Unit

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NATURE OF METACOGNITION

Overview
Metacognition is such a high - sounding word that some people may be confused. In this first part of the
module, you will learn the definition of metacognition, its types and its components. This also includes the skills
in metacognition and strategies in improving one’s metacognition. You will also find out that metacognition is
not complicated and in fact, we are doing this in our daily living.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. Explain what metacognition is;

2. Differentiate a novice from an expert leaner; and

3. Apply the metacognitive strategies in your own quest tor learning.

Expanding Your Knowledge

2.1 Definition of Metacognition.

The term “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. It refers to higher order thinking which
involves active awareness and control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. Simply put,
metacognition is “thinking about thinking” or “learning how to learn”.

Metacognition refers to one's awareness of and ability to regulate one's own thinking. Some everyday
examples of metacognition include:

o awareness that you have difficulty remembering people's names in social situations
o reminding yourself that you should try to remember the name of a person you just met
o realizing that you know an answer to a question but simply can't recall it at the moment
o realizing that you should review an article you read last week because you have forgotten many of
the key points
o realizing that there is something wrong with your solution to a problem

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 These types of mental events are common for all of us. Metacognition may not seem to be an especially
important skill until you consider how central it is to effective learning. For example, research demonstrates
that good readers monitor their comprehension as they read and poor readers do not. Specifically, good
readers notice when they don't understand something and then do something about it (e.g., re-read, stop and
think it through, take note that something doesn't make sense and decide to come back to it later, ask a
question about it, etc). Good readers are strategic, and it is metacognitive skill that makes them so. Weak
readers fail to monitor their understanding. Some studies show that weak readers simply plow through a
reading from beginning to end with little recognition of what made sense and what didn't.

So, metacognition is like an internal guide that notices when your attention wanes, when your
comprehension and memory fail or succeed, when your thinking is faulty, when you haven't learned
something, and so forth. And, the internal guide takes action, whether that involves refocusing attention,
re-reading, mulling over an idea, asking questions, or other mental moves to deal more effectively with the
situation. Metacognition makes you smarter--or at least better able to take advantage of your abilities.
Fortunately, students can improve their metacognitive skills and teachers can help them do so, like the
elementary school teacher who always admonished the class to, "check your work!"

There are two types of learners mention in metacognition. Expert learners employed metacognitive
strategies in learning. They were more aware of their leaning process as they read, studied and did problem
solving. Expert learners monitored their learning and consequently adjusted their strategies to make
learning more effective

The table below shows the difference between a novice learner and an expert learner.

Difference between Novice and Expert Learners

Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners

Knowledge in different subject Have limited knowledge in the Have deeper knowledge in
areas different subject areas different subject areas because
areas they look for
interrelationships in the things
they learn

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 Problem Solving Satisfied at just scratching the First try to understand the
surface; Hurriedly gives solution problem, look for boundaries
to the problem and create a mental picture of
the problem

Learning/ Thinking Strategies Employ rigid strategies that may Design new strategies that
not be appropriate to the task at would be appropriate to the task
hand
Selectivity in the processing Attempt to process all Select important information to
information they receive process; Able to breakdown
information to manageable
chunks
Production of output Do not examine the quality of Check the errors and redirect
their work, nor stop to make their efforts to maintain quality
revisions output

2.2 Components and Types of Metacognition

Components of Metacognition
Metacognition is classified as having three components – (1) Metacognitive knowledge, (2)
Metacognitive regulation, and (3) Metacognitive experiences. Metacognitive knowledge refers to the
awareness individuals possess about themselves and other people as cognitive processors. Metacognitive
regulation, on the other hand, has to do with people’s control over cognition and learning experiences
through a set of methods that help people regulate their learning while metacognitive experiences involve
cognitive efforts that are currently taking place.

Types of Metacognitive Knowledge

Aside from these three components, metacognition also has three different types of metacognitive
knowledge – (1) Declarative knowledge, (2) Procedural knowledge, and (3) Conditional knowledge.

DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE

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• The factual knowledge the learner needs before being able to process or use critical thinking related to
the topic
• Knowing about, what, or that
• Knowledge of one’s skills, intellectual resources, and abilities as a learner
• Students can obtain knowledge through presentations, demonstrations, discussions

PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE
• The application of knowledge for the purposes of completing a procedure or process
• Knowledge about how to implement learning procedures (e.g., strategies)
• Requires students know the process as well as when to apply process in various situations
• Students can obtain knowledge through discovery, cooperative learning, and problem solving

CONDITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
• The determination under what circumstances specific processes or skills should transfer
• Knowledge about when and why to use learning procedures
• Application of declarative and procedural knowledge with certain conditions presented
• Students can obtain knowledge through simulation

2.3 Essential Skills for Metacognition

Metacognition pertains to the knowledge and skills for organizing, guiding, and controlling one’s
own thinking, actions, and learning processes.
It concerns the skills for the following:

1. Task orientation (what am I to do?)

2. Goal setting (what am I to achieve?)

3. Planning (how do I reach that goal?)

4. A systematical approach (step-by-step)

5. Monitoring oneself during task execution (am I not making mistakes, do I understand all of it?)

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6. Evaluating the outcome (is the answer correct?)

7. Reflection (what can I learn from this episode?).

Metacognitive skills can be trained, provided that…

1. Metacognitive instructions should be integrated with a learning task in order to be successful. By

applying metacognitive skill to a concrete learning task, students are informed of What to do When and
How. Therefore, separate study-skill lessons do not make sense.

2. Students should be explicitly informed about the benefits of metacognitive activities in order to make
them exert the extra effort required for these activities. This concerns the Why of metacognitive skills.
Students are especially sensitive to concrete arguments of gaining time, making fewer errors, and obtaining
higher marks.

3. Metacognitive instruction should be given over a prolonged period of time to bring about (enduring)
effects. Practice makes perfect.

2.4 Ways to develop metacognitive skills

1. Set Yourself Great Goals – goals should be both challenging and realistic. Other tips for effective goals
include setting short and long term ones, focusing more on skill development and considering potential
obstacles. If you know what obstacles may come your way, you will be better equipped to overcome them
when the time comes.

2. Ask Yourself Good Questions – By asking yourself psychologically smart questions, you are forced to
think deeply about both the task at hand and the best ways to proceed. Some examples of these questions
include ‘is this similar to previous tasks?’, ‘what should I do first?’ and ‘what would I do differently next
time?’

3. Prepare Properly – There is a story about a woodman that captures the essence and importance of
preparation perfectly:

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A woodsman was once asked, “What would you do if you had just five minutes to chop down a tree?” He
answered, “I would spend the first two and a half minutes sharpening my axe.”

As Alexander Pope wrote in his 1711 poem, An Essay of Criticism, ‘fools rush in where angels fear to tread’
- a few minutes spent in preparation can lead to hours saved later on.

4. Monitor Your Performance – Don’t wait until the end to see how you are doing. This is a common
mistake that many novices do whilst trying to complete a task. Being able to monitor your performance as
you go along and ‘checking in’ on how you are doing is an important metacognitive skill.

5. Seek Out Feedback and Then Use It – Many people make a number of mistakes when asking for
feedback. This includes leaving it to the last minute, only asking ‘is this ok?’ (instead of 'how can I improve
this?’) and asking multiple questions at once. Once you have the feedback, you have to use it. Feedback
that has been sought but not actioned is a wasted opportunity.

6. Keep a Diary – By keeping a diary of what you did, what you were thinking and how you felt, students
will begin to build their self-awareness and develop their metacognitive skills. This may not come easy to
some at first, but after a while, quickly becomes habit.

