-like • Sturgeons with bony plates alongside paddle
features fishes with some small embedded plates but
• Sharing features with both cartilaginous and mostly naked
bony fishes • Caudal fin → heterocercal

Osteichthyes

• Actinopterygii
LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)
Neopterygians • 3 remaining species
o Lepidosirenidae
• Holosteans o Protoperidae
• Teleosts o Ceratodontidae
• Most recent fishes • Lepidosirenids and Protopterids aestivate
• Best recognized by the tendency towards a (animal dormancy at a hot environment)
homocercal caudal fin o Have narrow, weak fins
• Upper lobe shorter in gars than predecessors o Ceratodonts have thick strong fins
• Almost homocercal in bowfin • Extant species with diphycercal caudal fins but
• Fully homocercal in teleosts some with heterocercal fins
• Holosteans • Cycloid scales
o Succeeded the previous group • Species
o Ossified skeleton o Neoceratodus
o Lepidosiren
Teleosts o Protopterus
• Gills are inefficient
• Over 20,000 species
o Totally rely on air sacs for respiration
• Cycloid or ctenoid scales
• Dipterus → oldest lung fish
• Jaws are typically protrusible
o Said to have evolved into the tetrapods
• Almost always a swim bladder present
• Found in nearly all habitats Sarcopterygians
• 225 million years ago
• Major groups
Sarcopterygians o Actinistians
o Rhipidistians
• Fleshy fins o Dipnoans
• Prominent fleshy lobe • Rhipidistians evolved into tetrapods
• 2 major groups o Late members with arm bones that look
o Actinistians like those of tetrapods
▪ Coelacanths → Latimeria o Type of cranial kinesis seen in early
▪ Rhipidistians which includes tetrapods
Dipnoids o Internal choanae (link from nostril to
mouth)
Coelacanths
o Labyrinthodont teeth (found in early
• Coelacanthimorpha tetrapods)
o Believed to be extinct for 70 million
Species to Remember
years until one was caught in South
Africa in 1939 • Eusthenopteron → most famous rhipidistian
o Second population is found in Indonesia • Pandrichthys → closest to tetrapods; no dorsal
in 1997 #LivingFossil fin
o Cycloid scales
• Tiktaalik → Sarcopterygians with tetrapod
o Diphycercal caudal fin
features
o Many traits similar to Chondrichthyes
• BOTH Rhipidistians and Diptanoans possess
including a mostly cartilaginous skeleton
features that would lend themselves to evolution
Rhipidistians of land
• The three lobe-finned Devonian fishes with
• Lung fishes may have been derived from lineages that may be ancestral to early land-
Rhipidistians living amphibians

