ENDS 231

A RC H I T E C T U R A L
S T RU C T U R E S I
LECTURE NOTE SET
Spring 2008

by
Anne Nichols
Assistant Professor
Department of Architecture
A413 Langford
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-3137
(979) 845-6540
fax: (979) 862-1571
http://archone.tamu.edu/faculty/anichols
[email protected]
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Syllabus
Student Understandings
List of Symbol Definitions
The Deacon’s Masterpiece
Note Set 1.1 ......... Math for Structures I
Note Set 1.2 ......... Numerical Computations
Note Set 1.3 ......... Problem Solving, Units and Numerical Accuracy
Note Set 2............. Forces and Vectors
Note Set 3............. Moments
Note Set 4............. Equilibrium of a Particle
Note Set 5............. Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies
Note Set 6............. Truss Structures
Note Set 8............. Truss Analysis Using Multiframe4D
Note Set 9............. Pinned Frames and Arches
Note Set 10 .......... Loads – Tracing, Concentrated and Distributed
Note Set 11 .......... Centers of Gravity - Centroids
Note Set 12 .......... Moments of Inertia
Note Set 13 .......... Beam Structures and Internal Forces
Note Set 14 .......... Beam Analysis Using Multiframe4D
Note Set 15 .......... Mechanics of Materials
Note Set 16 .......... Stress and Strain – Elasticity
Note Set 17 .......... Torsion, Thermal Effects and Indeterminacy
Note Set 18 .......... Beam Bending Stresses and Shear Stress
Note Set 21 .......... Beam Design and Deflections
Note Set 22 .......... Steel– AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design
Note Set 23 .......... Columns and Stability
Note Set 24 .......... Steel & Wood Column Design
Note Set 25 .......... Column Design – Centric & Eccentric Loading
Note Set 26 .......... Connections and Tension Member Design
Note Set 27.1 ....... Rigid and Braced Frames
Note Set 27.2 ....... Frame Analysis Using Multiframe4D
Note Set 28 .......... System Selection and Design
ENDS 231 Syllabus S2008abn

ENDS 231. Architectural Structures I

Instructor: Prof. Anne B. Nichols Office Hours: 1-2 pm MW
A413 Langford 10:00-11:30 am TR
(979) 845-6540 (and by appointment M-R)
[email protected]

Prerequisites: ENDS 106; MATH 142 or equivalent (linear algebra and calculus); PHYS 201

Catalogue Description: Introduction to the physical principles that govern classical statics and
strengths of materials through the design of timber and steel components of
architectural structures; computer applications.

Goals: ENDS 231 is the study of structural design concepts that influence the development of
architectural space and form. In all engineering construction, the component parts of a
structure must be assigned definite physical sizes, constructed of specific materials and
designed to resist various load combinations. The course is divided into two parts:
Statics and Strength of Materials. Statics is the branch of mechanics that involves the
study of external forces and the effects of these forces on bodies or structural systems
in equilibrium (at reset or moving with a constant velocity). Strength of Materials
involves analytical methods for determining the strength, stiffness (deformation
characteristics), and stability of the various load-carrying members. Members are
designed for specific materials using current national design specifications.

Objective: To understand the significance, assumptions, applications, and limitations of the basic
principles of Statics and Strength of Materials as they apply to the design and analysis
of structural members and simple connections.

Text: Statics and Strength of Materials –Foundations for Structural Design, Onouye, (2005)
Pearson - Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-111837-4

Reference: ACI 318-02 Code and Commentary

AISC 3rd ed. Load and Resistance Factor Design
AISC 9th ed. Allowable Stress Design
National Design Specifications for Wood

Timetable: CREDIT 3.0 (2:2) 3:55-4:45 pm Lecture T,R

(section 501) 4:45-5:35 pm Lab T,R

Grading: The levels listed for graded work (projects, quizzes, exams) and pass-fail work
(assignments) must be met or exceeded to earn the course letter grade:

Letter Grade Graded work Pass-fail work

A A average (90-100%) Pass for 90% to 100% of assignments
B B average (80-89%) Pass for 83% to 100% of assignments
C C average (70-79%) Pass for 75% to 100% of assignments
D D average (60-69%) Pass for 65% to 100% of assignments
F F average (<59%) Pass for 0% to 100% of assignments

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ENDS 231 Syllabus S2008abn

Graded work: This typically constitutes 10 quizzes, a learning portfolio (worth 1.5
quizzes) and a final exam (worth 4 quizzes). This equates to proportions of approximately
64.5% to quizzes, 9.7% to the learning portfolio, and 25.8% to the final exam.
Pass/fail work: This constitutes all practice assignments and projects, each with a value of
1 unit. Criteria for passing is at least 75% completeness and correctness along with every
problem attempted. Percent effort expected for a problem in a practice assignment is
provided on the assignment statement. This is considered a lab course and the assignments
are required work with credit given for competency. The work is necessary to apply the
material and prepare for the quizzes and exam. It is expected that this work will be
completed with assistance or group participation, but all graded work is only by the
individual.

Policy: 1) Attendance: Necessary. Required.* And subject to University Policy. See Part I Section
7 in Texas A&M University Student Rules: http://student-rules.tamu.edu/ Absences
related to illness or injury must be documented according to
http://shs.tamu.edu/attendance.htm including the Explanatory Statement for Absence from
class for 3 days or less. Doctors visits not related to immediate illness or injury are not
excused absences.
2) Lecture, Lab and Textbook: The lecture slide shows that correspond to the Handouts
(see #3) are to be viewed prior to lecture which will be reserved for review of the full
lecture and text reading. Lab will consist of problem solving requiring the textbook. The
lecture shows are available on the class web page, class folder (see #3), and Vista (see #7).
Attendance is required for both lecture and lab.
3) Notes: The notes and related handouts are available on the class web page at
http://archone.tamu.edu/faculty/anichols/index_files/courses/ends231/index.html, on Vista
(see #7) or in the class folder on \\Xavier\classes\ENDS231501. A full set can be
purchased from the TEES copy center located on the second floor of Wisenbaker
Engineering Research Lab. They are listed under Anne Nichols, ENDS 231. COSC 321
notes are NOT EQUIVALENT.
4) Assignments: Due as stated on the assignment statements. Format:
Date Name Course
One late assignment will be allowed without excuse turned in
no later than one week after the due date. All other assignments Given:
and projects will receive no credit if late. Assignments with Find:
Solution:
incorrect formatting will be penalized. :

5) Quizzes: Quizzes will be given at any time during the period. Make-up quizzes without
an excuse will not be given. Practice quizzes will be posted electronically.
6) Grader: Hidekazu Takahashi.... ([email protected])
7) Vista: Vista is a web course tool for posting, reading messages and replying as well as
recording scores and is accessed with your neo account. This will be used to post
questions and responses by class members and the instructor, for posting scores and for e-
mail. It can be accessed at http://elearning.tamu.edu/
8) Final Exam: The final exam will be comprehensive, and is officially scheduled for
1:00-3:00 PM, Tuesday, May 6.
9) Other Resources: The Student Learning Center provides tutoring in math and physics.
See their schedule at http://slc.tamu.edu/tutoring.shtml

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* Except for death in the family, medical or deans’ excuse, and natural disasters.
ENDS 231 Syllabus S2008abn

10) Aggie Honor Code: “An Aggie does not lie, cheat, or steal or tolerate those who do.”
The University policy will be strictly enforced. See Part I Section 20 in Texas A&M
University Student Rules: http://student-rules.tamu.edu/ Plagiarism (deliberate
misrepresentation of someone else’s work as your own) will be treated strictly according
to University policy as outlined by the Office of the Aggie Honor System:
http:/www.tamu.edu/aggiehonor/
11) The American with Disabilities Act (ADA) is a federal anti-discrimination statute that
provides comprehensive civil rights protection for persons with disabilities. Among other
things, this legislation requires that all students with disabilities be guaranteed a learning
environment that provides for reasonable accommodation of their disabilities. If you
believe you have a disability requiring accommodation, please contact the Department for
Student Life, Services for Students with Disabilities, in Cain Hall or call 845-1637. Also
contact Prof. Nichols at the beginning of the semester.

