Chapter 1: Overview of a Computer

Introduction
We live in the information age aided by computers. Modern society depends upon
computers for getting work done. Computers have widespread applications; they are
used in the area of education, medicine, scientific research, entertainment,
government, gaming to name a few. It is difficult to think of places where computers
are not used.

The strength of computers lies in their ability to process large volumes of data at a
high speed. Computers when used in conjunction with communication technology
leads to several powerful applications. Computer technology with communications is
used in online banking, booking tickets on the internet, email, voice and video
chatting. Being computer literate gives you greater career scope and huge financial
incentives.

Computer
It is an electronic machine that can perform computations at a very high speed. It
executes a set of instructions (known as programs) on the data. A computer may be
described as a machine that takes in input, transforms or processes it and then
outputs the result. In brief, it is a machine to read, store, retrieve, display and
process the data.

Characteristics of Computers

Accuracy
Speed

Reliable
Diligence

Computer
Characteristic
s

Automatic

Memory Cost
effective

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 a) Speed
o Faster than humans.
o Performs operations at extremely high speeds as they are electronic
machines
o Processing speed is measured in micro, nano or even picoseconds

b) Memory
o The primary memory is used to hold data and instructions of the
program being executed
o The CPU works on data and instructions available in the main memory
also known as RAM.

c) Storage
o All data and programs are stored permanently here.
o Also known as Auxiliary Storage
o An example of a storage device is a computer hard disk

d) Accuracy
o Being a machine ensures correct output consistently provided the input
data is correct
o Errors are due to humans operating the computer

e) Versatility
o Able to perform a variety of tasks with a high degree of accuracy
o For example accounting, playing games, music composition, research
etc

f) Automatic
o On providing data and instructions computer can process the data
without the need for human intervention
o The instructions are automatically executed in sequence till the final
instruction requiring it to stop

g) Diligent

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 o Being an electronic machine does not suffer from human problems like
boredom.
o Perform millions of operations without compromising accuracy, speed
or getting bored and tired.

h) Cost-Effective
o Its ability for speed, accuracy and large storage capacity reduces the
costs of paperwork and human requirement.
o Capable of doing the tasks requiring many human beings

Common Computer Terminology

Data
o Collection of raw unprocessed facts, statistics like students marks, age, salary
o It can be textual, numeric, images, videos, audio

Information
o Transformed raw data on being processed by a computer leads to information
o Information gives meaning and helps interpret raw data
o Assists in decision making
o For example, the average height of students in a class constitutes information
while the input data could be the height of all students.

Hardware
o Electronic circuitry like the motherboard, keyboard, speakers
o They are physical parts of a computer
o Hardware does work per software instructions

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Bird’s Eye View of PC Hardware
1 Scanner
2 CPU (Microprocessor)
3 Main memory (RAM)
4 Expansion cards
5 Power supply unit
6 Optical disc drive
7 Hard disk drive (HDD)
8 Motherboard
9 Speaker
10 Monitor
11 System software
12 Application software
13 Keyboard
14 Mouse
15 External hard disk
16 Printer

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Software
o Instructions plus data
o Instructions inform what the hardware should do

System Software
o Programs that control and manage hardware operations of a computer and
peripheral devices
o Make the Computer Hardware usable
o Has close interaction with the Computer Hardware
o Can be thought of as software providing services/interface to application
software and the user
o Examples are Operating System, Compilers, Linkers, Loaders

Application Software
o Performs a specific function for the user like word processing, accounting,
web browsing
o Software designed for end-user applications
o Lesser direct interaction with the computer hardware
o Examples are Word, Excel, Tally, web browser among others

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 Functional Units of a Computer / Block Diagram of a Computer

Working of a Computer based on Functional Block Diagram

A computer processes data as per instructions after reading the data and
instructions via the input devices.
devices It stores code and data in secondary storage
devices and retrieves them into RAM for the CPU to process per requirements
requirements. The
processed data is then displayed on output devices for human consumption.
consumption

To
o perform the above operations a computer utilizes the following hardware
component namely, the Input
nput unit, Processing Unit, Output unit and Memory
emory unit
unit.

Input Unit
Input devices that permit entry of data and instructions
instructions. Examples
xamples of input devices
are keyboard, scanner, mouse
use, joystick, microphone etc.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

It is responsible for the execution of instructions,
instructions performing calculations and
decision making. The
he CPU controls and coordinates the actions of the entire

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hardware. The major components of the CPU are the Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU), registers (CPU memory) and the control unit.

