1.

1 Introduction To Computer
A computer is an electronic machine that converts the raw data into useful information.
Computer derived from Greek word 'Computer' which means to compute/ calculate. The
term "computer" was originally given to humans who performed numerical calculations
using mechanical calculators.
Computer is an electronic device which accepts data as its input, process it by doing some
kind of manipulation and converting the data into information (Human readable and
meaning). Technically, we can say computer is a high- speed electronic digital data
processing machine. Initially computer was designed as a tool to manipulate numbers and to
solve arithmetic problem according to algorithms based on numerical methods. As time
passed on people began to realize that computer could process alphabets as well as numbers
and special characters i.e. general computer is the desirable one.

Computer has affected almost every sphere of human activity. Computer today come in
different sizes , forms, shapes etc. Regardless of the type of computer, every computer is
controlled by programmed instruction. It is the programmed instruction which gives the
computer a purpose and tells it what to do. Computer could be either specific purpose
(Fixed algorithm embedded) or general purpose (programmable).

The figure above shows a personal computer system used these days. Two kinds of inputs
are required in the computer they are as follows:-

 The basic raw data.

 A set of instruction containing methodology to process the data that are called as
program.
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1.1.1. General Function of Computer

A computer has following four general functions

i. Input
Computer needs to accept input that are entered by the users. The users enter the data
through input device. Example of input device are keyboard, touch screen, mouse etc.
Actually if the user want to make a computer perform any task, then he/she have to at
first provide the raw data to the computer. These data are referred as input.
ii. Processing
Computer has to perform the necessary work according to the instruction given by the
user. The doing of work is referred as processing. Processing is done by processing
device. Processing device on computer is CPU (Central processing unit).
iii. Storage
Sometime the result obtained after the processing or even the data input by the user
may have to be permanently or temporarily stored in the computer. This work is done
by storage device . RAM (Random Access Memory), ROM(Read Only Memory), hard
disk, floppy disk etc are devices used for storage purpose.
iv. Output
After the processing is over the result of the work performed (referred as output) needs
to be displayed so that the user knows the result. This displaying is done by output
device, Monitor is a common output device.

1.1.2. Components of Computer

There are four major components of computer. They are as follows

i. Hardware
ii. Software
iii. People
iv. Data
All of the above four are discussed as follows:

i. Hardware
Hardware are the part of computer which we can touch. Generally hardware are the
electronic/digital devices which make up the computer. Example of hardware are
monitor, CPU, keyboard etc.

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ii. Software
Software is set of electronic instructions which makes the computer do a task. Some
software help the computer perform task and some other software help the user do
their individual task.
iii. People
People are the users who operate the computer.
iv. Data
Data consist of raw facts. Computer stores and reads the data in the form of number.
Data can consist of letters number, sound image or video within the computer. Data is
organized into files. File is simply a set of data which have been given a name.

1.1.3. Characteristics of A Computer

Following are the characteristics of computer which makes it a powerful machine.

i. Speed
Computer has capacity to do calculations at a very high speed. If a man multiplies 1259
with 574 then it takes about 55 to 65 seconds for an expert to do the job with the help of
pencil, his wisdom and memory. Similarly if a person counts continuously 10 lakh then
it will take 3.5 days. But in contrast a modern computer can do about 3 crore such
calculation in one minute. Currently medium sized computer executes over one million
(10 lakh) instructions per second. The speed of computer is usually measured in term of
following time units.

a. Milli second (1ms) 1/1000 of a second

b. Micro second(1ms) 1/1000000 of a second
c. Nano second (1ns) 1/1000000000 of a second
d. Pico second (1ps) 1/1000000000000 of a second

There is also another mechanism to measure speed of computer in term of instructions per
second. There are following two such measures.

a. KIPS: Kilo Instructions Per Second.

b. MIPS: Million Instructions Per Second.
ii. Storage
The computer have a huge storage capacity. Storage in computer is measured in terms
of Nibble, Byte, Kilo Byte (KB), Mega Byte(MB) Giga Byte(GB) and Tera Bytes (TB). All
these huge amount of data can be stored in a small storage area and furthermore these
stored data can be stored in a small area and used at a very great speed. The meaning
of various storage units are given below.

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Units Meaning
1 Bit 0 or 1
1 Nibble 4 Bits
1 Byte 8 Bits
1 Kilo Byte (KB) 1024 bytes
1 Mega Byte (MB) 1024 KB
1 Giga Byte (GB) 1024 MB
1 Tera Byte (TB) 1024 GB
1 Peta Byte (PB) 1024 TB
1 Exa Byte (EB) 1024 PB
1 Zetta Byte (ZB) 1024 EB
1 Yotta Byte (YB) 1024 ZB

These days we commonly hear computer have 120 GB, 1 TB, 5 TB or more storage capacity
in secondary storage and 1GB, 4 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB or more storage capacity in primary
storage.

iii. Accuracy
Even though the computer have great speed, they still possess tremendous accuracy
while doing calculations. Computers works on the basis of electric pulses so there are
no chances of any mistake. Accuracy also mean if the data and instructions provided to
the computer are correct, then the output produced by the computer is also correct.
Similarly if wrong data or instruction are provided to the computer we will get wrong
output. This is referred as GIGO (Garbage In Garbage out).
iv. Reliability
Individual components of computer have a very high life and degree of reliability.
Computer is only a machine and it does not make errors on its own. So computer is a
reliable device. The computer is as reliable as the instruction and data provided to the
computer.
v. Diligence
Man suffer from physical and mental fatigue, lack of concentration and laziness which
do not permit him to carry on his task at the same level of speed and accuracy through
the entire day. But the computer on the other hand is capable of operating at exactly
the same level of speed and accuracy even if it has to do voluminous and complex
operations for a long period of time. This features of computer to perform a work again
and again without getting bored and tired and that also without affecting its speed,
accuracy and efficiency is called diligence.
vi. Versatility
The feature of a computer to perform more than 1 work having different characteristics
is called versatility of computer. Computer has the ability to communicate with other

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systems and adopt several modes like audio-visual, graphics user friends etc. Computer
can be used in various field like business medicine, science and technology etc.
vii. Electronic
Computers require electricity source to operate most of the components of computer
(e.g transistor, RAM) are electrical devices. A huge number of electronic circuit are
associated within the computer. This all makes a computer an electronic device.
viii. Non- intelligent
Computer is a machine hence it does not have any intelligence of its own. A computer
has to be of its own. A computer has to be provided with data and instructions and only
the computer does work but while doing work if a very simple but while doing work if
a very simple error occurs, then also the computer can't rectify it, Hence computer is a
non-intelligent machine.
ix. Automatic
A computer can function automatically once the process has been initiated. It does not
required a promote from an operator at each stage of the process. For this the program
instructions and data has to be stored within the computer. Then the program
instructions will be obeyed in sequence automatically without the need for manual
intervention a each step.
x. Power of remembering
It can remember data for us. Computer has the power of storing and remembering any
amount of information or data. Any information can be stored and recalled as long as
you require it, for any numbers of years.

1.1.4. Advantages of a Computer

There are following advantages of a computer:

1. Computer are more accurate and much reliable than the any other devices and human
beings.
2. Since computer can do a work in nanoseconds / picoseconds, it gives advantage in form
of speed while performing any task.
3. It is very effective to use computer for doing repeated jobs.
4. The technique, simulation can be used to perform impossible/danger tasks by use of
computer and this is an advantage of computer.
5. Computer is a versatile machine and it can do number of different jobs at a time.
6. Computer is used for tele-culture and e-culture from any place.
7. Computers can do the jobs repeatedly without error, avoiding the fatigue that affect
humans.
8. Computers can do critical and dangerous tasks that may be hazardous to human being.
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9. Computer are capable of providing information which can be used in decision making.
10. Computer are impartial. They offer a means of data processing unaffected by racial
religious or cultural bias.

1.1.5. Disadvantages of a Computer

We can point out the following disadvantages of computer:-

1. In under developed and developing countries, the cost of computer becomes expensive
and hence it is beyond the reach of everybody.
2. Computer as we know depends on electricity to run hence there is always a danger of
electric shock.
3. If some components or devices or programs of computer fails then the computer will
produce unreliable information.
4. Computer has made human being to depend heavily on machine.
5. Computer may hamper human vision due to excessive use from its screen.
6. The programs and software prepared for one type of computer (of one brand) may not
be usable on other type of computer (of other brand).
7. Computer need stored program to function properly.
8. Computer also can't distinguish between good and bad input/ output/ data/ instruction.
9. For using a computer effectively, a number of computer language and user of software
is required to be learnt.
10. Computer is used for illegal cyber crime.

1.1.6. Basic Terms Used in Computer

i. Hardware
They are the physical components of a computer system, including any equipment
such as printer, modem , mouse etc. We can feel, touch and see hardwares.
ii. Software
They are the computer programs / instructions that make the hardware work or that
performs certain tasks. Example are MS-Excel ,MS-Word, MS-Access, C, C++ MS-
PowerPoint etc.
iii. Program
A sequence of instructions that can be executed by a computer.

iv. Command

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 Introduction to computer  7
A command is an instruction to a computer program that , when issued by the user ,
causes an action to be carried out. Commands are usually then typed at the keyboard or
chosen from menu.

v. CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is the computational and control unit of computer. The CPU is the device that
interprets and execute instructions.

vi. Data
Raw facts and figures are called data. Data generally don't give complete meaning to
the users.

vii. Information
The processed data is known as information. Information gives complete meaning to
users. Information might be any picture, text, audio, video, animation or hypermedia.

viii. Memory
It is the place in the computer where information can be stored and retained. Memory
can store information for temporary period of time or permanent period of time.

ix. RAM (Random Access Memory)

RAM is a volatile memory i.e. the contents within RAM are lost as soon as the power is
cut off. We can perform both read and write operation RAM.

x. ROM (Read Only Memory)

ROM is a non volatile memory i.e. the contents in ROM are not lost as the power is cut
of But we can perform only the read operation on ROM we can't do write operation on
ROM.

xi. Firmware
If manufactures of ROM write programs on instructions permanently in it, then we
refer the ROM as firmware.

1.1.7 Application Areas of Computer

In recent years, computers have changed our lives. From the office to the living room,
computer are transforming the ways we work and play. This is the computers age and these
machines are impacting our lives in many ways. Computers are used almost in every sphere
of human life including education, health, entertainment, industries, research, arts and
media. There are so many application of computers so that will be impractical to mention all
of them. Some of the important application areas of computers are:

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i. Computers for E-Governance

E-Governance is the use of information and
communication technology (ICT) to enable more
efficient, cost-effective, and participatory government,
facilitate more convenient government services, allow
greater public access to information, and make
government more accountable to citizens. These
practices reinforce other reforms that are helping
countries to better compete in the regional and global economy by strengthening
markets and individual choice that in turn promote economic growth and poverty
reduction.

ii. Computer in Business and Office

Computer can keep a record of all employee and
prepare their pay bill in a matter of minute every
month. A computer can also carry out automatic
checks on the stock of a particular items.

Hotel can use computers to greatly speed up

billing, check out and to provide instant
information on room availability. So is the case
with the bus and airline ticket reservation. One of
the first major computer systems introduced and still in use today was designed to
book airline seats in USA.