2.5 7 Strategies That Improve Metacognition

1. Teach students how their brains are wired for growth.

The beliefs that students adopt about learning and their own brains will affect their
performance. Research shows that when students develop a growth mindset vs. a fixed mindset,
they are more likely to engage in reflective thinking about how they learn and grow. Teaching
kids about the science of metacognition can be an empowering tool, helping students to
understand how they can literally grow their own brains.

2. Give students practice recognizing what they don't understand.

The act of being confused and identifying one's lack of understanding is an important
part of developing self-awareness. Take time at the end of a challenging class to ask, "What
was most confusing about the material we explored today?" This not only ju mpstarts
metacognitive processing, but also creates a classroom culture that acknowledges confusion as
an integral part of learning.

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3. Provide opportunities to reflect on coursework.
Higher-order thinking skills are fostered as students learn to recogniz e their own
cognitive growth. Questions that help this process might include:
• Before this course, I thought earthquakes were caused by _______. Now I understand them to
be the result of _______.
• How has my thinking about greenhouse gases changed since taking this course?

4. Have students keep learning journals.

One way to help students monitor their own thinking is through the use of personal
learning journals. Assign weekly questions that help students reflect on how rather
than what they learned. Questions might include:
• What was easiest for me to learn this week? Why?
• What was most challenging for me to learn? Why?
• What study strategies worked well as I prepared for my exam?
• What strategies for exam preparation didn't work well? What will I do differently next time?
• What study habits worked best for me? How?
• What study habit will I try or improve upon next week?
Encourage creative expression through whatever journal formats work best for learners,
including mind maps, blogs, wikis, diaries, lists, e -tools, etc.

5. Use a "wrapper" to increase students' monitoring skills.

A "wrapper" is a short intervention that surrounds an existing activity and integrates a
metacognitive practice. Before a lecture, for example, give a few tips about active listening.
Following the lecture, ask students to write down three key ideas from the lecture. Afterward,
share what you believe to be the three key ideas and ask students to self-check how closely
theirs matched your intended goals. When used often, this activity not on ly increases learning,
but also improves metacognitive monitoring skills.

6. Consider essay vs. multiple-choice exams.

Research shows that students use lower-level thinking skills to prepare for multiple-
choice exams, and higher-level metacognitive skills to prepare for essay exams. While it is

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less time consuming to grade multiple-choice questions, even the addition of several short
essay questions can improve the way students reflect on their learning to prepare for test taking.

7. Facilitate reflexive thinking.

Reflexivity is the metacognitive process of becoming aware of our biase s -- prejudices
that get in the way of healthy development. Teachers can create a classroom culture for deeper
learning and reflexivity by encouraging dialogue that challenges human and societal biases.
When students engage in conversations or write essays on b iases and moral dilemmas related
to politics, wealth, racism, poverty, justice, liberty, etc., they learn to "think about their own
thinking." They begin to challenge their own biases and become more flexible and adaptive
thinkers.

Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI)

Think of yourself as a learner. Read each statement carefully. Consider if the statement is true or
false as it generally applies to you when you are in the role of a learner (student, attending classes, university
etc.)

Unit
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
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Overview
The educational system nowadays has been brought out by various researches on how to be an effective
and efficient educator and facilitator of learning. In this part of the module, you will learn the salient concepts
of major development theories and helps you connect these principles to learning.
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Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. Explain the salient concepts and principles of the major development theories; and

2. Apply these theories to teaching learning situations.

Expanding Your Knowledge

4.1 PERSONALITY THEORY (Psyche Model) BY SIGMUND FREUD

Sigmund Freud's work and theories helped shape our views of childhood, personality, memory,
sexuality, and therapy. Other major thinkers have contributed work that grew out of Freud's legacy, while
others developed new theories out of opposition to his ideas. He proposed that personality was made up of
three key elements, the id, the ego, and the superego.

Freud explained his theory by viewing the conscious, preconscious, and the unconscious as an
iceberg. He describes the preconscious and the unconscious as a “harmony of psychoid” and the conscious
as “resting on perception of the most immediate and certain” (Freud 1962). The unconscious is under the
water, the preconscious is in the middle, and the conscious is on top of the water. How the tip of an iceberg
shows little ice, the ego, it’s the part under the water that contains the sum of the berg’s mass, the id (Shakow
1964).

ID - primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the inherited (i.e., biological)
components of personality present at birth, including the sex (life) instinct. Eros which contains the libido
and the aggressive (death) instinct – Thanatos. The ID is impulsive (and unconscious) part of our Psyche
which responds directly and immediately to the instinct. The personality of the newborn child is all id and
only late does it develop an ego and superego. It also operates on the pleasure principles which is the idea
that every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences. When the ID
achieves its demands, we experience pleasure when it is denied we experience “unpleasure” or “tension”.

EGO – develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world. It is the decision- making
component of personality. Ideally, the ego works by reason, whereas the id is chaotic and unreasonable.

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The Ego operates according to the reality principle, working out realistic ways of satisfying the id’s
demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. The
Ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave. Like the ID, the
Ego seeks pleasure and avoids pain, but unlike ID, the Ego is concerned with devising a realistic strategy
to obtain pleasure. The Ego has no concept of right or wrong; something is good simply if it achieves its
end of satisfying without causing harm to itself or the ID.

SUPER EGO – incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one’s parents and
others. It develops around the age of 3 – 5 during the phallic stage of Psychosexual development. Its
function is to control the id’s impulses, especially those which society forbids, such as sex and aggression.
It also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones
and to strive for perfection. It consists of two systems: the CONSCIENCE and the IDEAL SELF. The
CONSCIENCE can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt. For example, if the Ego gives in to
the Id’s demands, the superego may make the person feel bad through guilt. The IDEAL SELF is an
imaginary picture of how you ought to be, and represents career aspirations, how to treat other people, and
how to behave as a member of society.

4.2 PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY BY SIGMUND FREUD

In Freudian psychology, psychosexual development is a central element of the psychoanalytic

sexual drive theory that human beings from birth possess an instinctual libido that develops in five stages.

Freud(1905) proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place in a series of fixed
psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

Freud believed in the five stages the he explained as the psychosexual stages of development. These
are stage a child goes through with different sexual urges happening at each different stage.

Oral Stage (0-1 year old)- child drives pleasure from oral activities such as sucking and tasting. Successful
fulfillment of the infants feeding needs and proper weaning may result in the establishment of trust.

Anal Stage (2-3yrs old)- the main source of gratification is the ability to control bladder movement and the
elimination or retention of feces. A positive and appropriate experience revolving around toilet training.

Phallic Stage (3-6yrs old)- The focus of pleasure is the genitals. Boys start to perceive their fathers as a
rivals for their mothers affections while girls feel similarly toward their mother.

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Latency Period (6yrs to puberty)- At this stage, sexual urges are repressed and the individuals spends most
of his time interacting with same sex peers engaging in hobbies and acquiring skills.

Genital Stage (puberty onward)- focus is on the sexual urges that are reawakened and are directed toward
opposite sex peers, with genitals as the primary source of pleasure. Individuals who completed the earlier
stages successfully become well-adjusted, caring and secure individuals.

4.3. STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT BY ERIK ERICKSONS

Trust vs. Mistrust (From birth to 12 months of age) - Infants must learn that adults can be trusted. Infants
are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs
help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place.
Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety , fear, and
mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable and they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust
for people in the world.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (Ages 1–3 years) - Begin to explore their world, they learn that they can
control their actions and act on their environment to get results. The child s developing physically and
becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on
clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. During this stage children begin to assert their independence, by
walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like
to wear, to eat, etc.

Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 years old) - Children are capable of initiating activities and asserting control
over their world through social interactions and play. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility,
occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These
children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Children begin to plan activities, make
up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative
and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.

Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 yrs old) - Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see
how they measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home
or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood. They are learning to
read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s
life as they teach the child specific skills. It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater
significance and will become a major source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win

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approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense
of pride in their accomplishments. If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin
to feel industrious (competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not
encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own
abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential.

Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 18 yrs old) - Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?”
and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to
see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult”
selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain
true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people’s perspectives. According to Bee
(1902), what should happen at the end of this stage is a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do
or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role. During this stage the body image of the adolescent changes. Erikson
claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt and
grow into the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of FIDELITY. FIDELITY involves being
able to commit one’s self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological
differences. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society (I don’t know what I want to be when I
grow up) can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves
or their place in a society.

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early adulthood, 20s through early 40s) - After we have developed a sense of
self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been
successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships
with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate
relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of
loneliness and emotional isolation. Successful completion of this stage can result in a happy relationships
and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment
and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead
to the virtue of love.

Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 to mid 60’s) - When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as
middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and
contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising
children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through
childbirth and caring for others, they also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes
positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they

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are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way, they may have little connection with others and
little interest in productivity and self-improvement. Generativity refers to “Making your Mark” on the world
through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. Through generativity we develop a sense
of being a part of the bigger picture. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while
failure results in shallow involvement in the world. By failing to find a way to contribute, we become
stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their
community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of “care”.

Integrity vs. Despair (60’s up until death) - We are in the period of development known as late adulthood.
Erickson said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a
sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look
back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if
their life has been wasted. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and
despair. Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilty about our past, or feel that we
did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to
depression and hopelessness. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of “wisdom”. Wisdom enables a
person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without
fear.

4.4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT BY JEAN PIAGET

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years) - The infant knows the world through their movements and
sensation. Children learn about the world through basic actions such grasping, looking and listening. Infants
learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot seen. They are separate beings from the people
and objects around them. They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around
them

Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 7 years) - Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words
and pictures to represent objects. Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from
the perspective of others. They are getting better with language and thinking.

Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 years) - During this stage, children begin to thinking logically
about concrete events. Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle.

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Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 years and up) - At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins
to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems. Abstract thought emerges. Teens begin to think
more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract
reasoning. Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.

4.5 STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT BY LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

Level 1: Preconventional - Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally
controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A child
with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is
right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation - Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey

rules and avoid being punished. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the
perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived
to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation - Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in
which right behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage
two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further
the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic
respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality. An example would be
when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the
parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.

Level 2: Conventional - Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal
and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to
their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and
conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom
questioned.

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation - In stage 3, children want the approval of others and
act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to
others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation - In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention
because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same

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 for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and
important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in
stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and
a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where
morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Postconventional - Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined
in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should
be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities
from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-
conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic
human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than
absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their
own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can
sometimes be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that
many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation - In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different

opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each
person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do
not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for
the greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable
compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation - In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on

abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract
rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only
insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to
disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate
those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally right to do
so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected,
it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found
it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.

4.6 SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY BY LEV VYGOTSKY

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 Sociocultural theory is an emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important contributions
that society makes to individual development.

Basic Principles

1. Mental development centers around knowledge.

2. Development is led by learning.

3. Development cannot be separated from social contexts.

4. Children create their knowledge.

Three major theme of Socio-Cultural

1. Social interaction is the key fundamental role in the progression of cognitive development.

2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO describes anyone who has more experience
or improved thinking and comprehension levels than what the learner does.

3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is meant to identify each child’s readiness
to benefit from instructive learning. It contains two features:

Two Features of Zone Proximal Development

SUBJECTIVITY

▪ Describes the process when two individuals begin a task with different understanding and finish
with a shared understanding.

SCAFFOLDING-

▪ Change in social support over the course of a teaching lesson. The adults adjusts his or her level to
help in response to the child’s level of performance.

4.7 BIO-ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY BY URIE BRONFENBRENNER

This theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner identifies five environmental systems with which an individual
interacts.

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1. MICROSYSTEM - the system closest to the person and the one in which they have direct contact.
Example: one’s family, school, peers and neighborhood.

2. MESOSYSTEM - the interactions between the different parts of a person’s microsystem. Example:
Interactions between the parents and teachers

3. EXOSYSTEM - a setting that does not involve the person as an active participant, but still affects them.
Example: work place, mass media, city government

4. MACROSYSTEM - the cultural environment in which the person lives and all other systems that affect
them. Example: Socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and poverty

5. CHRONOSYSTEM - refers to life changes and transitions that will affect young people over time.
These changes can be ones that affect microsystem or the macrosystem. Example: The death of a parent
and a family through a divorce.

References:

Lucas, et al; 2014, Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process. Lorimar Publishing Incorporated.

Unit
3
STUDENT DIVERSITY

Overview
I know that most of you heard someone says “Everyone is Unique” and cannot ignore that it is the truth
that each of us is diverse in our own way, our attitude, personality, beliefs or even lifestyle. In this part of the
module, you will learn the different learning styles of students and the classification of intelligences. This also
includes discussion about learners with exceptionalities.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. Identify the different factors that bring about diversity in the classroom;
2. Demonstrate a positive attitude towards diversity as an enriching element in the learning environment;
3. Come up with the teaching strategies that consider students’ diversity;
4. Describe the different learning/thinking styles and multiple intelligences;
5. Describe the basic categories of exceptional learners;

17
6. Distinguish the terms disability and Handicap; and
7. Use people-first language in addressing a person with disability.

Expanding Your Knowledge

5.1 Individual Differences

Factors that bring about Student Diversity

1. Socioeconomic Status – the millionaires’ lifestyle differs from that of the
middle income or lower income group.
2. Thinking/Learning Style – some of you learn better by seeing something;
others by just listening; and still others by manipulating something.
3. Exceptionalities – in class there maybe one who has difficulty in spoken language comprehension or in
seeing, hearing, etc.

How Student Diversity enriches the Learning Module

1. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity – exposing students to others with diverse

backgrounds and experiences also serves to help students focus on their awareness of themselves. When
they see how others are different, students are given reference points or comparative perspectives which
sharpen assessment of their own attitudes, values, and behaviors.

2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development – the opportunity to gain access to the
perspectives of peers and to learn from other students, rather than the instructor only, may be especially
important for promoting the cognitive development of learners. As the German philosopher, Nietzsche, said
over 100 years ago: “The more affects we allow to speak about one thing, the more eyes, different eyes we
can use to observe one thing, the more complete will our concept of this thing, our objectivity be.”

3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of society – Suzanne
Morse stresses one competency that has strong implications for instructional strategies that capitalize on
diversity: “ The capacity to imagine situations or problems from all perspectives and to appreciate all
aspects of diversity.” Furthermore, she argues: “The classroom can provide more than just theory given by
the teacher in a lecture. With student diversity, the classroom becomes a ‘public place’ where community
can be practiced.”

18
4. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is integrated into the classroom
teaching and learning process, it can become a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relations. Through
student-centered teaching strategies, diverse students can be encouraged to interact and collaborate with
one another on learning tasks that emphasize unity of effort while capitalizing on their diversity of
backgrounds.

Tips on Student Diversity

1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’ multicultural and cross-cultural
awareness.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group differences.
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups.
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning styles.
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts that are relevant
to students from diverse backgrounds.
7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them personal choice and
decision-making opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they will learn it.
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds. You can form groups of
students with different learning styles, different cultural background, etc.