Registers
They are the internal storage areas within the CPU. Instructions and data from the
main memory are processed in them.

Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)

ALU has circuitry to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. It is also responsible for performing logical operations like
evaluating whether the conditions are true or false and performing logical operations
(AND, NOR, NOT).

Control Unit
The control unit is responsible for the control and coordination of operations of the
different hardware units. It retrieves instructions from the main memory in proper
sequence and interprets them. After interpreting the instructions it directs the other
units to perform the requisite operations per the instructions. It can be thought of like
a monitor controlling and coordinating the functioning of other units.

Main Memory
This high-speed memory is also known as the primary memory or the Random
Access Memory (RAM). The memory is volatile which means when the power is
turned off all the information is lost. The main memory holds the instructions being
executed plus intermediate data of the program being currently executed.
Information is recorded as binary bits (0, 1).

Secondary Memory
The secondary storage is also known as auxiliary storage. Data/instructions are
transferred to the main memory required by the CPU for processing. The capacity of
the secondary storage is much larger than the primary memory of the RAM. This
memory can hold data and programs permanently.

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Output unit
Computer processes in terms of binary digits. These are not human readable.
The results of the processing are displayed on the output unit for human
consumption. Common examples of output
out devices are a printer, monitor,
monitor and
speaker.

Evolution of Computers
This section is meant to give you an idea about how from counting
ounting using fingers,
sticks, stones and pebbles technology evolved towards modern electronic
computers. The discussion commenc
commences with the Abacus and proceeds to different
mechanical calculation devices leading to the modern digital computer.. It needs to
be noted here that the student is expected to understand the features of these
devices and are not required to have detailed information about their working.
working To
ensure that we remain within the parameters of the syllabus and at the same time
satiate the curiosity of the students
students' additional links are provided for learning more
about these devices.

Abacus

An Abacus (counting frame) is one of the earliest known counting and calculation
tool.. China is credited with the invention of the Abacus. The Abacus uses beads to
perform the basic operation of maths like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
multiplication and
division. The digits are represented by the beads and the chords represent the
position of the decimal digits. The beads
s on the wire chords are used to perform
calculations. To date, Abacus is used widely in schools for teaching basic
calculations and for introduction to maths.

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Napier’s bones
John Napier invented the Napier bones in the year 1614. Napier's bones is an
excellent tool for performing multiplication and finding quotients of numbers. They
were commonly used to perform multiplication of any number by a number between
2 to 9. Napier's bones consist of nine rods one for each digit and a fixed rod for the
number 0. The material for designing the tables could be bones, metal, or it could
even be Ivory. They were used for many years.

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Slide rule

Slide rule invention is credited to British clergyman William Oughtred. It is a basic

mechanical calculator, which was used primarily for Multiplication, Logarithms,
Division, Exponentiation, Trigonometry, nth root but not commonly for addition or
subtraction. It uses two logarithmic scales to perform multiplication and division. The
principle behind the working of the slide rule is on transforming multiplication to
addition and division to subtraction by the principles of logarithms.

Adding Machine Pascaline

It is the first mechanical calculator for adding and subtracting that was commercially
produced and used. Blaise Pascal between the years 1642-1644 is credited with the
invention of the Pascaline. Blaise Pascal designed this adding machine Pascaline to
help his father who was a tax collector to do tax calculations quickly and accurately.
It consists of a box with up to eight dials. The addition was performed by turning the
wheels in a clockwise direction and subtraction in an anti-clockwise direction. The
machine performed multiplication through repeated additions and division through
repeated subtractions. It consisted of several gears and levers to perform the
mathematical operations.

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Leibniz calculator
German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz designed the Leibniz calculator. It was
modified from the Pascaline machine. Again it was a mechanical calculator able to
perform basic mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. A unique feature of the Leibniz calculator was that it used the binary number
system as opposed to the decimal number system used by the adding Pascaline
machine. It was faster in operation compared to the Pascaline.

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Jacquard's loom

A unique feature of the Jacquard Loom was the use of punched wooden cards to
weave patterns on the clothing. The punched cards can be thought of as the first
read-only input source which provided data to generate complex patterns on the
clothing. Jacquard’s Loom was designed by Joseph Jacquard in the year 1801.

