ESP second year bachelor ESP01

Geology and the Earth

Imagine walking on a rocky shore. You can see the pounding surf, hear stones clink together
as waves recede, feel the wind blowing in your hair. But the cliffs don’t move and the ground
doesn’t shake. Even though the Earth appears to be a firm foundation beneath your feet, it is a
dynamic planet. Continents slowly shift position; mountains rise and then erode away. These
motions escape casual observation because they are generally slow, although every year
events such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes remind us that geologic change can be
rapid.

THE SCIENCE OF GEOLOGY

THE EARTH AND ITS MATERIALS

The Earth’s radius is about 6370 kilometers, nearly one and a half times the distance from
New York to Los Angeles (figure 1) .If you could drive a magical vehicle from the center of
the Earth to the surface at 100 kilometers per hour, the journey would take more than two and

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a half days. Most of the Earth is composed of rocks. Rock outcrops form some of our
planet’s most spectacular scenery: white chalk cliffs, pink sandstone arches, and the grey
granite of Yosemite Valley. Rocks, in turn, are composed of minerals (Fig. 2). Although more
than 3500 different minerals exist, fewer than a dozen are common. Geologists study the
origins, properties, and compositions of both rocks and minerals. Geologists also explore the
Earth for the resources needed in our technological world: fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum,
and natural gas; mineral resources such as metals; sand and gravel; and fertilizers. Some
search for water in reservoirs beneath Earth’s surface.

BIOSPHERE
All life is concentrated at HYDROSPHERE
or within a few Deep ocean floor ATMOSPHERE
kilometers of 5 km deep. 99% of
the surface Fresh water and atmosphere lies
ice exist on within 30 km
land of the surface

Radius 6370
Earth km

Figure 1 Most of the Earth is solid rock, surrounded by the hydrosphere, the biosphere, and the atmosphere.

Figure 2 This granite rock is composed of different minerals, primarily quartz, feldspar, and hornblende. The mineral
grains are a few millimeters in diameter.

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INTERNAL PROCESSES
Processes that originate deep in the Earth’s interior are called internal processes. These are
the driving forces that raise mountains, cause earthquakes, and produce volcanic eruptions.
Builders, engineers, and city planners might consult geologists, asking, “What is the
probability that an earthquake or a volcanic eruption will damage our city? Is it safe to build
skyscrapers, a dam, or a nuclear waste repository in the area?”

SURFACE PROCESSES
Surface processes are all of those processes that sculpt the Earth’s surface. Most surface
processes are driven by water, although wind, ice, and gravity are also significant. The
hydrosphere includes water in streams, wetlands, lakes, and oceans; in the atmosphere; and
frozen in glaciers. It also includes ground water present in soil and rock to a depth of at least 2
kilometers. Most of us have seen water running over the ground during a heavy rain. The
flowing water dislodges tiny grains of soil and carries them downslope. If the rain continues,
the water may erode tiny gullies into a hillside (Fig. 3). A gully may form in a single
afternoon; over much longer times, the same process forms canyons and spacious river
valleys. People build cities along rivers to take advantage of the flat land, fertile soil, and
abundant water. But the erosion continues. Rivers wear away at their banks and bed and
periodically flood adjacent land. Geologists seek to understand these processes and advise
builders and planners to minimize loss of life and property.
The oceans cover more than 70 percent of our planet. Although oceanography is a separate
scientific discipline, it overlaps with geology. Geologic processes form the ocean basins and
alter their size and shape. Weathering and erosion of continents carry mud, sand, and salts to
the sea. Earth is the only planet in the Solar System that has oceans. It is also the only planet
that supports life. Oceanographers examine the oceans’ influence on climate, the atmosphere,
life, and the solid Earth.

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Figure 3 Over long periods of time, running water can carve deep canyons, such as this of Grand Canyon in
the American southwest.

THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, mostly nitrogen and oxygen (Fig. 4). It is held to the
Earth by gravity and thins rapidly with altitude. Ninety-nine percent is concentrated within 30
kilometers of the Earth’s surface, but a few traces remain even 10,000 kilometers above the
surface. A brief look at our neighbors in space reminds us that the interactions among air,
rock, and life affect atmospheric composition, temperature, and movement. The solid Earth
,,Venus, and Mars are approximately identical in composition. Yet the three planets have
radically different atmospheres and climates. Today, the Venusian atmosphere is hot, acidic,
and rich in carbon dioxide. The surface temperature is 450ºC, as hot as the interior of a self-
cleaning oven, and the atmospheric pressure is 90 times greater than that of the Earth. In
contrast, Mars is frigid, with an atmospheric pressure only 0.006 that at the surface of the
Earth. Venusian water has boiled off into space; almost all Martian water lies frozen in vast
underground reservoirs.

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Figure 4 This storm cloud over Mt. Robson, British Columbia, is a visible portion of the Earth’s atmosphere

THE BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is the thin zone near the Earth’s surface that is inhabited by life. It includes the
uppermost solid Earth, the hydrosphere, and the lower parts of the atmosphere. Land plants
grow on the Earth’s surface, with roots penetrating at most a few meters into soil. Animals
live on the surface, fly a kilometer or two above it, or burrow a few meters underground. Sea
life also concentrates near the ocean surface, where sunlight is available. Some aquatic
communities live on the deep sea floor, bacteria live in rock to depths of a few kilometers, and
a few windblown microorganisms are found at heights of 10 kilometers or more. But even at
these extremes, the biosphere is a very thin layer at the Earth’s surface. Paleontologists are
geologists who study the evolution and history of life by examining fossils and other evidence
preserved in rock and sediment. The study of past life shows us that the solid Earth, the
atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the biosphere are all interconnected. Internal processes such
as volcanic eruptions and migrating continents have altered the Earth’s climate and
atmospheric composition. Life has altered the atmosphere. The atmosphere reacts with rocks.