Learning Objectives:
1) The student will be able to read a text or article about structural technology, identify the
key concepts and related equations, and properly apply the concepts and equations to
appropriate structural problems (relevance). The student will also be able to define the
answers to key questions in the reading material. The student will be able to evaluate their
own skills, or lack thereof, with respect to reading and comprehension of structural
concepts, clarity of written communication, reasonable determination of precision in
numerical data, and accuracy of computations.
2) The student will be able to read a problem statement, interpret the structural wording in
order to identify the concepts and select equations necessary to solve the problem
presented (significance). The student will be able to identify common steps in solving
structural problems regardless of the differences in the structural configuration and loads,
and apply these steps in a clear and structured fashion (logic). The student will draw upon
existing mathematical and geometrical knowledge to gather information, typically related
to locations and dimensions, provided by representational drawings or models of
structural configurations, and to present information, typically in the form of plots that
graph variable values. The student will be able to draw representational structural models
and diagrams, and express information provided by the figures in equation form. The
student will compare the computational results in a design problem to the requirements
and properly decide if the requirements have been met. The student will take the
corrective action to meet the requirements
3) The student will create a structural model with a computer application based on the
concepts of the behavior and loading of the structural member or assemblage. The
student will be able to interpret the modeling results and relate the results to the solution
obtained by manual calculations.
4) The student will be able to articulate the physical phenomena, behavior and design criteria
which influence structural space and form. (depth) The student will be able to identify
the structural purpose, label, behavior, advantages and disadvantages, and interaction of
various types of structural members and assemblies. (breadth) The student will create a
physical structure or structures using non-traditional building materials, considering
material and structural behavior, in order to demonstrate the behavior and limitations of a
variety of structural arrangements.

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ENDS 231 Syllabus S2008abn

5) The student will interact and participate in group settings to facilitate peer-learning and
teaching. In addition, the student will be able to evaluate the comprehension of concepts,
clarity of communication of these concepts or calculations, and the precision and accuracy
of the data used in the computations in the work of their peers.

Lecture Text Topic Articles/ Problems

1. Basic Concepts and Principles Read*: Text Ch. 1, Appendix B;

note sets 1.1, 1.2 & 1.3
2. Forces Read: Text 5.1, 2.1–2.3; note set 2
Solve: Assignment 1
3. Moments Read: Text 2.4; note set 3

4. Equilibrium of a Particle Read: Text 3.1; note set 4

Solve: Assignment 2
5. Free Body Diagrams Read: Text 3.2, 4.3; note set 5
Support Conditions
6. Introduction to Trusses Read: Text 4.1 (89-97); note set 6 (first
Method of Joints part)
Solve: Assignment 3
7. Design Project Reviews Project due
8. Trusses – Method of Sections Read: Text 4.1 (98-110); note set 6 (rest)
Reference: note set 7
Quiz 1
9. Pinned Frames & Hinged Arches Read: Text 4.2; note set 9
Solve: Assignment 4
10. Distributed Loads on Beams, Read: Text 3.3, 5.2-5.3; note set 10
Concentrated Loads and Load Tracing Quiz 2
11. Structural Properties of Areas - Read: Text 7.1; note set 11
Centroids Solve: Assignment 5
12. Structural Properties of Areas – Read: Text 7.2-7.4; note set 12
Moment of Inertia Quiz 3
13. Beam Forces Read: Text 8.1-8.2; note set 13
Solve: Assignment 6
14. Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams Read: Text 8.3-8.4; (note set 13)
Reference: note set 14
Quiz 4
15. Material Properties – Stress & Connections Read: Text 6.1; note set 15
Solve: Assignment 7
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ENDS 231 Syllabus S2008abn