The airline company keeps details of all the seats on all of its flights stored in a central
computer. Terminals which are sited all over the world are linked to the central
computer. Terminal usually consists of only a keyboard for entering information and a
visual displayed unit on which information can be displayed. When a client wishes to
book a seats the operator keys the flight number into the keyboard and can almost
immediately get information about available seats on the flight on the visual display
what the computer has done is to look up the details of the flight, probably stored on
the hard disk / floppy disk /CD's etc. and then transmit the details back to the terminal.
When a seat has been booked the computer is informed about it through the keyboard
and it immediately bring the records on the disk up-to date by notifying that that seat is
no longer available. This process of keeping records up-to date is called computer
updating.

iii. Computer in Banking System

Computers find out application in bank to carry out general purpose works like
maintaining ledger, handling, transactions, making entry in passbook, to provide

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 Introduction to computer  9
online service to customers who want to do
banking transactions from home terminals and to
answer customers at bank terminals etc.
To carry out these works, a central computer
process all the data from different terminal and
dispatches the result as needed to the terminals.
Even the users bank account can be transferred
from one country to another country by the use of
computer. Likewise by the use of ATM service , a customer can perform cash
transaction from any ATM machine regardless of when the bank account is opened. But
for this the ATM machines has to accept the ATM card. The signature on the cheque can
also be checked easily by the help of the computer. Thus computer finds an important
application
iv. Computer in Education
Computers are also used in school, college to help
the student in learning and understanding
different topics. Computer can show the sketch of
the things being described .Computer can teach
without losing temper and getting impatient
computers are used by teachers to present the
topic in form of slide show. Actually in some
cases it may be difficult for a teacher to draw a picture on the board or it may be time
consuming to write the process / topic in the board. So the teacher may find it effective
in taking assistance of the computer to demonstrate the topics in form of slide show.
Further, a student can learn the topic at any place through the computer.

v. Computer in Medical Science

Computer also find application in Medical science. For
example if there is even a very small movement on the
sensor of microcomputer, then it can notice it and on
the basis of it, the computer can make the arm and
finger of an Artificial hard function normally. This is
especially useful for paralyzed people who can make
robots perform specific function for them.

Also computer can be of great assistance for the disabled people who cannot speak.
These disabled people can type message with their fingers or even with some other
special stick like device. Then based on the message the necessary action is performed.
As the technology is advancing very fast , that day is not far when it would be even
possible to control things just by moving eyes. In this case the sensors with LASER will
measure which instruction over eye ball is looking at and carry out that instruction.
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In Hospitals, computer care used for monitoring patients, raising the alarm if the heart stops
beating or if breathing falls beyond a certain level. Doctors can use computer to help
themselves to diagnose the illness and recommend the treatment options.

vi. Computer in Intelligent Machines

Computer also finds application in intelligent
machine like robot. Computer has to be an essential
part of all intelligent machines. The present day
robots are good in storing information, repeating
motions , manipulating tools and in very slow or very
high movements. The robot can sense physical
quantities like temperature , humidity , presence of object and can even send message via
LASER. The robot are also equipped with sense of touch ad smell as well.

The modern home washing machine is an intelligent machine which uses water and soap at
temperature for different periods of times and washes different type of clothing. The
modern washing machine is equipped with microprocessor . Under the control of
microprocessor chip, it will be possible to wash clothes automatically.

vii. Computer in Industry

Computer find an important use in factories and industries
of all kind. They do the work ranging from monotonous and
risky dangerous jobs like welding to highly complex jobs like
process control. Drills , lathes, saws and entire assembly
lines can be computerized. Similarly quality control tests,
cutting and moulding steel can be computerized.

viii. Computer in Communication

Computer also finds application in communication.
Communication involves transferring of audio, video,
text, hypertext etc. from one place to another place.
These items can be sent by using computer, modem and
telephone. People in different continents can
communicate with each other very fast and cheap. Due
to advancement in technology people can now even see
the person with whom they are talking on computer. In just about 2 decades ago, when
computer were not so used as today, people had to rely on post office to send message and
the message sent could reach the destination only after some days. In case if the letter had to
go to different other continent, them it may take months. But due to computer, through the
use of internet and e-mail, people no longer have to wait for days to send message. Now
just with a click of mouse, a message (in form of email) can be sent from one place to any

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other place. Furthermore, the receiver can receive the message in just few seconds. Thus
computers has been of a great use in communication.

ix. Computer in Weather Forecasting

Computer is also used by weather forecasting office to
forecast the weather. The artificial satellite set in
geostationary orbit in the space sends some sort of
images which are analysed. This analysis would be very
difficult without the use of the computer. Basically the
computer helps to analyze the direction of wind, cloud
structure, past data etc. Based on the analysis report
obtained from the computer a proper weather forecast
can be made. Thus computer is used in the process of
weather forecasting.

x. Computer in Decision Making

Computer are also massively used in the process of
making decision. In organization it may sometime
be very difficult and confusing to take decision.
This situation may arise because of the need to
accumulate the related past data and to analyze
those data. Furthermore, it can be a tough task to
collect the past data's. All this toughness can be
eliminated by the use of computer. We can store huge amount of data in a relatively small
place in the computer and these data's can be studied and analyzed easily. Then a proper
decision can be made easily.

xi. Computer in Distance Education

Distance education is becoming popular day by day. The
popularity of distance education has increased because
of the computer. Students can get school level, higher
Secondary level and University level education through
distance education. Recently Nepal Government has also
started the distance education via open school. It is
expected that this education will gain huge popularity.
The reason for this is people don't need to compulsory go
to the school and college to take class. They can simply
collect the study material and read them at their ease. Foreign countries Universities accept
the application of students worldwide and they even conduct classes online. Furthermore,
they make arrangement for students to give exams online. Thus, studying is now not a great
problem. This has been possible just by the application of computer.

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xii. Computer in Recording and Film Making:

Computer are used massively in recording and in
the process of film making. Recording music,
songs has been very easy due to the music editing
software. The quality, pitch, loudness etc all can
be changed and edited easily by using music
editing software. We can even mix two different
sound/ music files by using computers.
Computers can also be used in the process of
making films .Various stunts can be animated and shown by the help of computer. Similarly
editing of the sequence of the video/audio can also be done by the help of various movie
editing software.

xiii. Computer in Traffic Police Station

Computer are also useful in the traffic police
station. Computer provide the police force
assistance in recording and retrieving data about
the suspected criminals and supplying these
details to the control room as and when required.
The police also keeps the computerized files duly
indexed for example the details like a list of all the
vehicle owners with registration numbers, an
index to criminal names with details of crimes committed by them previously and finger
prints , wanted and missing persons file, list of disqualified drivers etc. Various foreign
countries like USA, UK, Japan etc have computerized their traffic control system.

xiv. Computer in Playing Games

Computer are also used do play games. Computer
games are available on every sport like tennis
basketball, cricket football, cycling , hockey etc. In
the western world today computers are being
exploited more for providing amusement facilities
than in business application. Computer game can
test one's memory and ability to think. They can
also test knowledge from spelling to geography
computer games are going to provide addictive as they promise unlimited amount of fun
speculation and anxiety. The general reaction to it would "I just have one more go" Like
drinking, smoking gambling eating and even idling computer games can get you hooked up
so that you stop taking a nominal interest in your life and spend more money on them than
you can afford.

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xv. Computer in Desktop Publishing System
Computers are also used in desktop publishing
system. The desktop publishing software like
Adobe PageMaker, Quark Xpress, Adobe Frame
maker etc enable one person to perform all the
required tasks i.e. design lay out, typesetting
placement of graphics etc. Before the desktop
publishing software arrived producing publication
of any kind was a complex process involving
multiple people with different skill. The
introduction of desktop publishing software revolutionized the publishing and design. It
has given ordinary users the power to produce professional quality documents and
publications.
1.1.8. Evolution of Computer Technology
The electronic computer which use these days were not developed in one or two days. The
ideas and devices leading to the advent of the computers dates thousands of years in the
history. Many scientists and engineers have worked on to make the computers evolve in the
manner it is now these days. We can divide the evolution of computer roughly into 3 ages.
The three ages are listed as follows:

i. Age of mechanical calculators (Devices)

ii. Age of electromechanical computers
iii. Age of electronic computers
All of the above 3 types of ages are described as follows:

i. Age of Mechanical Calculators

a. Abacus
Abacus is believed to be the earliest calculating
machine. About 5000 years ago before the birth of
Christ the Mesopotamians quite unknowingly laid the
foundation for computer by developing abacus. This
machine used bead and wires to count. The Chinese
improved further to the abacus so that they could
calculate and count faster. Abacus consist of a
rectangular wooden frame with vertical rods which carry round beads. The wooden frame
was divided into two parts by a mid bar. The part above the midbar is called heaven and the
part below the mid bar is called earth. In each vertical rods there are 7 beads. Out of 7
beads 2 beads lie heaven and 5 beads lie in earth .Value of a bead in heaven is 5 and value of
a bead in earth is 1. Counting is done by sifting the beads from one side to another. Abacus
only could perform addition and subtraction.

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b. Napier Bones
John Napier developed the idea of logarithms. Napier also
devised set of rods for use in calculations involving
multiplications these rods had 4 faces and numbers were
engraved in those rods. Altogether there were 11 rods.
These rods were carved from bones and therefore called
Napier's Bones. Napier Bones was used for multiplication
and division.

c. Slide Rule
The idea of logarithm was used to invent the computing machines called the Slide Rule. It
was invented by William Oughtred in 1620 .

A simple slide rule consists of two rulers for calculations. One rulers (scale) can pass ( slip)
over other. The scales are designed in such a manner that suitable alignment of one scale
against the other make it possible to obtain various results of calculation we can obtain
products quotients by using this device. This device was popularly used for over two
hundred fifty years after it got invented.

d. Blaise Pascal and The First Mechanical Calculator

The first mechanical calculating machine was invented by a French mathematician named
Blaise Pascal in 1642. This machine was used for addition and subtraction. The machine
consisted of gears , wheels and dials .Each wheel had 10 segments. When one wheel
completed a rotation then the next wheel moved by one segment. This machine was very
popular in its time. Even the queen of Sweden could not resist ordering one piece for
herself.

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The main features of Pascal machine was that it was capable of performing automatic carry
transfer multiplication and division. Pascal had invented the machine to assist his father in
the calculation. His father was a tax superintendent and he was never able to get to bed
before 1 a.m. Blaise was highly motivated to ease his father with the calculating work. So he
set himself on the task and invented the machine in two years. At the time of invention
Pascal was only of 18 years old.

e. Stepped Recknor
Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz invented
calculating machine called stepped Recknor.
Stepped Recknor was just codification of Pascal
machine this machine was the first device which
could multiply device and also find square root.
It was used for over two hundred years after its
invention. Actually it was used till electronic or electro mechanical came into existence.

f. Jacquard's Loom and Punched Card

A Frenchman named Joseph Jacquard used punched card for
automatically controlling the design of woven fabric .Actually
punched cards were used to control weaving looms to
facilitate the production of the woven clothe with complex
pattern. With the use of punched card the era of storing and
retrieving information started.

g. Charles Babbage
Charles Babbage was professor of Mathematics at Cambridge university. He developed a
machine called" Difference Engine in the year 1822.This machine could evaluate algebraic
expressions and mathematical functions up to 20 decimal places. This machine was also
expected to calculate logarithmic table to a high degree of precision. The machine was also
capable of evaluating polynomial equation. Eleven year later he started to design another
machine called of analytical engine. Analytical engine had the concept of using binary digits
(bits) in this machine. Analytical engine could do all the four mathematical operations (
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division).
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Analytical engine had many features that are common to the modern computer Babbage
also included the concept of central processor, storage area and input/output device in his
design. The two revolutionary innovations incorporated in analytical engine were
comparison and modification of stored information. Unfortunately owing to the lack of
technology of that time the analytical engine remained a design on paper and could not be
developed so it remained a conceptual design. As Babbage formulated the working
principle of modern digital computer he is also called as Father of computer science.

h. Lady Ada Augusta Lovelace

Lady Ada was mathematician and she was long time follower of Charles
Babbage. It was Lady Ada who had suggested Babbage to use binary
number system instead of decimal number system in the analytical
engine. She also formulated the ways of programming in the machine so
that it could repeat the same set of instructions and carry out instructions
if certain condition existed. This idea is still used in today’s computer
program. Lady Ada also had prepared the first program that was to be
used in analytical engine. Because of all this she is believed to be the first computer
programmer. On her honour a programming language ADA was developed.

i. George Boole
Boolean Algebra is considered as one of the most important discovery
of 19th century. In 1854, George Boole performed an investigation
into the “laws of thought” which were based around a simplified
version of the “group” or “set” theory, and from this Boolean Algebra
was developed. It was George Boole's logic which gave basic idea of
presenting the electric circuits with binary input (0 or 1) and its
output. In computer science the logic provided by Boolean algebra is called digital logic.

j. Dr. Herman Hollerith

Dr. Herman Hollerith was census statisticians and he was working in USA census office
during the time the census of 1880 was taken. The data was being complied and analysed.