5.2 Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences

Learning /Thinking Styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes information. They
describe a person’s typical mode of thinking, remembering, or problem solving. Furthermore, styles are
usually considered to be bipolar dimensions.
There are several perspectives about learning-thinking styles. Sensory Preferences and Global-
Analytic Continuum.
1. Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory input and maintain
a dominance in one of the following types:
A. Visual Learners. These learners must see their teachers’ actions and facial expressions to fully
understand the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting in front so no one would block their view.
They may think in pictures and learn best from visual aids including: diagrams, illustrated text books,
projectors, videos and handouts.
Visual-Iconic. Those who prefer this form of input are more interested in visual imagery such as
film, graphic displays, or pictures in order to solidify learning. They usually have a good “picture memory”.

19
 Visual-Symbolic. Those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable with abstract symbolism
such as mathematical formulae or the written word. They tend to be good abstract thinkers who do not
require practical means for learning.
B. Auditory Learners. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through
and listening to what others have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech
through listening to otne of voice, pitch, speed, and other nuances.
Listeners. Most likely do well in school. Out of school too, they remember things said to them and
make the information their own. They may even carry on mental conversations and figure out how to extend
what they learned by reviewing in their heads what they heard other say.
Talkers. They are the ones who prefer to talk and discuss. They often find themselves talking to
those around them. They often find themselves talking to those around them. In a class setting when the
instructor is not asking questions, auditory-verbal processors (talkers) tend to whisper comments to
themselves. They are not trying to be disruptive and may not even realize they need to talk
C. Tactile/Kinesthetics Learners. Benefit much from a hands-on approach, actively exploring the
physical world around them. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods. They may not benefit so
much from the discussion or the written materials and may become distracted by their need for activity and
exploration. They tend to prefer learning by doing.

2. Global/Analytic Continuum
A. Global. Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see the whole pattern rather
than particle elements. They are the “forest seers” who give attention only to the overall structure and
sometimes ignore details.
B. Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend towards the linear, step-by step processes of learning. They
tend to see finite elements of patterns rather than the whole; they are the “tree seers”. They are more
comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies of information.

HOWARD GARDNER'S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

The theory proposes that "we are all able to know the world through language, logical-
mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to
make things, an understanding of other individuals and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals
differ is in the strength of these intelligences and the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and
combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems and progress in various domains.

20
Gardner claims that all human beings have multiple intelligences. These multiple intelligences can be
nurtured and strengthened or ignored and weakened. His research from 1991 identified seven intelligences;
in the intervening time, he has come to believe there are a total of nine intelligences:

• Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds,

meanings and rhythms of words.
• Mathematical-Logical Intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and the
capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns.
• Musical Intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timbre.
• Visual-Spatial Intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately
and abstractly.
• Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: The ability to control one's body movements and to handle
objects skillfully.
• Interpersonal Intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
motivations and desires of others.
• Intrapersonal Intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values,
beliefs and thinking processes.
• Naturalist Intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects
in nature.
• Existential Intelligence: The sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human
existence, such as the meaning of life, why we die and how we got here.
While all people possess some level of each intelligence, most will experience more dominant intelligences
which impact the way they learn and interact with the world around them.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND LEARNING STYLES

Some may find it an impossible task to teach to all learning styles. However, teachers are using
multimedia, so it is becoming easier. As teachers begin to understand learning styles more effectively, it is
clear why multimedia is good for all learners and why a variety of media is more effective. Multimedia
inherently speaks to the different types of learning preferences that one person has and has the potential to
impart knowledge to a diverse class or group.
There are specific modes of multimedia and instruction techniques, which include the following:

• Visuals: Visual media help students acquire concrete concepts, such as object identification, spatial
relationship or motor skills.

21
 • Printed words: While the printed word is the most common method of dispensing information,
some argue that audio is superior.
• Sound: Sound media offer a stimulus for sound recognition or recall. Audio narration is a useful
tool for students who struggle with reading.
• Motion: Motion depicts human performance so that learners can copy the movement. This
kinesthetic method can be essential for understanding some subject matter.
• Color: Choices on color display are required if it is essential to what is being learned (such as, the
sky is blue).
• Realia: Realia teaches cognitive and motor skills with objects. Realia can be used with individuals
or groups, depending on the situation. Realia may be used to present information realistically, or
with the way learners internalize information.
• Instructional Setting: Design must include what materials are being used, as well as the
environment in which it is to be taught. Printed materials should be individualized to allow the
learner to set the pace.
• Learner Characteristics: Teaching models must consider learner characteristics, as media may
be interpreted in various ways by different learners. Research has not provided definitive methods
in matching the media most suitable for types of learners.
• Reading ability: Pictures aid learning for poor readers who understand spoken words rather than
printed words; good readers can control the pace, and print allows for easier review.
• Categories of Learning Outcomes: Categories ranged from three to eleven and most include some
or all of Gagne's (1977) learning categories: intellectual skills, motor skills, verbal information,
overall attitudes and use of cognitive strategies.
• Events of Instruction: Teachers have to choose the external events which support internal learning
with events of instruction. This occurs in the planning stage and before selection of appropriate
media.
• Performance: It is important for students to perform tasks that demonstrate learning and retention.
The elicited performances can be categorized by type: covert, overt, motor, verbal, constructed and
select. Media should be selected to correspond with the desired outcome.

5.3 Learners with Exceptionalities

Educators at all levels refer to special needs students as those with exceptionalities. In general,
exceptionalities fall in six broad categories:
Most educators prefer not to use the term handicapped because of its negative implications. You'll more
often see terms like challenged and exceptionality—both of which have more positive implications.

22
Categories of Exceptionality and Definitions
1. Learning Disorder. A learning disorder characterized by specific behaviour problems over such a period
of time, and to such a marked degree, and of such a nature, as to adversely affect educational performance
and that may be accompanied by one or more of the following:
(a) Inability to build or maintain interpersonal relationships
(b) Excessive fears or anxieties
(c) Tendency to compulsive reaction
(d) The inability to learn which cannot be traced to intellectual, sensory, or other health factors, or any
combination thereof

2. AUTISM. A severe learning disorder that is characterized by:

a) disturbances in: rate of educational development ability to relate to the environment mobility perception,
speech, and language.
b) lack of representational symbolic behaviour that precedes language

3. DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING. An impairment characterized by deficits in language and speech
development because of a diminished or non-existent auditory response to sound.

4. LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT. A learning disorder characterized by an impairment in comprehension

and/or use of verbal communication or the written or other symbol system of communication, which may
be associated with neurological, psychological, physical, or sensory factors, and which may:
a) Involve one or more of the form, content, and function of language in communication
b) Include one or more of the following: • Language delay • Dysfluency • Voice and articulation
development which may or may not be organically or functionally based

5. SPEECH IMPAIRMENT. A disorder in language formulation that may be associated with

neurological, psychological, physical, or sensory factors, that involves perceptual motor aspects of
transmitting oral messages, and that may be characterized by impairment in articulation, rhythm, and stress.

6. LEARNING DISABILITY. A learning disorder evident in both academic and social situations that
involves one or more of the processes necessary for the proper use of spoken language or the symbols of
communication, and that is characterized by a condition that:

23
a) is not primarily the result of: • impairment of vision; • impairment of hearing; • physical disability; •
primary emotional disturbance; • cultural difference; • developmental disability and
b) results in a significant discrepancy between academic achievement and assessed intellectual ability, with
deficits in one or more of the following: • receptive language (listening, reading); • language processing
(thinking, conceptualizing, integrating); • expressive language (talking, spelling, writing); • mathematical
computations;
c) may be associated with one or more conditions diagnosed as: • a perceptual handicap; • a brain injury; •
minimal brain dysfunction; • dyslexia; • developmental aphasia;

7. GIFTEDNESS. An unusually advanced degree of general intellectual ability that requires differentiated
learning experiences of a depth and breadth beyond those normally provided in the regular school program
to satisfy the level of educational potential indicated.