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1822 Charles Babbage’s Difference and Analytical Engine
The Difference engine was designed by Charles Babbage as an automatic
calculating machine. It was capable of calculating complex polynomial functions. It
utilised a mathematical principle called the principle of finite differences., hence the
name.

Analytical Engine
It was the first general-purpose mechanical programmable computing engine. The
reason Charles Babbage is also known as the father of computers is primarily due to
the design of the analytical engine that closely resembles a modern computer
design. It could accept input through the punch cards, perform calculations, store
data and instructions and provide printed output.

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Lady Ada Lovelace
She is commonly known as the first person to write a computer algorithm. She is
credited with writing the 1st code for Charles Babbage's analytical engine. Ada
Lovelace predicted that computers of the future shall be able to do things beyond
mathematical operations.

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Hollerith Tabulating Machine
The Hollerith tabulating machine was designed by Herman Hollerith for use in the
census of The United States of America. It read data from the punch cards and then
summarized it using an electromechanical machine. The summarised data was then
output by the Hollerith tabulating machine. Hollerith founded the International
Business Machines (IBM) Company.

Sample Punched Card

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 Hollerith Tabulating Machine

Generations of computers
The historical evolution of computing technology with respect to time is known as
computer generations. Each generation is characterized by a major technological
transformation. Over some time computers have become smaller, powerful, energy-
efficient, faster, reliable, and more affordable

First Generation (1940 - 1956) Vacuum Tubes

In this generation, the circuits were designed using vacuum tubes. Magnetic drums
formed the primary storage. They occupied complete floors. Computers produced a
large amount of heat, were slow, consumed a lot of power, were expensive, and
required frequent maintenance. These machines used machine language for
programming. Computers of this generation were able to tackle one problem at a
time. The input was through punched cards, paper tapes, and output was printouts.
Examples of computers of this generation were ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, IBM-701,
IBM-750.

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ENIAC
This was developed by John Mauchly and J Presper Eckert at the University of
Pennsylvania. ENIAC stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. It is
commonly referred to as the first programmable electronic general-purpose
computing machine. A unique aspect of ENIAC was the design based on the decimal
system. It occupied a space of 50 x 30 feet. A huge cooling facility was required to
keep it operational.

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EDVAC
EDVAC stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer. As opposed to
ENIAC it used a binary system. It was designed based on Von Neuman’s stored-
program concept. John Mauchly and J Presper Eckert improved upon ENIAC
features and developed EDVAC. It had 5.5KB of main memory.

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Second Generation Computers (1956 – 1963) Transistors

In this generation, the circuits were designed using transistors replacing vacuum
tubes. As compared to the first generation machines of this generation were
relatively smaller, faster, and economical, consumed less power, generated less
heat, and were more reliable. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the
primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices. Computers of this generation still used punched cards as a source of input
and printers for generating output. In this generation, assembly language and high-
level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL was used. The computers
used batch processing and multiprogramming operating system. Examples were IBM
1620, IBM 7094, and CDC 1604.

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3rd Generation Computers (1964 - 1971) Integrated Circuits

Transistors, resistors, capacitors were fabricated on IC’s leading to more compact

computers, that were faster, reliable, consumed less power compared to the earlier
generation of computers. Keyboards made an entry as input devices in place of
punched cards. Display monitors were used by the operators as consoles. Operating
systems were extensively used in computing machines. High-level languages like
COBOL, FORTRAN, and ALGOL were widely used. Examples of this particular
generation are IBM 360/370, PDP-10 and Honeywell-6000 series.

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Fourth Generation of Computers (1971 till date) Microprocessors

This generation was characterized by machines built on powerful microprocessors.

The fabrication of circuits using transistors at a very high density was achieved
through Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology. Compared to the prior
generation, machines of this generation were compact, more powerful, reliable and
economical. This generation led to the PC revolution. High-level languages like C,
C++ are used. Powerful and versatile operating systems are features of this
generation. The development of networking and the internet can be traced to this
generation. Examples of machines are DEC 10, STAR 1000, and PDP 11.