Dipnoans Tetrapods: Labyrinthodonts

• True lungfishes • Basal tetrapods → oldest amphibians

o They use their air sacs to breathe • From Rhipidistians
LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)
 • Still have fish characteristics • Evolution of the amniotic egg expanded success
• Fishlike tail (dermal fin rays) of vertebrates on land
• Skull (Rhipidistians) • 4 important extraembryonic membranes:
• Minute bony scales (dermal) o Amnion
▪ Fluid-filled membranous sac
Labyrinthodonts ▪ Secretes amniotic fluid
▪ Protection
• Acanthostega o Allantois
• Ichthyostega → oldest labyrinthodont ▪ Fertilize the egg
• Intermediate between lobe-finned fishes and ▪ Metabolic waste
earliest tetrapods ▪ Gas exchange
o Chorion
Temnospondyls
▪ Gas exchange
• Diverse group of labyrinthodonts o Yolk sac
▪ Food
• Skeletal similarities to frogs and salamanders
showing closeness • Amniotic eggs allowed vertebrates to sever the
link with water and live their whole lives on land
• Suggests evolution of Lissamphibians
• 3 orders: • Extraembryonic membranes function in gas
exchange, waste storage, and transfer of
o Urodele
nutrients
o Anuran
o Apodans (Caecilians) o Membranes develop from tissues
derived from the embryo
• Some taxonomists claim that Leposondyls
o The amnion gives the name for the
(Microsaurs):
amniotic egg
o Considered as a labyrinthodont
o Early fossil amphibians Reptilian Heritage
o Share skeleton features with apodans
(closeness → evolution) • Evident in all amniotes
o Ancestral or closely related to reptiles • Scales of keratin, waterproof skin
o Prevent dehydration
Lissamphibians
o Reptiles cannot breathe through their
skin (lungs for gas exchange)
• First tetrapods to spend much time on land
o Shelled amniotic egg require internal
• Order: Urodela
fertilization
o Salamanders
▪ Shells form around fertilized egg
o Retain tails as adults
in the reproductive tract
• Order Anura
o Reptiles don’t use metabolism to
o Frogs
regulate their body temperature →
o Lack tails as adults
ectotherms (absorbs heat)
• Apoda
o Caecilians Reptiles
o Lack legs
• Need to return to the water to lay eggs • Exhibited adaptations to terrestrial life
• Tetrapods evolved from specialized fishes that • Amniotic
inhabited shallow water • Thick scaly skin
• Long neck
Anthracosaurs o For defense from predators
• Powerful hind limbs
• Reptile-like amphibians
o Evasion and hunting
• Ancestral amniotes
• Clawed digits
Amniotes • Metanephros (new kidney)
• Better heart
• Reptiles, birds, mammals

LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)

Amniote Skull Type o Most versatile
o Well-developed appendicular muscles
• Based on the temporal fossae of the skull o Suitably constructed skeleton
behind the eye socket o Run, jump, adhere, glide, etc.
• Types o Hemidactylus frenatus → House lizards
o Anapsid o Patagium → extension of the skin
o Synapsid • Snakes
o Diapsid o Evolved from the lizards
o Euryapsid • Amphisbaenians
▪ Said to be diapsid that lost one o Annulated bodies
of its openings o Subterranean
o Worm lizards

Euryapsids

• Extinct, marine reptiles

• Plesiosaurs and Ichthyosaurs (fish lizards)