8. MILD INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY. A learning disorder characterized by:

a) an ability to profit educationally within a regular class with the aid of considerable curriculum
modification and supportive service;
b) an inability to profit educationally within a regular class because of slow intellectual development;
c) a potential for academic learning, independent social adjustment and economic selfsupport.

9. DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITY. A severe learning disorder characterized by:

a) an inability to profit from a special education program for students with mild intellectual disabilities
because of slow intellectual development
b) an ability to profit from a special education program that is designed to accommodate slow intellectual
development
c) a limited potential for academic learning, independent social adjustment, and economic self-support

10. PHYSICAL DISABILITY. A condition of such severe physical limitation or deficiency as to require
special assistance in learning situations to provide the opportunity for educational achievement equivalent
to that of pupils without exceptionalities who are of the same age or developmental level.

11. BLIND AND LOW VISION. A condition of partial or total impairment of sight or vision that even
with correction affects educational performance adversely.

24
12. MULTIPLE EXCEPTIONALITIES. A combination of learning or other disorders, impairments, or
physical disabilities, that is of such nature as to require, for educational achievement, the services of one or
more teachers holding qualifications in special education and the provision of support services appropriate
for such disorders, impairments, or disabilities.
Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it has been estimated that between 10 and 13 percent of the school-
age population has exceptionalities. Thus, in an average-size classroom of 25 students, it is conceivable that
3 or 4 individuals will exhibit one or more exceptionalities.

Tips on how to incorporate exceptional students into your classroom

Students (and even some teachers) may view the extra attention special needs students receive as
unfair. However, according to long-time special education teacher Deb Watkins, “Fairness isn't about
treating everyone the same; it's giving everyone what they need.”
It is quite likely that you will have a diversity of students in your classroom—representing a variety of
talents and abilities. With this in mind, I suggest some generalized strategies for you to consider as you
work with all special needs students:
• Be aware that special needs students may not want to be singled out for any special treatment. To
do so may identify their disability for other students and cause them to receive some form of
attention they may not be able to handle.
• Ensure that your attitude and responses to special needs students are identical to those to other
students. View all students as contributing students.
• Consider learning over a long period of time. Special needs students may require extended periods
of time to master a concept or learn a specific skill. You may need to repeat information several
times and reinforce it in many ways.
• It is quite easy to fall into the trap of focusing on the weaknesses of special needs students. Yet it
is vitally important that you be aware of and seek to identify the individual strengths of each and
every student in your classroom.
• Help students understand that grading, evaluation, and assessment is based on identifiable
objectives in accordance with individual potential. Evaluation should not be coupled with the
limitations of students but rather to their expectations.
• Provide significant opportunities for students of all abilities to learn from each other. Structure
a variety of learning activities in which the social climate of the classroom is both promoted and
enhanced. It is important that everyone feels like he or she is contributing.
• Do not make inappropriate assumptions based on students' exceptionalities. For example, don't
assume that a student who is confined to a wheelchair is an unhappy child. Don't assume that a

25
 learning-disabled student is not gifted in the visual arts. Also, don't assume that children with
disabilities are disabled in all areas.

People-First Language

This language trend involves putting the person first, not the disability. It tells us what conditions

people have, not what they are (Schielfelbusch Institute, 1996). This is similar to saying “person with aids
rather than AIDS victim". Other suggestions tor referring to those with disabilities include:

-avoiding generic labels

-emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a Wneelchair

- avoiding euphemisms which are regarded condescending and avoid the real issues that result from a
disability, and

- avoiding implying illness or suffering

Unit
4
STUDENT DIVERSITY

Overview
I know that most of you heard someone says “Everyone is Unique” and cannot ignore that it is the truth
that each of us is diverse in our own way, our attitude, personality, beliefs or even lifestyle. In this part of the
module, you will learn the different learning styles of students and the classification of intelligences. This also
includes discussion about learners with exceptionalities.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. Identify the different factors that bring about diversity in the classroom;
2. Demonstrate a positive attitude towards diversity as an enriching element in the learning environment;
3. Come up with the teaching strategies that consider students’ diversity;
4. Describe the different learning/thinking styles and multiple intelligences;
5. Describe the basic categories of exceptional learners;
6. Distinguish the terms disability and Handicap; and

26
7. Use people-first language in addressing a person with disability.

Expanding Your Knowledge

5.1 Individual Differences

Factors that bring about Student Diversity

1. Socioeconomic Status – the millionaires’ lifestyle differs from that of the
middle income or lower income group.
2. Thinking/Learning Style – some of you learn better by seeing something;
others by just listening; and still others by manipulating something.
3. Exceptionalities – in class there maybe one who has difficulty in spoken language comprehension or in
seeing, hearing, etc.

How Student Diversity enriches the Learning Module

1. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity – exposing students to others with diverse

backgrounds and experiences also serves to help students focus on their awareness of themselves. When
they see how others are different, students are given reference points or comparative perspectives which
sharpen assessment of their own attitudes, values, and behaviors.

2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development – the opportunity to gain access to the
perspectives of peers and to learn from other students, rather than the instructor only, may be especially
important for promoting the cognitive development of learners. As the German philosopher, Nietzsche, said
over 100 years ago: “The more affects we allow to speak about one thing, the more eyes, different eyes we
can use to observe one thing, the more complete will our concept of this thing, our objectivity be.”

3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of society – Suzanne
Morse stresses one competency that has strong implications for instructional strategies that capitalize on
diversity: “ The capacity to imagine situations or problems from all perspectives and to appreciate all
aspects of diversity.” Furthermore, she argues: “The classroom can provide more than just theory given by
the teacher in a lecture. With student diversity, the classroom becomes a ‘public place’ where community
can be practiced.”

27
4. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is integrated into the classroom
teaching and learning process, it can become a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relations. Through
student-centered teaching strategies, diverse students can be encouraged to interact and collaborate with
one another on learning tasks that emphasize unity of effort while capitalizing on their diversity of
backgrounds.

Tips on Student Diversity

1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’ multicultural and cross-cultural
awareness.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group differences.
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups.
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning styles.
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts that are relevant
to students from diverse backgrounds.
7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them personal choice and
decision-making opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they will learn it.
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds. You can form groups of
students with different learning styles, different cultural background, etc.

5.2 Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences

Learning /Thinking Styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes information. They
describe a person’s typical mode of thinking, remembering, or problem solving. Furthermore, styles are
usually considered to be bipolar dimensions.
There are several perspectives about learning-thinking styles. Sensory Preferences and Global-
Analytic Continuum.
1. Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory input and maintain
a dominance in one of the following types:
A. Visual Learners. These learners must see their teachers’ actions and facial expressions to fully
understand the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting in front so no one would block their view.
They may think in pictures and learn best from visual aids including: diagrams, illustrated text books,
projectors, videos and handouts.
Visual-Iconic. Those who prefer this form of input are more interested in visual imagery such as
film, graphic displays, or pictures in order to solidify learning. They usually have a good “picture memory”.