Lecture Text Topic Articles/ Problems

16. Material Properties – Strain, Strength and Read: Text 6.2-6.3; note set 16
Elasticity Quiz 5
17. Torsion Stress and Thermal Strain Read: Text 6.4; note set 17
Solve: Assignment 8
18. Stresses in Beams – Bending Read: Text 9.1-9.2; Appendix C.1;
note set 18 (first part)
Quiz 6
19. Design Project Reviews Project due
20. Stresses in Beams –Shear & Connectors Read: Text 9.3-9.4; Appendix C.2;
note set 18 (rest)
Solve: Assignment 9
21. Beam Deformation & Design Read: Text 9.5-9.6; Appendix C.3;
note set 21
Quiz 7
22. LRFD Steel Design – Beams Read: note set 22
Solve: Assignment 10
23. Stability of Structures & Design Read: Text 10.1-10.2; note set 23
Quiz 8
24. Column Design – Read: Text 10.3-10.4; note set 24
Wood, Steel & LRFD Steel Solve: Assignment 11
25. Design of Eccentrically Loaded Columns Read: Text 10.5; note set 25
Quiz 9
26. Tension Members and Connections - Steel Read: note set 26
Solve: Assignment 12
27. Rigid and Braced Frames Read: note set 27.1
Reference: note set 27.2
Quiz 10
28. Review Read: note set 28
Learning Portfolio due
Final Exam Period Exam

*Note: Materials in the Class Note Set not specifically mentioned above are provided as references
or aids.

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DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE ENDS 231 SPRING 2008
Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 last day to 12
register
13 14 15 Lect 1 16 17 Lect 2 18 19
JANUARY

last day to
classes begin add/drop
20 21 22 Lect 3 23 24 Lect 4 25 26

King Holiday
#1 due
27 28 29 Lect 5 30 31 Lect 6 1 2
#2 due
3 4 5 Lect 7 6 7 Lect 8 8 9
project Quiz 1
10 11 12 Lect 9 13 14 Lect 10 15 16
FEBRUARY

#3 due Quiz 2
17 18 19 Lect 11 20 21 Lect 12 22 23
#4 due Quiz 3
24 25 26 Lect 13 27 28 Lect 14 29 1
#5 due Quiz 4
2 3 4 Lect 15 5 6 Lect 16 7 8
mid-term #6 due Quiz 5
grades due
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Spring Break
16 17 18 Lect 17 19 20 Lect 18 21 22
MARCH

#7 due Quiz 6 Reading Day

23 24 25 Lect 19 26 27 Lect 20 28 29
project #8 due
30 31 1 Lect 21 2 3 Lect 22 4 5
Quiz 7 and last day to Q-drop #9 due
6 7 8 Lect 23 9 10 Lect 24 11 12
Quiz 8 #10 due and pre-registration begins (to 25th)
13 14 15 Lect 25 16 17 Lect 26 18 19
Quiz 9 #11 due
APRIL

Muster
20 21 22 Lect 27 23 24 Lect 28 25 26
Quiz 10 #12 & portfolio due
27 28 (dead day) 29 (dead day) 30 1 2 3
Reading Days
Monday classes Friday classes Final exams
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1-3pm Commencement
231 FINAL (and Saturday)
MAY

11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Grades due
ENDS 231 S2007abn