5th Generation Machines

These machines can be used for applications in Artificial Intelligence and Robotics.
They possess extremely high computing power. The development of machines is
based on Ultra Large Scale Integration Technology (ULSI) leading to high-density
circuits occupying a very compact place. Hardware exploits parallel processing
technologies and software uses AI techniques. Programs harness the hardware
capabilities and make machines act like human beings through the use of artificial

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intelligence techniques. Natural language processing is one of the major strength of
machines of this generation.

Classification of Computers
Based on the form of data input and the data handling ability, computers may be
grouped as analog computers, digital computers, and hybrid computers

Analog Computers

X-15 simulator analog computer - NASA

These computers process continuously changing phenomena such as electrical and
mechanical signals. Examples of electrical data signals are current, voltage,
resistance. Mechanical data inputs could be pressure, volume, temperature and so
on. The basic principle of these computers is they work on the measurement of
quantities versus counting techniques used by digital computers. They transform
data into measurements and then work on them. They are fast but not as accurate
as digital computers. Analog are special-purpose computers.

Digital Computers
These computers process data represented in the digital form that is in terms of 1s
and 0s. This is also known as the discrete form of data representation. These

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computers are extremely fast in operation, highly accurate compared to analog
computers. The machines are programmable using electronic circuits. Digital
computers are characterized by the use of electronic circuits to read, process, and
store, output the results. They can be general-purpose as well as special-purpose
machines. We are going to talk about basically digital computers or electronic
computer usage in this particular course.

Hybrid Computers
Hybrid computers possess features of digital plus analog computers. They accept
and process data both digitally and using analog input. They are characterized by
the use of analog-to-digital converters and digital-to-analog converters for data
transformation and subsequent processing. Hybrid computers are generally
specialised computers as in the case of patient monitoring or process monitoring in
the case of process control industries. An example of a hybrid computer could be a
patient being monitored in the hospital. The patient's parameters are analog signals
like a heartbeat, blood pressure, temperature and they are processed digitally by
using analog to digital converters. A popular example of a hybrid computer could be
an automated teller machine (ATM).

Classification of Electronic Computers

Computers may be classified based on speed, size and cost.

Micro Computers
Microcomputers are also referred to as personal computers. Typically these
computers have one or two processors. Microcomputers have facility for input,
storage, a processor and output. These can be used by a single user at a time.
Examples are desktops, laptops, notebooks, and smartphones. They are used in
offices, at homes for playing games, watching movies, entertainment and other
purposes.

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Minicomputers

They became available around 1960. They are much larger and more powerful than
a personal computer. They may have two or more processors. Their speed is
generally around 5 million instructions per second (MIPS). They can serve up to
4,000 users. They are generally connected to the users via dumb terminals. The
dumb terminals consist of just the keyboard for input and monitor for output display
to the user. Examples of minicomputers are AS400, VAX 800. They are more
commonly used by small and midsize companies and unlikely to be used by
individuals at homes.

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Mainframe Computers

Mainframes are large computers consisting of several processors. They have a huge
amount of main memory as well as auxiliary storage capacity. Their typical speed is
around 16 billion instructions per second or even more. The users can connect to the
mainframe computers via a dumb terminal or using a personal computer. An
example of Mainframe computers is DEC10, NEC 610. A unique ability of the
mainframe computers is the ability to support multiple tasks of multiple users. Since
they are so fast and powerful each user gets the feeling that the machine is

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completely dedicated to them. These machines are used in very large companies
like large banks, Airlines, and other large corporations. Mainframes are complex and
costly. They could be used in airlines for ticket booking, railway traffic monitoring,
and complex simulations in R&D organizations.

Supercomputers

These are the fastest as compared to Mini, micro or mainframe machines. They
were introduced around 1960 by Seymour Cray at Control Data Corporation (CDC).
They generally span the complete floor. Supercomputers have an extremely large
storage capacity both in terms of the main memory and the auxiliary storage. They
may have hundreds to thousands of processors that can process trillions of
instructions per second. As they are super expensive they are generally used by
government organizations or very large companies. They are used in applications
requiring heavy computing power as in weather forecasting, space research,
defence, complex graphics generation as in movies. Popular examples of a
supercomputer are IBM’s deep blue and Param developed by the Centre for
Development of Advance Computing (CDAC) India.

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Common Applications of Computers
Some of the common applications of computers around us are listed below.

Academic Institutions
In schools and colleges, they are used from student’s enrollment to student
management (fees, attendance) to generation of marks cards and alumni
management.