28
 Visual-Symbolic. Those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable with abstract symbolism
such as mathematical formulae or the written word. They tend to be good abstract thinkers who do not
require practical means for learning.
B. Auditory Learners. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through
and listening to what others have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech
through listening to otne of voice, pitch, speed, and other nuances.
Listeners. Most likely do well in school. Out of school too, they remember things said to them and
make the information their own. They may even carry on mental conversations and figure out how to extend
what they learned by reviewing in their heads what they heard other say.
Talkers. They are the ones who prefer to talk and discuss. They often find themselves talking to
those around them. They often find themselves talking to those around them. In a class setting when the
instructor is not asking questions, auditory-verbal processors (talkers) tend to whisper comments to
themselves. They are not trying to be disruptive and may not even realize they need to talk
C. Tactile/Kinesthetics Learners. Benefit much from a hands-on approach, actively exploring the
physical world around them. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods. They may not benefit so
much from the discussion or the written materials and may become distracted by their need for activity and
exploration. They tend to prefer learning by doing.

2. Global/Analytic Continuum
A. Global. Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see the whole pattern rather
than particle elements. They are the “forest seers” who give attention only to the overall structure and
sometimes ignore details.
B. Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend towards the linear, step-by step processes of learning. They
tend to see finite elements of patterns rather than the whole; they are the “tree seers”. They are more
comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies of information.

HOWARD GARDNER'S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

The theory proposes that "we are all able to know the world through language, logical-
mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to
make things, an understanding of other individuals and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals
differ is in the strength of these intelligences and the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and
combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems and progress in various domains.

29
Gardner claims that all human beings have multiple intelligences. These multiple intelligences can be
nurtured and strengthened or ignored and weakened. His research from 1991 identified seven intelligences;
in the intervening time, he has come to believe there are a total of nine intelligences:

• Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds,

meanings and rhythms of words.
• Mathematical-Logical Intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and the
capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns.
• Musical Intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timbre.
• Visual-Spatial Intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately
and abstractly.
• Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: The ability to control one's body movements and to handle
objects skillfully.
• Interpersonal Intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
motivations and desires of others.
• Intrapersonal Intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values,
beliefs and thinking processes.
• Naturalist Intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects
in nature.
• Existential Intelligence: The sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human
existence, such as the meaning of life, why we die and how we got here.
While all people possess some level of each intelligence, most will experience more dominant intelligences
which impact the way they learn and interact with the world around them.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND LEARNING STYLES

Some may find it an impossible task to teach to all learning styles. However, teachers are using
multimedia, so it is becoming easier. As teachers begin to understand learning styles more effectively, it is
clear why multimedia is good for all learners and why a variety of media is more effective. Multimedia
inherently speaks to the different types of learning preferences that one person has and has the potential to
impart knowledge to a diverse class or group.
There are specific modes of multimedia and instruction techniques, which include the following:

• Visuals: Visual media help students acquire concrete concepts, such as object identification, spatial
relationship or motor skills.

30
 • Printed words: While the printed word is the most common method of dispensing information,
some argue that audio is superior.
• Sound: Sound media offer a stimulus for sound recognition or recall. Audio narration is a useful
tool for students who struggle with reading.
• Motion: Motion depicts human performance so that learners can copy the movement. This
kinesthetic method can be essential for understanding some subject matter.
• Color: Choices on color display are required if it is essential to what is being learned (such as, the
sky is blue).
• Realia: Realia teaches cognitive and motor skills with objects. Realia can be used with individuals
or groups, depending on the situation. Realia may be used to present information realistically, or
with the way learners internalize information.
• Instructional Setting: Design must include what materials are being used, as well as the
environment in which it is to be taught. Printed materials should be individualized to allow the
learner to set the pace.
• Learner Characteristics: Teaching models must consider learner characteristics, as media may
be interpreted in various ways by different learners. Research has not provided definitive methods
in matching the media most suitable for types of learners.
• Reading ability: Pictures aid learning for poor readers who understand spoken words rather than
printed words; good readers can control the pace, and print allows for easier review.
• Categories of Learning Outcomes: Categories ranged from three to eleven and most include some
or all of Gagne's (1977) learning categories: intellectual skills, motor skills, verbal information,
overall attitudes and use of cognitive strategies.
• Events of Instruction: Teachers have to choose the external events which support internal learning
with events of instruction. This occurs in the planning stage and before selection of appropriate
media.
• Performance: It is important for students to perform tasks that demonstrate learning and retention.
The elicited performances can be categorized by type: covert, overt, motor, verbal, constructed and
select. Media should be selected to correspond with the desired outcome.

5.3 Learners with Exceptionalities

Educators at all levels refer to special needs students as those with exceptionalities. In general,
exceptionalities fall in six broad categories:
Most educators prefer not to use the term handicapped because of its negative implications. You'll more
often see terms like challenged and exceptionality—both of which have more positive implications.

31
Categories of Exceptionality and Definitions
1. Learning Disorder. A learning disorder characterized by specific behaviour problems over such a period
of time, and to such a marked degree, and of such a nature, as to adversely affect educational performance
and that may be accompanied by one or more of the following:
(a) Inability to build or maintain interpersonal relationships
(b) Excessive fears or anxieties
(c) Tendency to compulsive reaction
(d) The inability to learn which cannot be traced to intellectual, sensory, or other health factors, or any
combination thereof

2. AUTISM. A severe learning disorder that is characterized by:

a) disturbances in: rate of educational development ability to relate to the environment mobility perception,
speech, and language.
b) lack of representational symbolic behaviour that precedes language

3. DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING. An impairment characterized by deficits in language and speech
development because of a diminished or non-existent auditory response to sound.

4. LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT. A learning disorder characterized by an impairment in comprehension

and/or use of verbal communication or the written or other symbol system of communication, which may
be associated with neurological, psychological, physical, or sensory factors, and which may:
a) Involve one or more of the form, content, and function of language in communication
b) Include one or more of the following: • Language delay • Dysfluency • Voice and articulation
development which may or may not be organically or functionally based

5. SPEECH IMPAIRMENT. A disorder in language formulation that may be associated with

neurological, psychological, physical, or sensory factors, that involves perceptual motor aspects of
transmitting oral messages, and that may be characterized by impairment in articulation, rhythm, and stress.

6. LEARNING DISABILITY. A learning disorder evident in both academic and social situations that
involves one or more of the processes necessary for the proper use of spoken language or the symbols of
communication, and that is characterized by a condition that:

32
a) is not primarily the result of: • impairment of vision; • impairment of hearing; • physical disability; •
primary emotional disturbance; • cultural difference; • developmental disability and
b) results in a significant discrepancy between academic achievement and assessed intellectual ability, with
deficits in one or more of the following: • receptive language (listening, reading); • language processing
(thinking, conceptualizing, integrating); • expressive language (talking, spelling, writing); • mathematical
computations;
c) may be associated with one or more conditions diagnosed as: • a perceptual handicap; • a brain injury; •
minimal brain dysfunction; • dyslexia; • developmental aphasia;

7. GIFTEDNESS. An unusually advanced degree of general intellectual ability that requires differentiated
learning experiences of a depth and breadth beyond those normally provided in the regular school program
to satisfy the level of educational potential indicated.

8. MILD INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY. A learning disorder characterized by:

a) an ability to profit educationally within a regular class with the aid of considerable curriculum
modification and supportive service;
b) an inability to profit educationally within a regular class because of slow intellectual development;
c) a potential for academic learning, independent social adjustment and economic selfsupport.

9. DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITY. A severe learning disorder characterized by:

a) an inability to profit from a special education program for students with mild intellectual disabilities
because of slow intellectual development
b) an ability to profit from a special education program that is designed to accommodate slow intellectual
development
c) a limited potential for academic learning, independent social adjustment, and economic self-support

10. PHYSICAL DISABILITY. A condition of such severe physical limitation or deficiency as to require
special assistance in learning situations to provide the opportunity for educational achievement equivalent
to that of pupils without exceptionalities who are of the same age or developmental level.