ENDS 231. Student Understandings

1) I understand that there are intellectual standards in this course and that I am responsible for monitoring my
own learning.
2) I understand that the class will focus on practice, not on lecture.
3) I understand that I am responsible for preparing for lecture with the assigned reading and lecture show by
internalizing key concepts, recognizing key questions, and evaluating what makes sense and what doesn’t
make sense to me.
4) I understand that I will be held regularly responsible for assessing my own work using criteria and
standards discussed in class.
5) I understand that if at any time in the semester I feel unsure about my “grade”, I may request and
assessment from the instructor.
6) I understand that there are 12 practice assignments, one due every week during the bulk of the
semester.
7) I understand that there are group projects and I will be responsible to take an active part in advancing the
work of the group.
8) I understand that I will occasionally be required to assess the work of my classmates in an objective manor
using the same criteria and standards used to assess my own work.
9) I understand that there are 10 graded quizzes, one given every week during the bulk of the
semester.
10) I understand that there is a final exam in the course.
11) I understand that I must do a Learning Portfolio, which is a self-evaluation that makes my “case” for
receiving a particular grade using criteria provided in class and citing evidence from my work across the
semester.
12) I understand that the work of the course requires Consistent classroom attendance and active
participation.
13) I understand that I will regularly be required to demonstrate that I have prepared for lecture.
14) I understand that the class will not be graded on a curve. I understand that it is theoretically possible for the
whole class to get an A or an F.
15) I understand the basis of the final grade as outlined in the syllabus.
16) I understand that since the final grade is based on percentages from graded work and competency on
assignments as outlined in the syllabus, that the minimum level of both must be satisfied to obtain the letter
grade. The criteria for assignments that are considered “passing” is outlined in the syllabus section on
Learning Objectives.
NAME (sign and print)

DATE
ENDS 231 Symbols F2007abn

List of Symbol Definitions

a long dimension for a section subjected to torsion (in, mm);

acceleration (ft/sec2, m/sec2)
a area bounded by the centerline of a thin walled section subjected to torsion (in2, mm2)
A area, often cross-sectional (in2, ft2, mm2, m2)
Ae net effective area, equal to the total area ignoring any holes (in2, ft2, mm2, m2) (see Anet);
Ag gross area, equal to the total area ignoring any holes (in2, ft2, mm2, m2)
Anet net effective area, equal to the gross area subtracting any holes (in2, ft2, mm2, m2) (see Ae)
Ap bearing area (in2, ft2, mm2, m2)
Athroat area across the throat of a weld (in2, ft2, mm2, m2)
Aweb web area in a steel beam equal to the depth x web thickness (in2, ft2, mm2, m2)
ASD Allowable Stress Design
b width, often cross-sectional (in, ft, mm, m);
narrow dimension for a section subjected to torsion (in, mm);
number of truss members
bf width of the flange of a steel beam cross section (in, mm)
c distance from the neutral axis to the top or bottom edge of a beam (in, mm, m);
distance from the center of a circular shape to the surface under torsional shear strain (in, mm,
m)
ci distance from the center of a circular shape to the inner surface under torsional shear strain (in,
mm, m)
co distance from the center of a circular shape to the outer surface under torsional shear strain (in,
mm, m)
c1 coefficient for shear stress for a rectangular bar in torsion
c2 coefficient for shear twist for a rectangular bar in torsion
CL, q center line
C compression label;
compression force (lb, kips, N, kN)
Cb modification factor for moment in ASD & LRFD steel beam design, Cb = 1 for simply
supported beams (0 moments at the ends)
Cc column slenderness classification constant for steel column design
CD load duration factor for wood design
CF size factor for wood design
Cm modification factor for combined stress in steel design
CM wet service factor for wood design
Cp column stability factor for wood design
Ct temperature factor for wood design

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ENDS 231 Symbols F2007abn

d depth, often cross-sectional (in, mm, m);