Archosauria

• Descendants from a common ancestor to the

crocodiles and birds

Diapsids

Amniotes • Archosaurs
o Crocodiles and alligators
• Reptilia → Sauropsida o Gavials → long, narrow-snouted
o Anapsids & Diapsids crocodilians
• Synapsida o Pterosaurs
o Mammal ▪ Pneumatic bones
▪ “patagium” wings
Anapsids and Diapsids
Dinosauria
• Anapsids were said to come from Diapsids or
vice versa or sister groups • Ornithischians
o Pelvic girdle is bird-like
Chelonians
o Herbivorous
o No front teeth
• Sole living members of the anapsids
• Saurischian
Diapsida o Pelvic girdle: for predation
o A small bipedal saurischian may have
• Lepidosauria → 2 extant groups given rise to the birds
• Archosauria o Birdlike pelvis of ornithishians and that
of birds is a product of convergence
Lepidosaurs
Aves
• Rhynchocephalians
o Primitive lizard-like reptiles • Began as feathered reptiles
o Sphenodon (Tuatara) • Evolved to fly
▪ Only surviving member that was • Characteristics
found in New Zealand o Honeycombed skeleton
• Squamata ▪ Light and strong
o Extinct group: Euryapsids ▪ Good for flight
o Modern lizards o Toothless
LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)
 ▪ Weight reduction ▪ Carinates
o Endothermic ▪ Anything that doesn’t look like
▪ Use metabolic energy to an ostrich, basically
generate heat ▪ Flying birds
▪ Feathers provide insulation • E.g. Eagles, Penguins
▪ Efficient circulatory system (large carinas, forelimbs
o Acute vision turn into flippers)
▪ Large brains that allow complex
behavior Synapsids
o Wings
• Pelycosaurs
▪ Flight enhanced the ability to
o Dimetrodon
hunt and scavenge, escape
▪ Small, sail-backed pelycosaur
predators, and more with
▪ Large, upright, sail-like structure
changing seasons
▪ Predatory synapsid → incisors
o Therapods
and canines
▪ Were the closest dinosaur
▪ Proto mammal
relatives of birds
▪ Extinct relative of primitive
▪ Velociraptors are closely related
mammals
to the first birds, Archeopteryx
• Therapsids
Saurischian Dinosaurs with Feathers o Mammal-like reptiles
o Where mammals evolved from
• Archaeopteryx (Archaeornithes) o Mammals have retained therapsid
o Long tail features (i.e. dentary) found in modern
o Feathers mammals
o Jaw with teeth o Cynognathes
o Reptilian skull
o Small brain case Mammals
o Underdeveloped synsacrum
o Just imagine a velociraptor with wings • Features
and feathers o Have mammary glands which produces
• Neornithes milk
o Hair and subcutaneous fat (to retain
o True birds
metabolic heat)
o Odontognathae
o Embryos develop in uterus
▪ Extinct
▪ Formation of placenta
▪ Toothed marine birds
o Large brains (ability to learn) and long
▪ Hesperornis
periods of parental care
▪ Hair-like feathers
o Differentiation of teeth for efficient eating
▪ Vestigial wings
▪ Pointed teeth • 3 groups
▪ Stout legs → wading and diving o Monotremes
o Palaeognathae ▪ AKA Prototherians
▪ AKA ratites ▪ Egg laying mammals
▪ Flat sternum → absence of keel o Marsupials
▪ Small wings ▪ AKA Metatherians
▪ Pouches
• Hence, flightless birds
▪ Powerful leg muscles o Eutherians
▪ Taken care of in the uterus
• Hence, running birds
▪ Depleted by humans Monotremes (Prototherians)
▪ A few current survivors
• Ostriches, Cassowaries, • Lay eggs (oviparous) and produce milk
Emu, Rhea, Kiwi (from • No nipples
New Zealand)
o Neognathae
LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)
 • They have associated hairs that have milk run • Very tight connection between mother and fetus
through the strands from the mammary glands • Yolk sac is rudimentary (limited to basic
• Embryonic content principles)
o Amnion • Allantoic blood vessels are developed
o Allantois • Chorion grows into root-like vascular processes
o Chorion (chorionic villi) which are engaged with the
o Yolk sac uterine mucosa
• E.g. Platypus, echidnas • Allantois is the embryonic precursor of the
umbilical cord in mammals
Marsupials

• Born early in embryonic development

(viviparous)
• Climb to mom’s pouch and attach to the nipple
• Differ based on the type of placenta
o Yolk sac placenta
• E.g. Opossum, Kangaroos

Eutherians

• Long pregnancy with embryonic attachment to

mother in uterus via placenta
• Embryo content
o Chorioallantois placenta

Placenta

• Connects the developing young to the uterine

wall for food, gas exchange, wastes,
thermoregulation, and fight against infection
• Types
o Choriovitelline Placenta (Yolk Sac
Placenta)
o Chorioallantoic Placenta (Fusion of
chorion and allantois)

Choriovitelline Placenta

• Marsupial placenta
• Relatively little attachment to developing fetus
• Yolk sac (Vascular) fuses with the chorion
• Allantois never in contact with the chorion
• Chorion is not very much in contact with the
uterine endometrium (little attachment to
developing fetus)
• Uterine milk secreted by the uterine wall is
absorbed by the villi of the yolk sac placenta and
through the vitelline circulation, is carried by the
embryo

Chorioallantoic Placenta

• Eutherian placenta
• Fusion causes the chorion to form villi that
extend deeply into the uterus
LONG EXAM 1 (KENT & CARR 9 TH EDITION)