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The US Census Bureau realised that the process would
take a long time and it would hamper the next census
work which was scheduled for 1890. Hence the U.S.
census Bureau decided to develop a speedy machine to
deal with the counting of census in more effective way.
The Bureau held a competition to find a way of dealing
with the census more effectively and Hollerith won the
competition by a inventing a machine which used
punched cards to store and tabulate census data. This
machine was able to sense the punched holes recognize
the number and make the required calculations. This method played a magic role and the
census of 1890 could be completed within just 6 weeks. The machine used was called
tabulating machine.

Dr. Herman Hollerith is believed to be the first person who used punched card practically.
Herman Hollerith also formed his own company which later on was incorporated into
International Business Machine Corporation (IBM) which is one of the largest computer
manufacturing company in the world even today.

ii. Age of Electromechanical computer

a. Mark I

Mark I is the first electronic computer. It was developed by Professor Howard Aiken in 1937.
It was based on Charles Babbage principle. Mark I was the first machine in the world which
could perform according to the pre-programmed instruction without any manual interference.
It utilized the punched card concept Mark I had dimension of 51×8×3 cubic feet. It consumed
lots of electricity. Also it generated lots of heat. Mark I could multiply two twenty digit. Mark I
used 18,000 vacuum tubes as main memory device. The main problem of Mark I was it was
difficult even for the inventor to find the fault when it functioned wrongly. There were about
7 lakh 50 thousand parts in Mark I. The cables used for connection were 500 miles long. Mark I
weighed 32 tons. In spite of all this Mark I is considered to be the first computer in the real
sense of term. In the year 1944 Howard Aiken modified Mark I and attempted to built another
computer which he called Mark II. Mark II used 19,000 vacuumed tubes and occupied 15,000
square feet. It consumed 130 KW electrical power for operation.

b. ABC (Atanasoft Berry Computer)

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ABC was developed by John Vincent Atanasoft and Clifford

Berry in around 1938-1942. ABC used 18,000 vacuum tubes. It
used capacitors for storing electrical charges punched cards
were also used as secondary storage device . It was a special
purpose computer which was used for solving systems of
simultaneous equations. ABC is considered as first all
electronics digital computer.

iii. Age of Electronic Computer

a. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator)
ENIAC was developed by John W Mauchly and J. Presper
Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania in USA. It used
decimal system. It used 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000
resistors 10,000 condensers and 6000 switcher the weight of
ENIAC was 30 tonnes and it occupied 300 cubic feet. It also
had a very small memory. It could calculate 300 times faster
than any other calculating devices of that time.

b. EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer)

It was developed by Professor Maurice Wilkes in 1949. The main
features of EDSAC was it was the first computer to implement stored
program concept i.e. this computer operated with an internally stored
program. It also used vacuum tubes. EDSAC was built according to the
von Neumann machine. Its Main memory consisted of 1024 locations
and used two’s complement binary numbers.

c. EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variables Automatic Computer)

It was developed by J. Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly in 1952. It
also implemented the stored program concept. It's development work
started before EDSAC but it was completed after that. It also used
vacuum tubes. Its features were automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication, programmed
division and automatic checking with an ultrasonic serial memory capacity of 1,024 words,
thus giving a memory (in modern terms of 5.5 KB).

d. UNIVAC ( Universal Automatic Computer-I)

It was the product of the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation(1951).
UNIVAC-I was the first commercially produced computer. It was first
computer to come equipped with a magnetic tape unit and was the first
computer to use buffer memory. UNIVAC-I also had stored program
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concept. Before UNIVAC-I computer were not meant for general purpose rather they were
used for special purpose (defence) or census or science and engineering). UNIVAC II was an
improvement to the UNIVAC I.

e. IBM 7090
It came in market in 1958. It used transistor as storage device for the first time. It was
designed for "large-scale scientific and technological applications". The 7090 is the third
member of the IBM 700/7000 series scientific computers.

f. IBM 360
It was the first computer to use IC as storage device. It came in market in 1964. IBM 360 was
first family of computers designed to cover the complete range of applications, from small to
large, both commercial and scientific. It has features like memory, addressing, data formats,
instruction formats, program status word and interruption system

g. Altair
In 1755 first microcomputer named as Altair came. The Altair is widely recognized as the
spark that ignited the microcomputer revolution as the first commercially successful
personal computer. The computer bus designed for the Altair was to become a standard in
the form of the S-100 bus, and the first programming language for the machine was
Microsoft's founding product, Altair Basic.

h. Macintosh
In 1984 Apple Computer introduces Macintosh, the first widely available computer with
GUI( Graphics User Interface). A GUI is a display format that allows the user to select
commands, call up files, start programs, and do other routine tasks by using a device called
a mouse to point to pictorial symbols (icons) or lists of menu choices on the screen.

i. Windows 1989
Microsoft Corporation introduces windows for IBM computers. In 1998, it
produced Windows CE, a version of its Windows OS, for use on mobile devices such as
PDAs. This encouraged electronics firms to enter the handheld organizer market.

1.1.9. Generation of Computer

Intensive research and countless experiments on computer led to the sophistication
versatility and reduced costs of what had once been expensive and huge machine capable of
limited functions. The growth of computer took place in a rapid manner only after World
War II. This growth referred as evolution of modern computer can be viewed in specific
"Generations". In simple words, generation of computer is step ahead in technology used in
manufacturing of the computers. Basically computers developed in a certain period can form
a generation and computer developed in other period from another generation. However,
each generation is characterised by a major technological advancement which changed the
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way computer operate. This resulted in more smaller, more cheaper, more powerful, more
efficient and more reliable devices. We can view the evolution of computer in 5 generation.
Each of these five generations are an improvement over the former. The points about the
improvement of a generation from its former one are as follows:

 Speed of computer increases.

 Storage capacity of computer increased tremendously.
 Size of computer reduces significantly.
 Reliability and diligence of computer increased considerably.
 Power consumption of computer decrease.
 Heat generated from computer also went down ( decreased).
 The processing capacity of computer went up ( increased).
 Price of computer decreased drastically.
 The hardware, software and the computer itself became more user friendly.
The different generation of computers can be divided into different category of time duration
which is given below:

First Generation (1945-55): Vacuum Tubes and Plug Boards

The first generation computers were developed during 1946 to
1958 A.D. The technology used in these computers was Vacuum
Tube. This technology was first developed by Lee De Forest in
1908 A.D. First generation computers relied on machine language
to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a
time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and
output was displayed on printouts. ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC,
UNIVAC-I, IBM 650 are examples of the first generation computers.

Characteristics
 These machines were enormous, filling up entire rooms with tens of thousands of
vacuum tubes, but were much slower than even the cheapest personal computer
available today.
 First generation computer relied on machine language to perform operations, and
they could only solve one problem at a time.
 Input was punched on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed
on printers.

Advantages
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 Vacuum tubes were the only electronic components available during those days
 Vacuum tube technology made possible the advent of electronic digital computers
 These computers were the fastest calculating device of their time. They could
perform computations in milliseconds.

Disadvantages
 Too bulky in size so not portable.
 Unreliable.
 Thousands of vacuum tubes that were used emitted large amount of heat and burnt
out frequently.
 Air conditioning required.
 Prone to frequent hardware failures.
 Constant maintenance required.
 Manual assembly of individual components into functioning unit required.
 Commercial production was difficult and costly so, limited to commercial use.
Let us discuss a bit about vacuum tube which was the memory
device used in this generation. Vacuum tube was invented by
Lee De Forest in 1980 A.D. Vacuum tube is a vacuum filled glass
tube or metal tube which consists of set of metal electrodes and
intervening metal. The electrical current between the electrodes
are controlled by voltage on the metal grids. Each vacuum tube
consumed about half a watt power. The vacuum tubes allowed
flow of electrons in only one direction. In the past vacuum tubes
were used for amplification and switching in electronic circuit.
But now a days vacuum tubes are used in cathode ray tubes and in those applications
which require very high power level. A vacuum tube is also called valve in great Britain.

Second Generation (1955-65): Transistors and Batch System

The second generation computers were developed during 1959 to
1964A.D. The technology used in these computers was Transistors. This
technology was first developed by three scientists named, William
Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain in 1947A.D. Second-
generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and
printouts for output. Second-generation computers moved from cryptic
binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly languages, which allowed programmers
to specify instructions in words. IBM 1620, IBM 1401, Controlled Data Corporation 3600 are
the examples of second-generation computers.

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Characteristics
 Transistors were used as a basic building block for second generation computers.
 Second generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to
symbolic, or assembly language, which allows programmers to specify instructions
in words. High level languages were also being developed at this time like early
version of FORTRAN and COBOL.
 These were also the first computer that stored their instructions in their memory.
 Second generation computer still relied on punched card for input and printer for
output.

Advantage
 Smaller in size as compared to first generation computers.
 More reliable.
 Less heat generated.
 These computers were able to reduce computational times from milliseconds to
microseconds.
 Less prone to hardware failures.
 Better portability.
 Wider commercial use.

Disadvantage
 Air conditioning required.
 Frequent maintenance required.
 Manual assembly of individual components into a functional unit was required.
 Commercial production was difficult and costly.
Let us discuss about transistors which was used as memory device in this generation.
Transistor was invented by John Burdeen, Walter H. Brattain and William B. Shockley. These
three people won Nobel Prize for inventing transistors and a big revolution in electronics
took place with their invention. Transistor is made up of germanium semiconductor
material. Transistor amplify a signal, open a circuit or closes a circuit. Transistors requires
no heating. Transistors were highly reliable in comparison to vacuum tubes. Transistor also
needed less space and consumed only one- tenth of power required by the vacuum tubes
Transistor could switch from a 0 to 1 state in a few microsecond about a tenth time needed
by vacuum tubes.

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Third Generation (1965-80) ICs and Multiprogramming

Computer chips called IC (Integrated Circuits) were introduced, which was a basic building
block for this generation of computer.

Concept of Multiprogramming was introduced in which when

no. of jobs are to be performed, main memory is divided into
several pieces with different job in each partition. While one
job was waiting for input/ output to computer, another job
could be using the CPU. If enough job could be held in main
memory at once, the CPU could be kept busy nearly 100% of
the time.