11. BLIND AND LOW VISION. A condition of partial or total impairment of sight or vision that even
with correction affects educational performance adversely.

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12. MULTIPLE EXCEPTIONALITIES. A combination of learning or other disorders, impairments, or
physical disabilities, that is of such nature as to require, for educational achievement, the services of one or
more teachers holding qualifications in special education and the provision of support services appropriate
for such disorders, impairments, or disabilities.
Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it has been estimated that between 10 and 13 percent of the school-
age population has exceptionalities. Thus, in an average-size classroom of 25 students, it is conceivable that
3 or 4 individuals will exhibit one or more exceptionalities.

Tips on how to incorporate exceptional students into your classroom

Students (and even some teachers) may view the extra attention special needs students receive as
unfair. However, according to long-time special education teacher Deb Watkins, “Fairness isn't about
treating everyone the same; it's giving everyone what they need.”
It is quite likely that you will have a diversity of students in your classroom—representing a variety of
talents and abilities. With this in mind, I suggest some generalized strategies for you to consider as you
work with all special needs students:
• Be aware that special needs students may not want to be singled out for any special treatment. To
do so may identify their disability for other students and cause them to receive some form of
attention they may not be able to handle.
• Ensure that your attitude and responses to special needs students are identical to those to other
students. View all students as contributing students.
• Consider learning over a long period of time. Special needs students may require extended periods
of time to master a concept or learn a specific skill. You may need to repeat information several
times and reinforce it in many ways.
• It is quite easy to fall into the trap of focusing on the weaknesses of special needs students. Yet it
is vitally important that you be aware of and seek to identify the individual strengths of each and
every student in your classroom.
• Help students understand that grading, evaluation, and assessment is based on identifiable
objectives in accordance with individual potential. Evaluation should not be coupled with the
limitations of students but rather to their expectations.
• Provide significant opportunities for students of all abilities to learn from each other. Structure
a variety of learning activities in which the social climate of the classroom is both promoted and
enhanced. It is important that everyone feels like he or she is contributing.
• Do not make inappropriate assumptions based on students' exceptionalities. For example, don't
assume that a student who is confined to a wheelchair is an unhappy child. Don't assume that a

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 learning-disabled student is not gifted in the visual arts. Also, don't assume that children with
disabilities are disabled in all areas.

People-First Language

This language trend involves putting the person first, not the disability. It tells us what conditions

people have, not what they are (Schielfelbusch Institute, 1996). This is similar to saying “person with aids
rather than AIDS victim". Other suggestions tor referring to those with disabilities include:

-avoiding generic labels

-emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a Wneelchair

- avoiding euphemisms which are regarded condescending and avoid the real issues that result from a
disability, and

- avoiding implying illness or suffering

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Unit
BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE
5

Overview
Behaviorist theory focuses on studying the concept of measurable and observable behavior. It focuses
on objectively observable behaviors and discounts any independent activities of the mind. In this part of the
module, you will learn the basic principles of behaviorism as well as the process of using rewards in the learning
process.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. Explain the basic principles of behaviorism;

2. Determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively;
3. Explain Tolman’s purposive behaviorism; and
4. Explain Bandura’s social learning theory.

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Expanding Your Knowledge

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It
emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and
punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind and the possibility of thought processes occurring
in the mind.

6.1 Behaviorism

A. Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist, is well known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution.
Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog, and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the
dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical conditioning.

Pavlov’s Experiment.
Before Conditioning, ringing the bell [neutral stimulus] caused no response from the dog. Placing
food [unconditioned stimulus] in front of the dog initiated salivation [unconditioned response]. During
conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning,
the ringing of the bell [conditioned stimulus] alone produced salivation [conditioned response]. This is
classical conditioning. See illustration below;

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Classical Conditioning

Somehow you were conditioned to associate particular objects with your teacher. So at present,
when you encounter the objects, you are also reminded of your teacher. This is an example of classical
conditioning.

Pavlov also had the following findings;

1. Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sounds of the bell, it will salivate at
other similar sounds.
2. Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to the
bell.
3. Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered’’ after an elapsed time, but will soon
extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
4. Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells [stimuli] and discern which
bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.

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5. Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food, another
unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually,
the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

B. Edward L. Thorndike.

Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral
psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text book entitled, Educational psychology. He was
the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is the result of associations forming between
stimuli[S] and responses [R].such associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature
and frequency of the S-R pairings .The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain
responses came to be repeated more than others because of rewards. The main principle of connectionism
[like all behavioral theory] was that learning could be adequately explained without considering any
unobservable internal states.
Thorndike’s theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place when a strong connection
or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three primary laws;
1. Law of effect. The law of effect states that a connection between stimulus and response is strengthened
when the consequence is positive [reward] and the response is weakened when the consequence is negative.
Thorndike later on, revised this ‘law’ when he found that negative reward (punishment) do not necessarily
motivate performance.
2. Law of Exercise: This tell us that the more an S-R (STIMULUS RESPONSE) bond is practice the
stronger it will become. Practice make perfect seem to be associated with this. However like the law of
effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does
not necessarily enhance performance.
3. Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has to the stimulus, the stronger will
be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it
becomes annoying to the person. For example,if the teacher says, “okay we will now watch the movie
[stimulus] you’ve been waiting for.’’ and suddenly the power goes off. The students will feel frustrated
because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but was prevented from doing so. Likewise, if the person
is not at all ready to respond to a stimuli and is asks to respond, that also becomes annoying, For instance,
the teacher calls a student to stand up recite, and then the teacher asks the question and expects the student
to respond right away when he is still not ready. This will be annoying to the student. That is why teachers
should remember to say the questions first, and wait for a few seconds before calling on anyone to answer.

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Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism;

1. Learning requires both practice and reward [laws of effect /exercise]

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence [law of
readiness].
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned

C. John Watson.

John b. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas. He too was
initially involved in animal studies then later became involved in human behavior research.
He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All
other behavior is learned through stimulus-response associations through conditioning, He believed in the
power of conditioning so much that he said that if he is given a dozen healthy infants he can make them
into anything you want them to be, basically through making stimulus-response connections through
conditioning.

Experiment on Albert.
Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert a young child and a
white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat; but Watson made a sudden loud noise each time
Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise He soon became conditioned to
fear and avoid the rat. Later the child response was generalized to other small animals. Now, he was also
afraid of small animals. Watson then “extinguished” or made the child “unlearn” fear by showing the rat
without the loud noise. Surely Watson’s research methods would be questioned today; nevertheless his
work did clearly show the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli.
This may help us understand the fears, phobias, and prejudices that people develop.

D. Burrhus Frederic Skinner:

Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, believed in the stimulus-response pattern condition behavior.
His theory zeroed in only on change in observable behavior, excluding any likelihood of any processes
taking placing the mind. Skinner’s 1948 book, Walden Two, is about a utopian society based on operant
conditioning. He also wrote, Science and Human Behavior, 1953 in which he pointed out how the principles

40
of operant conditioning function in social institutions such as government, religion, economics, and
education.
Skinners work differs from that of the three behaviorists before him in that he studied operant
behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment). Thus, his theory came to be known
as Operant Conditioning.
Operant conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt behavior.
Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the
environment. A response produces a consequence such us defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math
problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is
conditioned to respond.

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinners S-R theory. A Reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desired response. There is a positive reinforcer and a negative reinforcer.