perpendicular distance from a force to a point in a moment calculation (in, mm, m)
dx difference in the x direction between an area centroid ( x ) and the centroid of the composite
shape ( x̂ ) (in, mm)
dy difference in the y direction between an area centroid ( y ) and the centroid of the composite
shape ( ŷ ) (in, mm)
D diameter of a circle (in, mm, m);
dead load for LRFD design
DL dead load
e eccentric distance of application of a force (P) from the centroid of a cross section (in, mm)
E modulus of elasticity (psi; ksi, kPa, MPa, GPa);
earthquake load for LRFD design
f symbol for stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
fa calculated axial stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
fb calculated bending stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
fc calculated compressive stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
fcr calculated column stress based on the critical column load Pcr (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
ft calculated tensile stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
fp calculated bearing stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
fx combined stress in the direction of the major axis of a column (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
fv calculated shearing stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
fy yield stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
F force (lb, kip, N, kN);
capacity of a nail in shear (lb, kip, N, kN);
symbol for allowable stress in design codes (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
Fa allowable axial stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
Fb allowable bending stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
Fb′ allowable bending stress for combined stress for wood design (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
Fc allowable compressive stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
Fconnector resistance capacity of a connector (lb, kips, N, kN)
FcE intermediate compressive stress for ASD wood column design dependant on material (psi, ksi,
kPa, MPa)
Fc′ allowable compressive stress for ASD wood column design (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
F* c intermediate compressive stress for ASD wood column design dependant on load duration (psi,
ksi, kPa, MPa)

2
ENDS 231 Symbols F2007abn

Fe′ allowable buckling stress for combined bending steel design (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
Ft allowable tensile stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
Fv allowable shear stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa);
allowable shear stress in a welded connection
Fx force component in the x coordinate direction (lb, kip, N, kN)
Fy force component in the y coordinate direction (lb, kip, N, kN);
yield stress (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
Fu ultimate stress a material can sustain prior to failure (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa)
F.S. factor of safety
g acceleration due to gravity, 32.17 ft/sec2, 9.807 m/sec2
G shear modulus (psi; ksi, kPa, MPa, GPa)
h depth, often cross-sectional (in, ft, mm, m);
sag of a cable structure (ft, m)
I moment of inertia (in4, mm4, m4)
I moment of inertia about the centroid (in4, mm4, m4)
Ic moment of inertia about the centroid (in4, mm4, m4)
Imin minimum moment of inertia of Ix and Iy (in4, mm4, m4)
Ix moment of inertia with respect to an x-axis (in4, mm4, m4)
Iy moment of inertia with respect to a y-axis (in4, mm4, m4)
J, Jo polar moment of inertia (in4, mm4, m4)
k kips (1000 lb);
shape factor for plastic design of steel beams, Mp/My
kg kilograms
kN kiloNewtons (103 N)
kPa kiloPascals (103 Pa)
K effective length factor with respect to column end conditions
KcE material factor for wood column design
l length (in, ft, mm, m);
cable span (ft, m)
lb pound force
L length (in, ft, mm, m);
live load for LRFD design
Lb unbraced length of a steel beam in LRFD design (in, ft, mm, m)
Lc maximum unbraced length of a steel beam in ASD design for maximum allowed bending stress
(in, ft, mm, m)
Le effective length that can buckle for column design (in, ft, mm, m)
Lr roof live load in LRFD design