Advantages
 Smaller in size as compared to previous generation computer.
 Even more reliable than second generation.
 Even lower heat generated than 2nd generation.
 These computers were able to reduce computational times from microsecond to
nanoseconds.
 Maintenance cost is low because hardware failures are rare.
 Easily portable.
 Totally general purpose. Widely used for various commercial applications all over
the world.
 Less power requirement than previous generation.
 Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit not required.
So human labour and cost involved at assembly stage reduced drastically.
 Commercial production was easier and cheaper.
Disadvantages
 Air-conditioning required in many cases.
 Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of IC chips.
Examples of 3rd generation computers are IBM 360, UNIVAC
9000, Honeywell 200, etc. Let us discuss about integrated
circuit which was used as memory device in this generation.
Integrated circuit are the circuits which consists of transistors
resistors and capacitors grown on a single chip of silicon
eliminating wired inter connection between components. Integrated circuit was invented by
Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments in 1980s.

We can categorized the IC into following types on the basis of number of electronic components used
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on them.

i. SSI (Small Scale Integration): It is the types of IC where upto100 electronic

components were used per IC.
ii. MSI (Medium Scale Integration): It is the types of IC where 100 to 3000 electronic
components were used per IC.
iii. LST (Large scale Integration): It is the types of IC where 3000 to 1 lakh electronic
components were used per IC.
iv. VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration): It is the type of IC where 1 lakh to 10 lakh
electronic components were used per IC.
v. ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration): It is the types of IC where more than 10 lakh
electronic components were used per IC.

Fourth Generation (1980 Onwards

Initially, the integrated circuits contained only about ten to
twenty components. This technology was named small scale
integration (SSI). Later, with the advancement in technology
for manufacturing IC’s, it became possible to integrate up to
a hundred components on a single chip. This technology
came to be known as medium scale integration (MSI). Then came the era of large scale
integration (LSI), when it was possible to integrate over 30,000 components onto a single
chip. Then more advance technology like very large scale integration (VLSI) came.
Development of GUI, mouse, and handheld devices took place in this generation.

Advantages
 Smallest in size because of high component density.
 Very reliable.
 Heat generated is negligible.
 No air conditioning required in most cases.
 Much faster in computation than previous generations.
 Hardware failure is negligible and hence minimal maintenance is required.
 Easily portable because of their small size.
 Totally general purpose.
 Minimal labour and cost involved at assembly stage.
 Cheapest among all generations.

Disadvantages:
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 Highly sophisticated technology required
for the manufacture of VLSI chips.
Let us now discuss about microprocessor.
Microprocessor are the IC’s which have the entire
computer circuitry on a single silicon chip. The
computers using these chips are called
microcomputer. Microcomputer can be programmed .
There are 16 bit microprocessor, 32 bit microprocessor,
64 bit microprocessor. A 64 bit microprocessor means
that 64 bits information can be transferred in parallel
at a time and can be held in their registers and can be
processed at a time. The microprocessor and main memory of a computer is held on a single
board called as motherboard. A modern microprocessor can have millions of transistors in
an integrated circuit package that can easily fit into palm of one's hand. The most popular
lines of microprocessors today are the 680×86 family from. Intel which is at the of all IBM
PC- compatible computers. Thus microprocessor examples are 68000, 68020, 68030, 68040,
80286, 80386 DX, 80385X etc. Example of 4th generation computer are IBM PC, Apple
/Macintosh, Pentium PC.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)

Fifth generation computers are under the process of development. It
is still not clear what direction the fifth generation will take. It is
believed that technology likes voice command, audio outputs,
virtual reality, artificial intelligence, superconductor technology etc.
will be included in the fifth generation. The computer which use
biochips and posses artificial intelligence falls in the category of fifth
generation computer. There are following features which are
expected to be included in fifth generation computer.

 Computers would be equipped with parallel processing facilities.

 The speed of computer will be very high (at least 100 time more than now).
 Computer will be intelligent due to the use of artificial intelligence.
 Computer will have knowledge based problem solving techniques.
 Cost of hardware and software is expected to decrease.
 We can interact with fifth generation computer in natural language and computer
will be able to give output in audio form.
Let us now discus about biochips and artificial intelligence.

Biochips are just the chips which are made up of large organic molecules and genetically
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engineered proteins. After using biochips, it is expected that the capability of computer will
increase by millions of time. Artificial intelligence enable the computers to simulate speech
recognition, deduction, inference, ability to learn from past etc. In short we can say a computer
with reasoning. Learning and logic deriving capabilities is said to posses artificial intelligence.

1.1.10. Comparison of all Generations of Computers

Parameters First Second Third Fourth Fifth
generation generation generation generation generation
Year 1945-1955 1955-1965 1965-1980 1980 onwards Present and
beyond
Memory device Vacuum tube Transistor IC Micro processor Biochips
Operating speed 10-3 second 10-6 second 10-9 second 10-12 second Unbelievably
Switching time About few About few Amount 10-100 about 100s of Unbelievably
millisecond microsecond nanosecond picosecond
kind of only number only number only number only number number as well as
processing processing processing processing processing knowledge
processing
Programming No operating No operating Operating Improved Highly
system system system system just operating system sophisticating
included system

1.1.11. Computers Speed and Measurement Unit

The speed of computer is incredibly faster than what man can possibly record or calculate
normally. The speed of computer is usually given in terms of following time units for the
access time.

1 Millisecond – A thousand of a second (10-3)

1 Microsecond -A millionth of a second (10-6)
1 Nanosecond –A thousand millionth of a second (10 -9)
1 Picosecond – A million millionth of a second (10 -12)
The speed of computers is also measured in terms of instructions per second. There are two
such measures.

(i) KIPS: - Kilo Instruction Per Second.

(ii) MIPS: - Million Instruction Per Second.

1.1.12. Types of Computers

Computer can be classified into various types according to

1. Size 2. Work 3. Brand 4. Model

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The above given block diagram shows the classification of computer. We have following
types of computers on the basis of size.

1. Mainframe computer
2. Mini computer.
3. Micro computer
4. Super computer

Lets discuss about each of the above 4 as follows:

1. Mainframe Computer
The largest types of computer on the basis of size is
mainframe computer. can support more than 100 users
at the same time. Actually a mainframe can include
up-to thousand of terminals attached to it at
geographically remote location and occupy an entire
site with hundred of disk devices and hardware units.
Mainframe computer are used by large organization
like banks, building societies, Insurance companies ,
government departments etc. Mainframe computer is used in those places where many
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people need frequent access to the same data, which is usually organised into one on
more huge databases. Airline corporation may use mainframe computer system for
flight scheduling , reservations, ticketing and meeting a range of customer service
needs.
Example of mainframe computer are VAX 884, ICL 2950/10, CDC 1604, CDC 3600 etc.
We can list various characteristics of mainframe computer as follows:
i. Mainframe computer is administered from central location.
ii. Mainframe computer can allow more than 100 users to works at a same time.
iii. Mainframe computer being largest computer on the basis of size occupy around 1,000
square feet area.
iv. Mainframe computers are very expensive computers and they have great processing
capability.

2. Mini Computers
Minicomputers are the medium sized computer on the basis of
size i.e. they are larger than micro computer and are smaller
than mainframe computer. Minicomputer were first released
in 1660's . Mini computers are also called as midrange
computers because the capabilities of minicomputer are
somewhere between mainframe and microcomputer. A
minicomputer is 4 to 5 times faster than the microcomputer.
They also have CPU speed of approximate 500 kilo
instructions per second .Minicomputers are mainly multi-user
system where 50 users (approximately) can work
simultaneously through the terminal. However some minicomputer also are designed
for a single user. These computer occupy area of around 10-15 square feet. The
minicomputer are used. In medium sized organisation for their database
administration. In Nepal Rasta Bank, National Computer Centre, Nepal Airline
Corporation etc. are using minicomputers. The DEC is the major manufacturer of
minicomputer. VAX series 8200 and 8300 are two major service of DEC. Example of
other minicomputer are DECLPAD – 7, DECPAD – 9, IBM AS/400 etc.
3. Micro Computer
Microcomputer gets the name micro because of two
reasons: First as it is miniature in size and second it
uses microprocessor. The microcomputer replaced the
many separate components that made up the
minicomputer's CPU with a single integrated
microprocessor chip. Now-a-days, the terms
"Microcomputer", "Personal Computer" and "Home
Computer" are used interchangeably and are colloquial terms.
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In 1981 IBM brought out its first micro computer called IBM PC. These computers are
also called PC's, personnel computers or home computer. We can find microcomputer
in very small size referred as laptop computer notebook computer and palmtop
computer. The Microcomputer are especially made to be used by a single user.
Microcomputer are used in home office school, business etc. for various purpose.
Microcomputer however are not meant to do jobs that require great computing power.
Micro computer is the most popular type of computer. The main reason of
microcomputer's popularity is the rapid rate in which its technology are improved.
Microprocessors memory chips and storage devices make continual gains in speed and
capacity while physical size and price remain stable or in some case are reduced. For
example, compared to a typical PC of ten years ago a PC of same price today will have
about ten times as much RAM, about 100 times more storage capacity and a micro
processor at least 100 times as fast. example of microcomputers are IBM PC, Apple Mac.

4. Super Computer
Super computers are the most speediest, powerful and
physically the large computers that uses state-of-art
technology. Typically, they are custom-designed to meet
a certain level of computing solution. Super computer
consist of several processors running together and
today's fastest super computers can execute trillion
calculations per second. Since these computers use state-
of-art technology, today's supercomputer may not be
tomorrow's supercomputer.
Super computers are also used to map the human genome or DNA structure. Scientists
and Engineers process and then simulate the processes on a super computer. Super
computer can also help in analyzing and forecasting global weather patterns. Super
computers are to be kept in protective rooms with special cooling system, power
protection and other security features.
Example of super computer are CRAY II, CYBER 205, PARAM, Titan, IBM Sequoia, K
Computer, Jaguar etc.

1.1.13. Mobile Computing and its Application

Mobile computing is an ability to use technology to wirelessly
connect to and use centrally located information and/or
application software through the application of small, portable
and wireless computing and communication devices such as
Laptop, Cell Phone, PDA, GPS, IPOD, etc. It is a generic term
which describes one's ability to use technology while moving.
Mobile computing is a technology which allows the transmission of data via a
computer without having to be connected to a fixed physical link. It usually requires a
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portable computer that is battery powered, rather than a desktop system.

Why use Mobile Computing?

 Enable anywhere/anytime connectivity
 Bring computer communications to areas without pre-existing infrastructure
 Enable mobility
 An exciting new research area
 Challenges
- Naming and locating
- Routing data and messages
- Reliability in presence of disconnection and Transmission interferences
- Security
Advantages of Mobile Computing:
 Increase in Productivity- Mobile devices can be used out in the field of various
companies, therefore reducing the time and cost for clients and themselves.
 Entertainment- Mobile devices can be used for entertainment purposes, for personal
and even for presentations to people and clients.
 Portability- this would be one of the main advantages of mobile computing, you are
not restricted to one location in order for you to get jobs done or even access email
on the go
 Cloud Computing- This service is available for saving documents on a online server
and being able to access them anytime and anywhere when you have a connection
to the internet and can access these files on several mobile devices or even PCs at
home.
 They can also get faxes and voicemails without going to the office.
 Using a virtual private network, or VPN, with mobile computing also allows users
to share files and information with each other and remain connected, even when
they are not in the same office.