A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response. An example
of positive reinforcer is when a teacher promises extra time in the play area to children who behave whell
during the lesonss. Another is a mother who promises a newcellphone for her son who gets good grades.
Still, other examples include verbal prases, star stumps and sticker

A negative reinforce is any stimulus that result in the increased frequency of a response when it is
withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment, in fact it is a reward. For instance, a
teacher announces that a student who get an average grade of 1.5 for the two grading period will no longer
take the final examination. The negative reinforcer is “removing” the final exam, which we realize is a form
of reward for working hard and getting an average of 1.5.

A negative reinforcer is different from a punishment because a punishment is a consequence

intended to result in reduced responses. An example would be a student who always comes late is not
allowed to join a group work that has already began (punishment) to reduce the response of repeatedly
coming to class late

Skinner also looked into Extinction or non-reinforcement: Responses that are not reinforces are
not likely to be repeated. For example, ignoring a student’s misbehavior may extinguish that behavior.

Implications of Operant Conditioning. These implications are given for programmed instruction.

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1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) – answer (response) frames which expose the student
to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence, a positive
reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise,
prizes and good grades.

6.2 Neobehaviorism

A. Edward Tolman – Purposive Behaviorism

Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and is often seen as the
link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process.
Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that
knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed behavior.
Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e. learning is
acquired through meaningful behavior. He stressed the organized aspect of learning : “The stimuli which
are allowed in are not connected by just simple one to one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the
incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into a tentative
cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating routes and paths and
environmental relationships which finally determines what responses, if any, the animal will finally make.”

Tolman’s Key Concepts

1. Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Tolman asserted that learning is always purposive
and goal-directed. He held the notion that an organism acted or responded for some adaptive purpose. He
believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing
conditions, and they strive toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic, purposive, and cognitive.
2. Cognitive maps in rats. In his famous experiment, one group of rats was placed at randomstarting
locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group of rats had the food placed
in different locations which always required exactly the same pattern of turns from their starting location.
The group that had the food in the same location performed much better than the group, supposedly
demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of turns. This tendency to

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“learn location” signified that rats somehow formed cognitive maps that help them perform well on the
maze. He also found out that organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.

3. Latent leaning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stay in an individual until needed.
It is learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman it can exist even without
reinforcement. He demonstrated that in his rat experiments wherein rats apparently “learned the maze” by
forming cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this knowledge of the maze only when they needed to.

4. Intervening Variable. Intervening variables are variables that are not readily seen but serve as
determinants of behavior. Tolman believed that learning is mediated or is influenced by expectations,
perceptions, representations, needs and other internal or environmental variables. Example, in his
experiments with rats he found out that hunger was an intervening variable.

5. Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential for
learning, although it provides an incentive for performance. In his studies, he observed that rat was able to
acquire knowledge of the way through a maze,i.e. to develop a cognitive map, even in the absence of
reinforcement.

B. Albert Bandura – Social Learning Theory

In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical
conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas:

1. Mediating processes (II) occur between stimuli & responses.

2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning (I).

I. Observational Learning
Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This is illustrated during the
famous Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).
Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by many
influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within their peer
group and teachers at school. These models provide examples of behavior to observe and imitate, e.g.,
masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social, etc.

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 Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behavior. At a later time
they may imitate (i.e., copy) the behavior they have observed.
They may do this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’ or not, but there are a
number of processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behavior that its society deems
appropriate for its gender.

1. The child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself.
Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people of the same gender.

2. The people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either reinforcement or
punishment. If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is likely
to continue performing the behavior.
If a parent sees a little girl consoling her teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you are,” this is
rewarding for the child and makes it more likely that she will repeat the behavior. Her behavior has been
reinforced (i.e., strengthened).
Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or negative. If a child wants approval
from parents or peers, this approval is an external reinforcement, but feeling happy about being approved
of is an internal reinforcement. A child will behave in a way which it believes will earn approval because
it desires approval.
Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the reinforcement offered externally
does not match with an individual's needs. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, but the important
factor is that it will usually lead to a change in a person's behavior.

3. The child will also take into account of what happens to other people when deciding whether or not to
copy someone’s actions. A person learns by observing the consequences of another person’s (i.e., models)
behavior, e.g., a younger sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a particular behavior is more
likely to repeat that behavior herself. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.
This relates to an attachment to specific models that possess qualities seen as rewarding. Children
will have a number of models with whom they identify. These may be people in their immediate world,
such as parents or older siblings, or could be fantasy characters or people in the media. The motivation to
identify with a particular model is that they have a quality which the individual would like to possess.
Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on (or adopting) observed
behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom you are identifying.

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 The term identification as used by Social Learning Theory is similar to the Freudian term related
to the Oedipus complex. For example, they both involve internalizing or adopting another person’s
behavior. However, during the Oedipus complex, the child can only identify with the same sex parent,
whereas with Social Learning Theory the person (child or adult) can potentially identify with any other
person. Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of behaviors being adopted,
whereas imitation usually involves copying a single behavior.

II. Mediational Processes

SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between traditional learning theory (i.e., behaviorism) and
the cognitive approach. This is because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in
learning. Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information processors and think
about the relationship between their behavior and its consequences.
Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work. These mental factors
mediate (i.e., intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired.
Therefore, individuals do not automatically observe the behavior of a model and imitate it. There is some
thought prior to imitation, and this consideration is called mediational processes. This occurs between
observing the behavior (stimulus) and imitating it or not (response).

There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura:

1. Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behavior. For a behavior to be imitated,
it has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviors on a daily basis, and many of these are not
noteworthy. Attention is therefore extremely important in whether a behavior influences others
imitating it.
2. Retention: How well the behavior is remembered. The behavior may be noticed but is it not always
remembered which obviously prevents imitation. It is important therefore that a memory of the
behavior is formed to be performed later by the observer.
Much of social learning is not immediate, so this process is especially vital in those cases. Even if the
behavior is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a memory to refer to.
3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just demonstrated.
We see much behavior on a daily basis that we would like to be able to imitate but that this not
always possible. We are limited by our physical ability and for that reason, even if we wish to
reproduce the behavior, we cannot.

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This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old-
lady who struggles to walk watching Dancing on Ice. She may appreciate that the skill is a desirable one,
but she will not attempt to imitate it because she physically cannot do it.
4. Motivation: The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and punishment that follow a behavior
will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there
are any), then the behavior will be more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious
reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the observer, then they will not imitate the
behavior.

III. Critical Evaluation

Social learning theory is not a full explanation.
The social learning approach takes thought processes into account and acknowledges the role that
they play in deciding if a behavior is to be imitated or not. As such, SLT provides a more comprehensive
explanation of human learning by recognizing the role of mediational processes.
However, although it can explain some quite complex behavior, it cannot adequately account for how we
develop a whole range of behavior including thoughts and feelings. We have a lot of cognitive control over
our behavior and just because we have had experiences of violence does not mean we have to reproduce
such behavior.
It is for this reason that Bandura modified his theory and in 1986 renamed his Social Learning
Theory, Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), as a better description of how we learn from our social experiences.
Some criticisms of social learning theory arise from their commitment to the environment as the
chief influence on behavior. It is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture
and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior. It is more likely that behavior is
due to an interaction between nature (biology) and nurture (environment). Social learning theory is not a
full explanation for all behavior. This is particularly the case when there is no apparent role model in the
person’s life to imitate for a given behavior.
The discovery of mirror neurons has lent biological support to the theory of social learning.
Although research is in its infancy the recent discovery of "mirror neurons" in primates may constitute a
neurological basis for imitation. These are neurons which fire both if the animal does something itself, and
if it observes the action being done by another.

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