Banks
Computers at the heart of various operations of banks for example ATM, online
banking, SMS alerts and core operations are managed using banks.

Offices
Modern offices are completely computerised for managing all operations. Some of
the common applications are managing the inventory, accounts, salary generation,
time and attendance, sales and marketing, manufacturing etc.

Stock Market
From the purchase to sale to stock ownership all records are maintained using
computers.

Research and Development

It is hard to visualise research without the aid of computers. They are used for
undertaking complex calculations, large simulations among others.

Media and Entertainment

Software is used for capturing, processing and editing videos and images. In the
news industry, they are used from broadcasting to printing of newspapers using
Desktop Publishing (DTP) software.

Government
Various departments of the government utilise computers to provide services to
citizens. Better and faster service is being provided to the citizens through
automation aided by computers.

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Travel and Tourism
It is hard to imagine the working of tourism industry without computers and
communication. From booking to complete travel management computers are used
in all spheres.

Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

Through the use of Robotics and automation, humans are increasingly being
replaced by computer-aided manufacturing.

Hospitals
From patient records to MRI, CT Scan, Sonography computers find widespread
usage.

***

Acknowledgements

Chapter 1 - Overview of Computers (Content Attributions)

The author would like to most humbly acknowledge the following content providers for the diagrams. Please find the
requisite attributions.

Computer Hardware
Title: A stylized personal computer, with as many parts as possible shown and labelled
Author: User:HereToHelp
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Personal_computer,_exploded_6.svg
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Napiers Bones
Title: Napier's Bones in casing
Author: Felix Winkelnkemper
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Napier%27s_Bones_in_casing.jpg
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license

Slide Rule
Title: Vintage Frederick Post Company 5-Inch Slide Rule
Author: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vintage_Frederick_Post_Company_5-
Inch_Slide_Rule,_Model_1444_Made_In_Japan_(36314445113).jpg
Source: Joe Haupt from USA
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic license

Pascaline
Title: six figures calculating machine by Blaise Pascal without sous or deniers
Author: Rama
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pascaline-CnAM_823-1-IMG_1506-black.jpg
License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 France license.

Leibniz Calculator
Title: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - Rechenmaschine
Author: Eremeev
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rechenmaschine_von_Leibniz_(Nachbau)_04.jpg

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 License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.

Jacquards Loom
Title: Jacquards Loom
Author: David Monniaux
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jacquard_loom_p1040320.jpg
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Babbage - Difference Engine

Title: Babbage Difference engine
Author: Jitze Couperus from Los Altos Hills, California, USA
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Babbage_Difference_Engine_(the_power-supply_end).jpg
License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.

Babbage - Analytical Engine

Title: Babbage Analytical Engine
Author: Science Museum London / Science and Society Picture Library
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Babbages_Analytical_Engine,_1834-1871._(9660574685).jpg
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic license.

Lady Ada Lovelace (Image from Public Domain)

Hollerith Tabulating Machine (In Public Domain)

Title: Replica of early w:Hollerith punched card tabulator and sorting box (right) at w:Computer History Museum
Author: Adam Schuster
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HollerithMachine.CHM.jpg
License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.

First Generation Vacuum Tubes

Title: Phillips 12AX7WA vacuum tube
Author: Jud McCranie
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Philips_12AX7WA_tube.jpg
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.

ENIAC (Public Domain)

EDVAC (Public Domain)

Transistors
Title: Several thru-hole w:transistors.
Author: ArnoldReinhold
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Transistors.agr.jpg
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Integrated Circuits (Public Domain)

Microprocessors (Public Domain)

Desktop Computers (Public Domain)

Analog Computers (Public Domain)

Title: X-15 simulator analog computer
Author:
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:X-15_Analog_computer.jpg
License:

Mini Computers
Title: PDP11/40 as exhibited in Vienna Technical Museum
Author: Stefan_Kögl
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pdp-11-40.jpg
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

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Mainframe Computers (Public Domain)

Super Computers
Title: The IBM Blue Gene/P supercomputer installation at the Argonne Leadership Angela Yang Computing Facility
located in the Argonne National Laboratory, in Lemont, Illinois, USA.
Author: Argonne National Laboratory's Flickr page
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_Blue_Gene_P_supercomputer.jpg
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic license.

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