Disadvantages of Mobile Computing

 The major disadvantage of mobile computing is circumvented by encrypting data
and by using passwords, a secure Internet connection and a VPN. Other
disadvantages are:
 People will depend on gadget to do all the works and become less socialize.
 Battery consumption hindrance.
 Inefficient bandwidth in transmission.
 Connection losses over entire network.
 Network stability.
 Interoperability problem and protection constraints.

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Summary
 The word "Computer" is derived from Latin word "Computare" which means to
calculate.
 Computer is an electronic device which takes input through input device,
processes those data according to some instruction and if required will display the
result.
 Abacus is the earliest calculating device made by man.
 John Napier invented modern logarithm.
 William Oughtred invented Slide Rule in 1620 which was based on principle of
Logarithm.
 Calculation including addition and subtraction was possible up to 3 digits in
Pascaline.
 Joseph Marie Jacquard is also called father of Punched Card concept.
 Charles Babbage is father of computer.
 Lady Augusta Ada Lovelace is considered as the world's first computer
programmer.
 George Boole discovered Boolean Algebra.
 Dr. Herman Hollerith is considered as founder of IBM.
 Mark-I is the first electromechanical computer.
 John Von Neumann is considered as father of stored program concept.
 EDSAC is the first stored program computer.
 There are following types of computer on the basis of size:
a. Microcomputer b. Minicomputer
c. Mainframe computer d. Super computer
 Microcomputer are the computer which use microprocessors as memory device.
 Microcomputer are also called personal computer.
 Around 50 users can work together in minicomputer through the terminals.
 Around 100 users can work together to mainframe computer through the
terminals.
 Super computers are used for special purpose only example in scientific works.
 Mobile computing involves computing with mobility facility.

Exercise
1. Define computer and its function.

2. Explain the characteristics of computer.

3. Write down the main features of different generations of computer.

4. Why is computer called versatile machine?

5. "Computer is a diligent machine". Explain in your own words.

6. Explain about various capabilities of computer.

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7. "In spite of possessing various capabilities computer has limitation" Do you agree
upon this statement? Justify your answer.

8. What are the advantage and disadvantages of computer.

9. Define the following term:

a. Hardware b. ROM
c. Software d. Data
e. RAM. e. Information

10. Explain any ten application of computer.

11. What is micro computer? Why it is popular?

12. What are mainframe computers?

13. Explain characteristics of micro computer.

14. Describe the characteristics of super Computer.

15. Explain how minicomputer is different from mainframe and micro computer?

16. What is mobile computing? What are the advantages and disadvantages of mobile
computing?

17. Write short notes on:

a. Abacus b. Dr. Hermann Hollerith

c. Pascaline d UNIVAC

e. Charles Babbage f. Mark I

g. Lady Ada h. Napier's Bone



1.2 Computer System and I/O Devices

In general terms, a computer is an electronic device used to process data, convert the data
into information that is useful to people. Any computer regardless of its type is controlled by
programmed instructions, which gives the machine a purpose and tells it what to do. A
complete computer system consists of four parts viz. hardware, software, people and data.
The mechanical devices that make up the computer are called hardware. Hardware is that
part of computer which we can touch. Hardware generally consists of interconnected
electronic devices that we can use to control the computer's operation , input and output.

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Software is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex codes (also known as
program) that make the computer perform tasks. In other words software tells the computer
what to do. Some programs exist primarily for the computer's use and help the computer
perform and manage its own tasks other type of program exists primarily for the user and
enable the computer to perform tasks such as creating documents or drawing pictures.
People are the computer operator also known as user. It can be argued that some computer
system are complete without a person's involvement; however no computer is totally
autonomous. Even if a computer can do its job without a person sitting in front of it, people
still design, build program and repair computer system. Data consists of raw facts in form
of numbers. The computer manipulates data according to the instruction contained in the
software and then forwards it for use by people. Data can consists of letters, number or
images. No matter what kind of data is entered into a computer, however, the computer
converts it into numbers. Consequently, computerized data is digital, meaning that it has
been reduced to digits or numbers.

1.2.1. Computer Architecture and Organization

In describing computers, a distinction is often made between computer architecture and
computer organization. Although it is difficult to give precise definitions for these terms , a
consensus exists about the general areas covered by each. Computer architecture refers to
those attributes of a system visible to a programmer or put in another way those attributes
that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program. Computer organization
refers to the operational units and their interconnection that realize architectural
specifications. Examples of architectural attribute include the instruction set, the number of
bits used to represent various data types, I/O mechanisms and techniques for addressing
memory. Organizational attribute include those hardware details such as control signal,
interfaces between the computer and peripherals and the memory technology used as an
example it is an architectural design whether a computer will have a multiply instruction. It
is an organizational issue whether that instruction will be implemented by a special multiply
unit or by a mechanism that makes repeated use of the add unit of the system.
In microcomputers the relationship between the architecture and organization is very close.
Changes in technology not only influence organization but also result in the introduction of
more powerful and more complex architecture.
In general we can say the style of construction and the way many parts of a computer system
is organized is referred wholly as computer architecture. Actually we can view whole
computer as a "layered machine" where several layers of software are on top of several other
layers of hardware. But it is a general way to say that software layers are on top of hardware
layers. Hardware is lowest and the most basic level of computer. Software uses the hardware
and controls it. However hardware always needs to support the software. Otherwise whole
computer system may malfunction.

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We can easily extend the above two layers into several layers (both of hardware and
software). Thus a computer system can be viewed as a multilayered machine as in following
figure.

Application layer
System software layer SOFTWARE LEVEL
Machine layer
Micro programmed layer HARDWARE LEVEL
Digital logic layer
Electrical and electronic component layer
Figure: Layers of computer architecture

In the following portion; a short description of all layers is presented starting from the
lowest layer.

1. Levels of Hardware
Various levels of hardware are discussed as follows

i. Electrical and Electronic Component Layer

This layer is also referred as physical device layer. All the modern computer
(including the sophisticated computers) are made from number of basic electronic
components like transistors, capacitors and resistors. All of these electronic
components are dependent on suitable power supply and the operating
environment.

ii. Digital Logic Layer

This layer provides basic operation of the machine. Generally this layer is meant to
store, manipulate and transmit the data in desired binary representation. The
elements which are involved in this layer are referred as gates. Gates is simply an
electronic circuit (which is made up of number of transistors and other electronic
component) which operates on one or more signal to produce an output signal.

iii. Micro Programmed Layer

In this layer the machine language instructions obtained from machine layer are
interpreted and it also directs the digital logic element to perform the required
operation. In the early computer; the computer had no micro programmed layer.
But now a days due to the inclusion of micro programmed layer the manufactures
are able to produce variety of processors which can process same set of machine
instruction at the machine layer but which differ in terms of speed and
construction. Thus this has helped the manufacturer to offer a variety of machines
having different power capacity and prices also.

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iv. Machine Layer
Processor, input device/output device, auxiliary storage, main memory etc. are
presented. It is the layer in which a program can be written.

2. Level of Software
The various level of software are discussed as follows
i. System Software Layer
This layer consists of number of variety of programs that support the operation of
computer i.e. system software. It is only due to the system software which has
made possible for the user to focus on an application or a problem (to be solved)
without needing to know the detailing of how the machine works internally. One
major type of system software is the operating system which tells the computer
how to use its own components. Other example of system software include
loaders, debugger linker, assembler, compiler etc.
ii. Application Software Layer:
This layer consists of the application software which tells the computer how to
accomplish specific task, such as work processing or drawing for the user. Example
of application program are Microsoft software, Auto CAD, C program etc.

1.2.2. Components of Computer System

A computer is a system of physical parts (called hardware) that performs actions
when it is given instructions. A general purpose digital computer consists of four
major subsystems. They are:
 Input Devices
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Control Unit (CU)
 Memory
 Output Devices

CPU

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Registers (smallest
storage)

Arithmetic
Input Output
Logic Unit
(ALU)
Control Unit
(CU)

Memory

Figure: Digital Block Diagram of a Computer

The computer system consists of input devices for reading user data and instructions. Main
memory is used to store these instructions and data temporarily and a central processing
unit (CPU) processes the data and instructions. Output devices are for printing, displaying
or outputting information. Secondary storage (memory) devices permanently store data and
programs.

Input Devices
An input device accepts data and instructions from the user. The input devices accept
information in the form of letters, numbers, and command from the user. The most common
example of input device is the keyboard which is basically the primary text and numeric
input device. Another popular input device is the mouse, which lets the user select options
from on-screen menus. Other popular input devices are light pen, trackballs, touch pads,
joysticks, scanners, digital cameras, microphones etc.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU is the brain of a computer system. It is the place where the data or the information is
manipulated. In a computer, the entire CPU is contained in a single tiny chip called a
microprocessor. Every CPU has two major parts- Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control
Unit (CU). Besides, it has some registers of small size for storage purpose.

In a general computer, the CPU or the processor is a single chip, an integrated circuit
containing millions of transistors, packed into a surface smaller than a stamp. Every task to
be done by a computer must be interpreted and executed by the processor. This makes the
processor the most important resource amongst the other resources.

Control Unit (CU)

The CU provides the necessary timing and the control signals to all the operations in the
computer. This unit is responsible for the sequencing jobs of computer (synchronization).

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Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
This is the area of the computer where various computing functions are performed on the
data or the information. The ALU performs arithmetic operations such as addition and
subtraction and logical operations such as AND, OR and Exclusive OR. Results are stored in
either register or memory. The ALU includes a group of registers which are the high speed
memory locations built inside the CPU that are used to hold the data that are currently being
processed.

Register Array
Registers are high speed memory location which are used to store temporary results. They
are separate from the locations in the main storage although they can be similar in structure.
Registers are present in the control unit and the ALU. The number of registers contained
varies depending on the computer. Actually registers are basically a small purpose kind of
memory that the processor has for doing some particular uses like calculations and record
keeping.

Registers are similar to the computers main memory in one way that they are a set of
locations where data can be stored while the processor is working on it. The computer's
main memory is larger and it is located outside the processor; whereas the registers are the
part of the processor.
Some of the registers in the CPU are as follows:
i. Instruction register (IR): It holds the instructions currently being processed.
ii. Program counter register: It holds the address of next instruction to be executed.
iii. General purpose register: It holds data temporarily or for intermediate results. There is
always one accumulator which holds the results of some CPU operation, usually of
arithmetic nature.
iv. Accumulator: It stores the result of arithmetic operators.
v. Link register: Carry over which are resulted due to computations are stored in the link
resistors.

Main Memory
The CPU does have registers, but these are of small size that can hold only a few bytes at a

time. In addition to registers, CPU needs to have million of bytes randomly accessed space
where it can quickly read or write programs and data while they are being used. Thus
electronic memory allows the CPU to store and retrieve the data quickly. The memory of a
system may be classified into two operational categories namely: Primary memory and
Secondary memory.

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Auxiliary Storage
This storage is meant of supplement main memory. Auxiliary storage is used for holding
backup data/instructions. It is also used for data transportation and for bulk data storage.

