106 CHAPTER 4 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION ALL Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps instead of 1,000,000 bps. 1,000,000 bits sent 1,001,000 bits received 1000 extra bps Built-in Error Detection It is desirable to have a built-in error-detecting capability in the generated code to detect some of or all the errors that occurred during transmis- sion, Some encoding schemes that we will discuss have this capability to some extent. Immunity to Noise and Interference Another desirable code characteristic is a code that is immune to noise and other interferences. Some encoding schemes that we will discuss have this capability. Complexity A complex scheme is mote costly to implement than a simple one. For ‘example, a scheme that uses four signal levels is more difficult to interpret than one that. uses only two levels. Line Coding Schemes We can roughly divide line coding schemes into five broad categories, as shown in Figure 4.4. Figure 4.4 Line coding schemes Unipolar RZ, RZ, R7, and biphase (Manchester. andl differential Manchester) Bipolar AMT and pseudoternary Muttevel 2I/1Q, 8B Molttsnstion HEEL There are several schemes in each category. We need to be familiar with all schemes discussed in this section to understand the rest of the book. This section can be used as a reference for schemes encountered later, Unipolar Scheme Ina unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either above or below. NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) scheme in which the positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines bit 0. It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit. Figure 4.5 show a unipolar NRZ scheme.SECTION 4.1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION 07 Figure 4.5 Unipolar NRZ scheme Amplitude i Time Notmnalized power Compared with its polar counterpart (see the next section), this scheme is very costly. As we will see shortly, the normalized power (power needed to send | bit per unit line resistance) is double that for polar NRZ. For this reason, this scheme is nor mally not used in data communications today. Polar Schemes In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis. For example, the voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for 1 can be negative, Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ)_ In polar NRZ encoding, we use two levels of voltage amplitude. We can have two versions of polar NRZ: NRZ-L and NRZ-I, as shown in Figure 4.6. The figure also shows the value of 7, the average baud rate, and the band- Width, In the first variation, NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit, In the second variation, NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert), the change or lack of change in the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. If there is no change, the bit is 0; if there isa change, the bit is 1. Orrtototipaya tot ret S28 Nee i re , TT te | fo ie i oa \, Baten nz r $F 4ST ike | Pe dt [°o 7 12 mal (© Nojnversion: Next itis @ Inversion: Next bit is In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value of the bit. Let us compare these two schemes based on the criteria we previously defined. Although baseline wandering is a problem for both variations, it is twice as severe in NRZ-L. If there is a long sequence of Os or Is in NRZ-L, the average signal power108 CHAPTER 4 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION becomes skewed. The receiver might have difficulty discerning the bit value, In NRZ-I this problem occurs only for a long sequence of Os. If somehow we can eliminate the Jong sequence of Os, we can avoid baseline wandering. We will see shortly how this can be done, The synchronization problem (sender and receiver clocks are not synchronized) also exists in both schemes, Again, this problem is more serious in NRZ-L than in NRZ-I. While a long sequence of Os can cause a problem in both schemes, a long sequence of Is affects only NRZ-L. Another problem with NRZ-L occurs when there is a sudden change of polari the system. For example, if twisted-pair cable is the medium, a change in the polarity of the wire results in all Os interpreted as Is and all Is interpreted as 0s. NRZ-I does not have this problem. Both schemes have an average signal rate of N/2 Bd. NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average signal rate of N/2 Bd. Let us discuss the bandwidth. Figure 4.6 also shows the normalized bandwidth for both variations. The vertical axis shows the power density (the power for each | Hz of bandwidth); the horizontal axis shows the frequency. ‘The bandwidth reveals a very serious problem for this type of encoding. The value of the power density is very high around frequencies close to zero. This means that there are DC components that carry a high level of enetgy. Asa matter of fact, most of the energy is concentrated in frequen- cies between 0 and N/2. This means that although the average of the signal rate is N/2, the energy is not distributed evenly between the (wo halves. NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC component problem. Example 4.4 A system is using NRZ-L to transfer 10-Mbps data. What are the average signal rate and mini mum bandwidth? Solution ‘The average signal rate is $= N/2 = 500 kbaud, The minimum bandwidth for this average baud rate i$ By = 5 = 500 KHz, Return to Zero (RZ) ‘The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and receiver clocks are not synchronized. The receiver does not know when one bit has ended and the next bit is starting. One solution is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme, which uses three values: positive, negative, and zero. In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit. In Figure 4.7 we see that the signal goes to 0 in the mid- dle of each bit, It remains there until the beginning of the next bit. The main disadvan- tage of RZ encoding is that it requites two signal changes to encode a bit and therefore occupies greater bandwidth. The same problem we mentioned, a sudden change of polarity resulting in all Os interpreted as 1s and all 1s interpreted as Os, still exist here, bbut there is no Dc component problem. Another problem is the complexity: RZ uses three levels of voltage, which is more complex to create and discern. As a result of all these deficiencies, the scheme is not used today. Instead, it has been replaced by the better-performing Manchester and differential Manchester schemes (discussed next),DIGITAL CONVERSION 109 ure 4.7 Polar RZ.scheme Amplitude Time Oy Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester The idea of RZ (transition at the middle of the bit) and the idea of NRZ-L are combined into the Manchester scheme. In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two halves. The voltage remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other level in the second half. The transition at the middle of the bit provides synchronization. Differential Manchester, on the other hand, combines the ideas of RZ and NRZ-I. There is always a transition at the middle of the bit, but the bit values are determined at the beginning of the bit. If the next bit is 0, there is a transition; if the next bit is 1, there is none. Figure 4.8 shows both Manchester and differential Manchester encoding. Figure 4.8 Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes orrgotorage Li | nserver |] LL ! rm r ire o. : rod ro © No inversion: Next its 1 @ Inversion: Nex itis © In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is used for synchronization. ‘The Manchester scheme overcomes several problems associated with NRZ-L, and differential Manchester overcomes several problems associated with NRZ-I. First, there is no baseline wandering. There is no DC component because each bit has a positive and0 CHAPTER 4 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION negative voltage contribution. The only drawback is the signal rate. ‘The signal rate for Manchester and differential Manchester is double that for NRZ. The reason is that there is always one transition at the middle of the bit and maybe one transition at the end of each bit. Figure 4.8 shows both Manchester and differential Manchester encoding schemes. Note that Manchester and differential Manchester schemes are also called biphase schemes. ‘The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is 2 times that of NRZ. Bipolar Schemes In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there arc three voltage lev- els: positive, negative, and zero. The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage level for the other element alternates between positive and negative. In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: positive, zero, and negative. AML and Pseudoternary Figure 4.9 shows two variations of bipolar encoding: AMI and pseudoternary. A common bipolar encoding scheme is called bipolar alternate mark inversion (AMID). In the term alternate mark inversion, the word mark comes from telegraphy and means 1. So AMI means alternate | inversion. A neutral zero volt- age represents binary 0. Binary 1s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages, A variation of AMI encoding is called pseudoternary in which the I bit is encoded as a zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as alternating positive and negative voltages. Figure 4.9 Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary Anolis opr popoyarie: a an ee a Presdoeay ' Po : 1 I Time i T 73 ‘The bipolar scheme was developed as an alternative to NRZ. The bipolar scheme has the same signal rate as NRZ, but there is no DC component. The NRZ scheme has most of its energy concentrated near zero frequency, which makes it unsuitable for transmission over channels with poor performance around this frequency. The concen- tration of the energy in bipolar encoding is around frequency N/2. Figure 4.9 shows the typical energy concentration for a bipolar scheme,