Output Devices
Output devices return the processed data from the CPU for use. The function of an output device
is to present processed data to the user. The most common examples of output devices are the
monitors and the printers.
1.2.3. Microprocessor
A microprocessor is similar to our human brain; it can be trained to do anything. It can be
programmed to do anything we want based on its instruction set and capabilities.
Sometimes solutions are very complex, circuits also becomes very complex if we try to solve
it without programming. Microprocessor is the brain of computer, which does all the work.
It is a computer processor that incorporates all the functions of CPU (Central Processing
Unit) on a single IC (Integrated Circuit) or at the most a few ICs. Microprocessors were first
introduced in early 1970s. 4004 was the first general purpose microprocessor used by Intel in
building personal computers. Arrival of low cost general purpose microprocessors has been
instrumental in development of modern society the way it has.
Microprocessors are multipurpose devices that can be designed for generic or specialized
functions. The microprocessors of laptops and smartphones are general purpose whereas
ones designed for graphical processing or machine vision are specialized ones. There are
some characteristics that are common to all microprocessors.

These are the most important defining characteristics of a microprocessor −

 Clock speed
 Word size
 Instruction set

Clock Speed
Every microprocessor has an internal clock that regulates the speed at which it executes
instructions and also synchronizes it with other components. The speed at which the
microprocessor executes instructions is called clock speed. Clock speeds are measured in
MHz or GHz where 1 MHz means 1 million cycles per second whereas 1 GHz equals to 1
billion cycles per second. Here cycle refers to single electric signal cycle.

Currently microprocessors have clock speed in the range of up to 4 GHz, which is

maximum that current technology can attain. Speeds more than this generate enough heat
to damage the chip itself. To overcome this, manufacturers are using multiple processors
working in parallel on a chip.

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Word Size
Number of bits that can be processed by a processor in a single instruction is called its word
size. Word size determines the amount of RAM that can be accessed at one go and total
number of pins on the microprocessor. Total number of input and output pins in turn
determines the architecture of the microprocessor.

First commercial microprocessor Intel 4004 was a 4-bit processor. It had 4 input pins and 4
output pins. Number of output pins is always equal to the number of input pins. Currently
most microprocessors use 32-bit or 64-bit architecture.

Instruction Set
A command given to a digital machine to perform an operation on a piece of data is called
an instruction. Basic set of machine level instructions that a microprocessor is designed to
execute is called its instruction set. These instructions carry out following types of
operations:

 Data transfer
 Arithmetic operations
 Logical operations
 Control flow
 Input/output and machine control
Microprocessor Components
Compared to the first microprocessors, today’s processors are very small but still they have
these basic parts right from the first model −

 CPU
 Bus
 Memory
1.2.4. Bus Structure
In microcomputers the term bus refers to the path between the components of a computer.
Actually bus is set of hardware line (conductor) which lies inside the computer through
which data is transmitted from one part of computer to the another part. The CPU is
connected to main memory, input device and output device by three separate buses viz.
address bus, data bus and control bus.

i. Address Bus
Address bus is the bus which carries the memory locations for data or instructions that
needs to be stored. Address bus is unidirectional i.e. data can flow only in one direction.
In the figure we have shown 16 address buses.

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ii. Data Bus

Data bus is the path way where transmission of actual data among CPU and other
devices take place. Data bus are bidirectional i.e. data can flow in both direction . In
figure we have shown 8 bit data buses.

iii. Control Bus

It is the type of bus which transmits all timing and controlling functions sent by the
control unit to other units of the computer system. Control bus is also unidirectional.

1.2.5. Primary Memory

Memory is like an electronic scratch pad inside the computer. When we launch a program; it
is loaded into and run from memory. Data used by the program is also loaded into memory
for fast access. As we enter data into the computer, it is also stored in the memory but for
only temporary period. Computer memory can be classified into two types viz. primary
memory and secondary memory.

Memory

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

Figure: Types of memory

Primary Memory
It may be called as main memory or internal memory. CPU has direct access only to the
data/information in primary memory. Primary memory is built within the computer. It is of
a limited capacity and is also temporary in nature. It may enhance up 512 MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4
GB depending on need of the user. There are following functions of primary memory:
i. To hold the operating system instruction when the computer is turned on.
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ii. To hold the copy of programming instructions and data that are input from keyboard
through user and that are being currently executed but for temporary period of time.
iii. To store the result temporarily, which is generated after processing until it is transferred
to corresponding output device.
There are two types of primary memory viz. RAM and ROM.

Primary Memory

RAM ROM

Figure: Types of Primary memory

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

Random Access Memory is the type of primary memory which is responsible for storing the
instructions and data that the computer is using at the present moment. The main purpose of
RAM is to hold program and data while they are in use. A RAM chip looks like in above
figure.

RAM is a volatile memory i.e. the contents in RAM are lost when the power to computer is
cut off. Memory that can be instantly changed is RAM, so RAM instructions are temporary
in nature and are present only for the time that the program is being used. These are two
type of RAM's viz. SRAM and DRAM.

i. SRAM (Static RAM)

Static RAM retains stored information till there is enough
power to run the computer. SRAM are found in application
which requires only a small amount of RAM for
implementation. SRAM has access time of 10-100 ns. SRAM is
more expensive than DRAM and it also consumes more power
than DRAM so SRAM are not used as frequently as DRAM.

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ii. DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

DRAM loses its stored information in a very short span
of time even though the computer is under working.
Actually DRAM stores information in IC containing
capacitors. As capacitors lose charge over time, DRAM
board has to include logic to refresh (recharge) the RAM
chip continuously. Otherwise the DRAM will lose its
contents. When DRAM is being refreshed, it can't be read by processor. The access time
is 40-70 ns in DRAM.

2. ROM (Read Only Memory)

ROM is the type of primary memory whose
contents are permanently etched into the memory
chip at the manufacturing stage. ROM always
hold the same data. The data in ROM cannot be
changed except through a special process that
overwrites the data. In fact, putting data
permanently into this kind of memory is called
"burning in the data" and it is usually done at the
factory. During normal use, the data in these chips is only read and used not changed so the
memory is called Read Only Memory (ROM). One important reason a computer needs ROM
is that it must know what to do when the power is first turned on, among other things. ROM
contains a set of start-up instructions, which ensures that the rest of memory is functioning
properly, checks for hardware device and checks for an operating system on the computer's
disk drives. Instructions are stored on ROM in special purpose computers used in washing
machine, video recorder and cars.

There are Following Type of ROM

i. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is the type of ROM which is empty when new. Instruction can be written into it
by programmer but only once but it can then be subsequently read. Thus PROM chips
can be programmed only once. PROM have low access time. Due to the fact that PROM
has low access time they are preferred for use in as logic element instead of storage
memory or program memory.

ii. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

EPROM chips were developed as an improvement over PROM chips. With the help of
special devices that use ultraviolet light, the data/instructions on an EPROM chip can be
erased and new data/instructions can be recorded in its place. To change the instruction
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on an EPROM we need to remove the chip from the machine and then out it back when
changes have been made.

iii. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

It is an advance addition to ROM family of chips. Actually EEPROM is an advanced
form of EPROM and it can be erased by the help of electrical signal. EEPROM proves to
be useful if programs are stored in a stable manner for a long period of time. EEPROM
can be programmed up to 10,000 times.

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a holding area in which the data and instructions most recently called
from RAM by the processor are temporarily stored. It is a type of very fast memory that is
used to improve the speed of computer. It acts as an intermediate store between the CPU
and main memory, and works by storing the most frequently or recently used data and
instructions.

Moving data between the RAM and the CPU’s register is one of the most time consuming
operations because RAM is much slower than CPU. A partial solution to this problem is to
include a cache memory in the CPU. Cache memory is similar to RAM, except that it is
extremely fast compared to normal memory.

When a program is running and the CPU needs to read a data or program instruction from
RAM, the CPU checks first to see whether the data is in cache memory. If the data is not
there, the CPU reads the data from RAM into registers, but it also loads a copy of the data
into cache memory. The next time the CPU needs that same data, it finds it in the cache
memory and saves the time needed to load the data from RAM. If the CPU finds required
data or program instruction in the cache, then it is cache hit and if the CPU does not find the
required data or program instruction in the cache, then it is cache miss.

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CPU RAM

Cache
Memory

Fig: Cache Operation

During cache operations, updates made in cache must be reflected back to RAM.
This is known as cache coherence. Cache memories are managed in different levels
L1, L2.

1.2.6. Secondary Memory

Secondary memory is also referred as auxiliary memory. They are storage medium which
are present outside the CPU .They are non volatile in nature and their content cannot be
directly accessed by a computer's processor. Unlike the primary memory secondary memory
can have huge storage capacity. This memory basically supports the primary memory. The
data and information in the secondary storage device whichever, whenever needed can be
transferred to the main memory.

Secondary memory also has two types viz. magnetic memory and optical memory.
Secondary Memory

Magnetic Memory Optical Memory

1. Magnetic Memory( Storage)

The surfaces of magnetic storage devices are coated with millions of tiny iron particles so
that the data can be stored on them. Example of magnetic storage devices are magnetic disk,
magnetic drum and magnetic tape.

a. Magnetic Disk
It is a magnetic storage device which is circular like disk and is
coated with magnetic material. These disk can be accessed
randomly. Magnetic disk needs to be protected from exposure
to the resource of magnetism which can damage or destroy
information they hold. So magnetic disk are enclosed in

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protective case or in a jacket. Magnetic disk rotates at a very high speed inside the
computer drive. Data is stored on both surface of the disk. The information stored in
magnetic disk can be read many times without affecting the stored information/ data.

Advantage of magnetic disks

1. They can be used for online as well as offline storage of data.

Disadvantage of magnetic disks

1. It is difficult to maintain security

Magnetic disk has two types

i. Hard Disk
Hard disk is also called fixed disk. It is actually set of flat
disk called platters. Each surface of a platter can hold ten
billions of individual bits of data. Each platter has two
heads; one on top of the platter and the other on the bottom.
Each platter also has information recorded in concentric
circles called tracks. Each track is divided into 26 sectors.
Each individual sector can hold 512 byte of information. Hard disk rotates at 2400-
3600 rpm. Hard disks are fixed disks in case of microcomputer and minicomputer
but in case of mainframe computer they are exchangeable i.e. they can removed and
put as when required.. It is possible to have more than one hard disk into one micro
computer. (generally two in numbers). Main hard disk is called master and the
other one is called slave.
Advantages of Hard Disk
1. Hard disk can store lot more data than floppies. Hard disk can store up to 200 Gb of
data.
2. The data in hard disk can be stored for longer period than the floppy disk.
3. The time to access the data in hard disk is very less as compared to floppy disk.

ii. Floppy Disks

Floppy disk is also called as flexible disk and it is small,
removable soft magnetic disk. Unlike hard disk, floppy
disk can be bent . Floppy disk is kept on a plastic jacket to
protect it from sources of magnetism.

Floppy disk can rotate in either 300rpm or 360 rpm. Floppy

disk are write protected .Write protected means that
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floppies are protected from deletion and alteration which

are undesired. 3.5" floppy disk and 5.25" floppy disks are
available.

Advantages of Floppy Disk

1. It is quite cheaper than other storage devices.

2. It is easy to carry and is portable.

Disadvantages of Floppy Disk

1. Floppy disk have limited capacity of storing data.

2. They are quite slow when the data is accessed.

b. Magnetic Tape
It is similar to audio cassette tapes. It is made up of plastic ribbon
coated on one side with an iron oxide based magnetisable material.
Data are recorded in the form of tiny visible spots on the
magnetized side. Magnetic tape can be accessed serially only.

Advantages of Magnetic Tape

1. It is easy and fast to copy data.

2. Data can be stored for long time and can be easily retrieved later.

Disadvantages of Magnetic Tape

1. We can't perform read or write operations on magnetic tape without specified electronic
device needed.
2. Magnetic tape is very sensitive to dust, smoke, heat, magnetic field.

c. Magnetic Drum
It is a drum on which magnetic oxide coating is made.
Magnetic drum is basically used to store a large
amount of binary information. Magnetic drum is
rotating in nature. As the drum rotates, binary data
can be stored along tracks of the drum or the data can
be read from the track. Among all the tracks in

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magnetic drum one track controls the reading and writing related to other tracks.

2. Optical Storage
In the recent years, the new technology for storing data has evolved. This technology uses
optical or light based data storage. Today, the most popular alternatives to magnetic storage
system are optical systems. There are following advantages of optical storage devices.

Advantages of Optical Disks

1. Optical disks are cheaper.

2. Data can be stored for longer period of time.
3. They are easy to handle and are portable as they have light weight and are small in size.

There are following types of the optical storage devices

a. CD ROM (Compact Disk Read only Memory)
CD ROM is used to store the data around 680MB in size.
The data may be in text form or may be in graphics forms,
photographic images, video clips or sound files. Although
they do not transfer data as fast as a hard disk drive, their
speed is increasing every year and is acceptable for most
application. As the name suggests, CD ROM are read
only. When a master disk is created, a laser beam burns tiny holes in the surface of the
disk, which has a single spiral track divided into sectors. To read data from the disk, a
laser beam is reflected off the surface of the disk, detecting the presence or absence of
the pits which represents binary digits.

b. WORM (Write Once, Read Many)

WORM looks similar to CDROM disks but they are often gold in
colour rather than silver in colour. The end user company can use
these disks to write their own material, typically for storing
graphic or photographic images which will not be changed.

c. VCD (Video CD)

It is a compact disk format which can hold video up to 74
minutes. Also the audio information associated with video
images are stored in VCD.

d. CDRW (Compact Disk Rewritable)

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CDRW disks allows the user to read and write a number of times. Normal CDROM
disk can play in CDRW drive.

e. DVD (Digital Versatile Disk)

They are improved form of CDROM's. They can store data up to
4.7 GB. Normal CDROM disk can play in DVD drive but DVD
disk can't play in normal CDROM drive.

1.2.7. Input Devices

The purpose of input device is to allow the user to provide input to a computer system. Thus
input device are the means to enable the user to input information and commands into the
computer. There are following common type of input device.

1. Keyboard
This is the most common input device which
consists of keys marked with characters on it.
Data is entered into computer by pressing a
set of keys available with these devices.
Keyboard contains 101 to 104 keys. When a
key is pressed, an electronic signal is produced which is detected by an electronic
circuit called keyboard encoder. After the key board encoder detects which key is
pressed it sends a binary code to the computer. Most keyboard follow a similar
layout, with their keys arranged in five group. These group includes the
alphanumeric keys, numeric keypad, functions keys, modifier keys and cursor
movement key.

2. Mouse
Mouse is actually a pointing device that lets us to control the
position of a graphical pointer on the screen without using the
keyboard. Mouse rolls (rotated) on a small ball and has one or
two button on the top. Actually Microsoft mouse features two
button and the Macintosh mouse features one button. Using the
mouse involves five technique viz. pointing, clicking, double clicking, dragging
and right clicking. Potentiometers are coupled to the roller in mouse which sense
the relative movement of mouse. This motion is then converted into digital values
that determines the magnitude and direction of a mouse's movement..

3. Joystick
Joystick is a device which lets the user to move an object on the
screen. Children can play games in simple way by the use of a
joystick. A joystick is a stick set in two crossed grooves and can

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be moved left or right, forward or backward. The movement of the sticks are
sensed by a potentiometer. As the stick is moved around: the movements are
translated into binary instructions with the help of electrical contacts in its base.

4. Trackball
The trackball is also a pointing device. We need to rest our
thumb on the exposed ball and fingers on the buttons. To
move the pointer around the screen; we need to roll the ball
with our thumb. We don't need to move the whole device.
When space is limited, a trackball can be an advantage
because it requires less space than a mouse. Track ball gained
popularity with the advent of laptop computer.

5. Track Pad
The track pad (also called touch pad) is a stationary pointing
device that many people find less tiring to use than a mouse
or a track ball. The movement of finger across a small touch
surface is translated into pointer movement on the computer
screen. The touch sensitive surface may be only 1.5 to 2 inches
square, so the finger never has to move far. One of the
drawback of track pad is that they must be kept clean and static free .Dust and oils
from the user's fingers can affect the track pad's performance, making it less
sensitive to the touch. Some note book computer and desktop computer feature a
track pad.

6. Scanner
Scanner (also called image scanner) converts any printed
image into an electronic form by shining lights on to the
image and sensing the intensity of the light's reflection at
every point. We can use suitable software to organize or
manipulate the electronic image. For example, if we scan a
photo we can use Adobe Photoshop to increase or decrease
the contrast or to adjust the colors. Common optical scanner devices are Optimal
Mark Reader (OMR), Optical Character Reader (OCR) and Bar Code Reader.

i. Optimal Mark Reader

These type of scanners are capable of recognizing only a
pre specified type of mark made by pencil or ball pen. For
example, students may have to appear in objective type test
where they need to mark their answers to question on a
special test scoring sheet by darkening a square or circular
space by a pencil to indicate their correct choice out of
various alternatives. These answer sheets are directly fed to a computer for grading
with the use of an OMR. The actual technique used in OMR device for recognizing

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the marks involves focusing a light on the page being scanned and detecting the
reflected light patterns from the marks. Pencil marks made with a soft lead pencil
will reflect the light.

ii. Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR are the scanner devices which can detect alphabets
and numeric characters printed on paper. These
characters may be either typewritten or may be hand
written. In case of hand written characters, special care
has to be taken to ensure that the characters are of
standard size, lines making up the characters are not
connected, and no stylish loops etc. are used. On the other hand; if the characters
are type written, they must be typed using a special type font called OCR font. The
standard fonts used are OCR - A (American Standard) and OCR-B (European
Standard). OCR device examines each character as if it were made up of minute
spots (pixels). Once the whole character has been scanned, it is compared with the
characters (standard fonts) the machine has been programmed to recognize. If the
scanned character doesn't match satisfactorily then it is rejected. Actually it is
difficult to make a computer recognize an unlimited numbers of typefaces and
fonts. OCR finds its use in banks, airlines and in postal offices.

iii. Bar Code Reader

Data which is coded in form of light and dark lines or bars
are known as bar codes . Bar codes are widely used by the
retail trade for labelling goods and by super markets for
labelling shelves and in stock control. They are also used
to number books in public libraries. Bar code reader is a
device which is used to read (decode) bar coded data. Bar
code reading is done by a laser beam scanner which is
linked to a computer. The laser beam is stroked across the
pattern of bits that is recorded as the input data. The most
widely known bar code is UPC (Universal Product Code) which now appears on
almost all retail packages. These bar are decoded as 10 digits. The first five of these
digits identify the manufacturer of the product and the second five digits identify
the specified product of the manufacturer.

7. Touch Screen
Touch screen accept input by allowing the user to place a
fingertip directly in the computer screen usually to make a
selection from a menu of choices. Most touch screen
computers use sensors in or near the computers screen to
detect the touch of the finger. Touch screen are found in
applications such as automated teller machine. Also touch
screen are used in tourist centres, where tourist can look up various local facilities
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and entertainments.

8. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

It is also an input device which is used for character
recognition purpose . MICR reads text printed with
magnetically charged ink.. All bank use MICR for
processing cheques. A special type of cheques is used in
banks that employ MICR devices. The banks identification
code and the customer's account number is pre-coded on
these cheques with a special ink that contains magnetisable
particles of iron oxide. When filled in cheque is presented at the bank, a bank
employee encodes the amount in the lower right corner. This cheque is then
processed by the MICR device.
Coded data in the form of these fonts are transferred
from cheques to the computer by an MICR reader-sorter.
As the cheques enter the reading unit, they pass through
a magnetic field which causes the particles in the ink to
become magnetized. Read heads then interpret these
characters by examining their shapes using a 7×10 matrix
and determine, from the response of the segments of the matrix to the magnetic
ink, which of the characters has passed under the reader head.

9. Light Pen
Light pen is also a pointing device. Light pen consists of
photoelectric cells which is mounted in a pen shaped tube.
When the pen is brought in front of a picture element of the
screen, it senses light coming from a limited field of view. The
light coming from the screen causes the photoelectric cell to
respond by generating a pulse. The electric response is
transmitted to a processor that identifies the pixel the light pen is pointing to. Thus,
to identify a specific location the light pen is very useful. But the light pen provides
no information when it is held over blank part of the screen because it is passive
device with sensor only. The light pen can be also used to draw images on screen.
With the movement of the light pen over the screen, the lines are drawn.

10. Graphic Tablet/Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts graphic and
pictorial data, to digital (binary) form which can be directly
fed and stored into a computer. Generally digitizer are used
to input graphics information is engineering design and
illustration application. These are two type of digitizer. Viz.
flatbed digitizer and image scan digitizer.

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i. Flatbed DIGITIZER
In case of flatbed digitizer the drawing to be digitized is spread and fixed over a
rectangular flat bed table. A mechanical device is now moved over the surface of the
drawing and produces signal related to the x and y coordinates of the table.

ii. Image Scan Digitizer

Image scan digitizer scans and reproduces entire drawing and photographs
automatically. They are costlier and more powerful than the flat bed digitizer. They are
capable of digitizing not only the shape and size of the drawing but also the varying
intensities on a grey to black scale at different points of the drawing.
Thus, flat bed digitizers are used to digitize simple drawings, graph, charts etc and image
scan digitizer are used to digitize more complex picture s and photographs.

11. Microphone
Microphone is the input device which accepts audio input.
Microphone convert the sound wave into analog electrical
signals. Using speech recognition software, we can use
microphone as an input device for dictating text, navigating
programs and choosing commands. Microphones are
becoming increasingly popular as input devices these day. A
multimedia PC usually come with a microphone . Sometimes
the "mic" will be on a stand or it may be built into the computer's memory. To use
the microphone for input, computer must have a sound card installed within it.

12. Voice Input System

In this system we give input to computer in form of
voices. The help of keyboard is not taken while
inputting the voice. Various project work are going on
to develop a computer system which is able to listen
to the user and also even talk to them. This has yet not
been 100% successful. Actually to give input in the
form of voice becomes difficult because the tone of
speech, speed, pronunciation does differ from person
to person. In a voice input system a large amount of words has to be at first stored
in the memory. The input voice is converted firstly into electrical signal. These
signals are sent into the processor for processing. The patterns of signals sent are
compared with the patterns already stored in the memory. A word is recognized
only when a desired match is found. Then the computer gives output after
processing the voice input. Voice input system can be useful in for the factories
where both hands of the employee are engaged in the job he is doing and in that
moment he wants to input some data into computer. In the above figure the lady is

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inputting the voice through microphone.

13. Digital Camera

Digital cameras are portable, handheld devices which captures still
images. Digital camera captures images electronically (digitally).
The digital camera digitizes the image, compresses it, and stores it
on a special disk or memory card. The user can then copy the
information to a PC, where the image can be edited, copied,
printed, embedded in a document, or transmitted to another user.

1.2.8. Output Devices

Output devices are the devices which return processed data back to the user or to another
computer system. Actually the output devices get the information in binary coded forms.
The output devices then transform that information in binary coded form to a form which
can be used by user such as printed form or display on a screen. Example of output devices
are monitors, plotters and printers. The type of output devices are discussed as follows:

1. Monitor
Monitor is the most commonly used output devices on most
personal computer system. Monitor is a soft copy output device
i.e. the output presented by monitor is of temporary nature.
Various sizes of 14", 15", 17", 19" monitor can be available. A size
of 19" monitor means that size of viewable screen measured
across the diagonal from corner to corner is 19". Computer
monitors can be roughly divided into two categories: CRT and flat panel displays.

i. CRT Monitor
This is the typical monitor that we see in the desktop computer and
it looks a lot like a television screen and even works in the same
way. This type of monitor uses a large vacuum tube.

ii. Flat Panel Display

These monitors are primarily used with portable computers
but it is becoming an increasingly popular feature with
desktop computer. The figure aside shows flat panel monitor
for desktop computer.
Even if monitor looks good we need to check several
specification like size, refresh rate and resolution.

a. Monitor Size

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The bigger the size of monitor ; the better the monitor is.

b. Resolution
Resolution of a computer monitor is classified by the number of pixels on the
screen expressed as a matrix. For example a resolution of 640×480 means that there
are 640 pixels horizontally across the screen and 480 pixel vertically down the
screen. Pixel (picture element) is the smallest unit that can be displayed on the
screen.

c. Refresh Rate
Refresh rate of the monitor, is the number of times per second that the electron gun
scans every pixel on the screen. It is measured in Hertz (Hz) or in cycle per second.
A refresh rate of 60 Hz means that every pixel on the screen is scanned 60 times per
second. An image has to be refreshed at refresh rate greater than 50 Hz otherwise
the human eye may get flickering image.

2. Printers
Printers are hard copy output device i.e. the output displayed through printers are
of permanent nature and they can be seen on paper till the paper is destroyed or it
becomes damaged. Two general type of printers on the basis of technology used in
manufacturing process are as follows:

i. Impact printer
ii. Non-impact printer
Each of the above two are discussed as follows

i. Impact Printer
An impact printer creates an image by pressing an
inked ribbon against the paper, using pins or
hammers to shape the image. A simple example of
impact printer is a type writer which uses small
hammers to strike the ribbon. Each hammer is
embossed with the shape of an alphanumeric
characters and that shape is transferred through the inked ribbon onto the paper,
resulting in a printed character. The example of impact printers are line printer, dot
matrix printer, band printers, daisy wheel printer etc.

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Merit of Impact Printer
i. They are cheaper than non impact printer.
ii. They can produce multiple copies of text.

Demerit of Impact Printer

i. Print quality is lower than that of non impact printer.
ii. They are nosier than non impact printer.
iii. They are slower than non impact printers.

ii. Non-impact Printer

Non-impact printers use various other means rather than
hitting on an inked ribbon to create an image. Ink jet
printer for example use tiny nozzles to spray droplets of
ink onto the page. Laser printer work like photocopies,
using heat to bond microscopic particles of dry tones to
specific part of the page.

Merit of non-impact Printers

i. Print quality of text and graphics is good.
ii. They are faster than impact printer.
iii. They produce less noise than impact printer.

Demerit of non-impact Printer

i. They are expensive than impact printer.
ii. Originally non-impact produced single copy of text. But to solve this problem,
manufacturer have now developed non impact printer which can be used as offline
devices to produce additional copies of computer prepared output.
We now discuss about following popular printers:

i. Dot Matrix Printer

Dot matrix printer is a common type of impact printer. A dot
matrix printer uses a print head, which contains cluster of
pins. The printer can push the pins out to form pattern in
rapid sequence. The pins are used to press an inked ribbon
against paper, thus creating an image. Dot matrix printer are
commonly used in work places where physical impact with
the paper is important, such as when the user is printing to carbon copy/ pressure
sensitive forms. The speed of dot matrix printer is measured in characters per
second. The faster ones can print 500 characters per second.

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ii. Ink jet Printer

Ink jet printers are non-impact printers based on
relatively new technology. They print characters by
spraying small drops of ink on to paper. Special type of
ink having a high iron content is used. Droplets of ink
are electrically charged after leaving a nozzle. The
droplets are then guided to the proper position on the paper by electrically charged
deflection plates. Ink jet printer produce quality output because characters are
formed by dozens of tiny ink dots. Moreover, these printers are quite fast

iii. Laser Printer

Laser printers are type of non-impact printer. They use
process similar to photocopying machine with toner
(powdered ink) being transferred to the page and then
fused on to it by heat and press. A laser printer produces
output of very high quality at a typical sped in the region
of ten pages per minute and it is virtually silent in operation. As with digital
photocopiers, laser printers employ a xerographic printing process.

3. Plotters
Plotter is also an output device which is used to
produce high quality line drawing such as building
plans or electronic circuit. Early plotters were bulky,
mechanical devices that used robotic arm, which
literally drew the image on a piece of paper. The form of
plotters are flatbed plotters and Drum plotters.

4. Speakers
Speakers are common features on today’s multimedia
personal computer. Speaker is an output device. The
computer uses speakers as output device to produce
sound. Speakers attached to computers are similar to
those which are connected to stereo. The only difference is
that they are usually smaller and they contain their own
amplifiers.

To digitize sound, the waver are converted to an electric current measured

thousands of times per second and are recorded as numbers. When the sound is
played back, the sound card reverses the process, translating the series of numbers
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into electric current that is sent to the speakers.
Some of the speakers used are:
 Ear phone
 Head phone
 Normal speaker
 Woofer
 Loud speaker
1.2.9. Hardware Interfaces
In computing, an interface is a shared boundary across which two or more separate
components of computer system exchange information. Hardware interfaces exist in many
of the components, such as the various buses, storage devices, other I/O devices, etc. A
hardware interface is described by the mechanical, electrical and logical signals at the
interface and the protocol for sequencing them (sometimes called signaling).
Parallel Ports
Parallel ports provide an interface to connect multiple lines to prepare a
parallel communication to send large data at a time. Parallel ports are
used in connecting printers, hard-drives, CD-drives etc. All lines speed
should be same to avoid error and cross-talk issues. To avoid such issues,
the wires are kept small in length. A parallel port uses D-25 connector, a 25 pin D-Shaped
connector which connects to the transmission wires. When a PC wants to send data to a
printer, it sends it either through a parallel port, a serial port or a network connection. When
using a parallel port, the computer sends the data 1 byte at a time (8 bits in parallel, as
opposed to 8 bits serially as in a serial port). With each byte sent out, it sends a handshaking
signal so the printer can latch the byte.

Serial Ports
Serial Ports provide an interface to connect serial lines to prepare a serial communication.
Serial ports are typically used in modem, mouse, security cameras etc. A
Serial port uses DB-9 connector, a 9 pin D-Shaped Connector which
connects to the transmission line. A serial port provides a serial
communication using one line and thus have no dependency on other
wire's speed and its length can be extended as per the need.

USB (Universal Serial Bus)

It is also a type of interface port which allows 127 devices to be
connected to the bus via a single port. Actually USB is a plug and
play interface in which new peripheral devices can be automatically
detected and configured without having to shut down the computer
and without needing the support of other things. Today, most new
computers features at least one or two USB port.

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HDMI
HDMI stands for High Definition Multimedia Interface and is the most frequently used HD
signal for transferring both high definition audio and video over a single cable.
It is used both in the commercial AV (Audio-Visual) sector and is the most used cable in
homes connecting devices such as digital TV, DVD player, Blu Ray player, Xbox, PlayStation
and Apple TV with the television.
More and more home AV devices are being connected using this simple, effective cable, but
now HDMI is also featuring on laptops and PCs and therefore becoming the standard for the
corporate and commercial markets – for education, presentation, digital signage and retail
display to transmit high quality audio video signals from device to device.

A single HDMI cable replaces the three composite audio/video cables, making it easier to
connect two devices together for transmitting audio and video signals. HDMI is capable of
transmitting standard, enhanced, and high-definition video signals, as well as up to 8-
channels of digital audio signals. The length of HDMI cables varies significantly. They can
run from one foot up to 50 feet, though it's not recommended that users buy more than a 25
foot cable as it may result in signal degradation or loss. The HDMI ports are found either on
the video card or motherboard on the back of the computer. It is important to note that not
all computers and video cards have HDMI connectors; your computer may use Display
port, DVI, or VGA technology.
Expansion Slot
Alternatively known as a bus slot or expansion port,
an expansion slot is a connection or port inside a computer on
the motherboard or riser card. It provides an installation point
for a hardware expansion card to be connected. For example, if
you wanted to install a new video card in the computer, you'd
purchase a video expansion card and install that card into the
compatible expansion slot.

Expansion cards can provide various functions including:

 Sound
 Modems
 Network
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 Interface adapters
 TV and radio tuning
 Video processing
 Host adapting such as redundant array of independent disks or small computer
system interface
 Solid-state drive
 Power-on self-test
 Advanced multirate codec
 Basic input/output system (BIOS)
 Expansion read-only memory (ROM)
 Security devices
 RAM memory

Older expansion cards also included memory expansion cards, clock/calendar cards, hard
disk cards, compatibility cards for hardware emulation, and disk controller cards. The Altair
8800 was the first slot-type expansion card bus added to a microcomputer. It was developed
in 1974-1975 by IBM Corp.

The expansion slot opening is generally located on the back of a PC and provides an
electrical connection to the motherboard for an expansion card. Screws are then used to
attach the card to the slot for added security.

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Summary
 A complete computer system consists of 4 parts viz. hardware, software, people and
data.
 The mechanical devices that make up the computer are called hardware.
 Software is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex codes that makes the
computer perform task.
 People are the computer operator (user).
 Data are the raw facts.
 The style of construction and the way many parts of a computers system is organized is
referred wholly as computer architecture.
 Processor (CPU) is the main component in a computer, that is the heart of the computer
system with circuitry to control the interpretations.
 Control unit controls the sequence of actions by the program and input/output
operation.
 All the arithmetic and logical calculations are performed by ALU.
 Main memory is an immediate access memory also called as primary memory.
 Auxiliary storage is meant to supplement the main memory.
 Registers are the high speed memory locations which are used to store temporary
locations.
 Bus refers to the path between the components of the computer.
 Address bus is the bus which carries the memory location for data and instruction that
needs to be stored.
 Data bus is the path way where transmission of actual data among CPU and other
devices take place.
 Control bus transmits all timing and controlling functions sent by the control unit.
 John Von Neumann in 1946 originated the stored program concept.
 Memory is the workspace, for the computers processor.
 RAM (Random Access Memory) is main memory from where any location in the
memory can be randomly and quickly accessed.
 Secondary memory are meant to supplement the main memory.
 ROM is the type of the primary memory whose contents are permanently etched into
the memory chip at the manufacturing stage.
 Cache memory is used to increase the speed of processing by making current program
and data available to CPU at a rapid rate.
 Monitor and printer are the output devices.
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Exercise
1. Explain the layers in the computer architecture.

2. Explain about the digital block diagram of computer system.

3. What is microprocessor? Explain whether CPU and microprocessor are same or not.

4. Write about functions of control unit.

5. Explain about various buses in the computer system.

6. What do you mean by hard copy output and soft copy output?

7. Explain cache memory. Write why cache memory is useful in computer system?

8. Explain about the types of printers.

9. Write short note on following:

(a) Keyboard (b) Speaker

(c) Mouse (d) RAM and ROM
(e) Interface ports (f) Monitor
(g) Touch screen (h) Track ball
(i) Joy stick (j) HDMI

10. Differentiate between serial and parallel ports.

11. What is the purpose of USB?

12. Differentiate between LCD and LED monitors.



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