3
ENDS 231 Symbols F2007abn

Lp maximum unbraced length of a steel beam in LRFD design for full plastic flexural strength (in,
ft, mm, m)
Lr maximum unbraced length of a steel beam in LRFD design for inelastic lateral-torsional
buckling (in, ft, mm, m)
Lu maximum unbraced length of a steel beam in ASD design for reduced allowed bending stress
(in, ft, mm, m)
LL live load
LRFD Load and Resistance Factor Design
m mass (lb-mass, g, kg);
meters
mm millimeters
M moment of a force or couple (lb-ft, kip-ft, N-m, kN-m);
bending moment (lb-ft, kip-ft, N-m, kN-m)
MA moment value at quarter point of unbraced beam length for LRFD beam design (lb-ft, kip-ft,
N-m, kN-m)
MB moment value at half point of unbraced beam length for LRFD beam design (lb-ft, kip-ft, N-m,
kN-m)
MC moment value at three quarter point of unbraced beam length for LRFD beam design (lb-ft,
kip-ft, N-m, kN-m)
Mn nominal flexure strength with the full section at the yield stress for LRFD beam design (lb-ft,
kip-ft, N-m, kN-m)
Mp (also Mult) internal bending moment when all fibers in a cross section reach the yield stress (lb-
ft, kip-ft, N-m, kN-m)
Mu maximum moment from factored loads for LRFD beam design (lb-ft, kip-ft, N-m, kN-m)
Mult (also Mp)internal bending moment when all fibers in a cross section reach the yield stress (lb-
ft, kip-ft, N-m, kN-m)
My internal bending moment when the extreme fibers in a cross section reach the yield stress (lb-ft,
kip-ft, N-m, kN-m)
M1 smaller end moment used to calculate Cm for combined stresses in a beam-column (lb-ft, kip-ft,
N-m, kN-m)
M2 larger end moment used to calculate Cm for combined stresses in a beam-column (lb-ft, kip-ft,
N-m, kN-m)
MPa megaPascals (106 Pa or 1 N/mm2)
n number of truss joints, nails or bolts
n.a. neutral axis (axis connecting beam cross-section centroids)
N Newtons (kg-m/sec2);
bearing-type connection with bolt threads included in shear plane
O point of origin
p pitch of nail spacing (in, ft, mm, m)
P force, concentrated (point) load (lb, kip, N, kN);
axial load in a column or beam-column (lb, kip, N, kN)
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ENDS 231 Symbols F2007abn

Pcr critical (failure) load in column calculations (lb, kip, N, kN)

Pn nominal load strength capacity for LRFD design (lb, kip, N, kN)
Pu maximum load from factored loads for LRFD design (lb, kip, N, kN)
Pa Pascals (N/m2)
q shear flow (lb/in, kips/ft, N/m, kN/m)
Q first moment area used in shearing stress calculations (in3, mm3, m3)
Qconnected first moment area used in shearing stress calculations for built-up beams (in3, mm3, m3)
Qx first moment area about an x axis (using y distances) (in3, mm3, m3)
Qy first moment area about an y axis (using x distances) (in3, mm3, m3)
r radius of a circle (in, mm, m);
radius of gyration (in, mm, m)
ro polar radius of gyration (in, mm, m)
rx radius of gyration with respect to an x-axis (in, mm, m)
ry radius of gyration with respect to a y-axis(in, mm, m)
R force, reaction or resultant (lb, kip, N, kN);
radius of curvature of a beam (ft, m);
rainwater or ice load for LRFD design;
generic design quantity (force, shear, moment, etc.) for LRFD design
Rn generic nominal capacity (force, shear, moment, etc.) for LRFD design
Ru generic maximum quantity (force, shear, moment, etc.) from factored loads for LRFD design
Rx reaction or resultant component in the x coordinate direction (lb, kip, N, kN)
Ry reaction or resultant component in the y coordinate direction (lb, kip, N, kN)
s length of a segment of a thin walled section (in, mm)
s.w. self-weight
S section modulus (in3, mm3, m3);
snow load for LRFD design;
allowable strength per length of a weld for a given size (lb/in, kips/in, N/mm, kN/m)
Srequired section modulus required to not exceed allowable bending stress (in3, mm3, m3)
Sx section modulus with respect to the x-centroidal axis (in3, mm3, m3)
Sy section modulus with respect to the y-centroidal axis (in3, mm3, m3)
SC slip critical bolted connection
S4S surface-four-sided
t thickness (in, mm, m)
tf thickness of the flange of a steel beam cross section (in, mm, m)
tw thickness of the web of a steel beam cross section (in, mm, m)
T tension label;
tensile force (lb, kip, N, kN);
torque (lb-ft, kip-ft, N-m, kN-m);
throat size of a weld (in, mm)
5
ENDS 231 Symbols F2007abn

V shearing force (lb, kip, N, kN)

Vn nominal shear strength capacity for LRFD beam design (lb, kip, N, kN)
Vu maximum shear from factored loads for LRFD beam design (lb, kip, N, kN)
w (also ω ) load per unit length on a beam (lb/ft, kip/ft, N/m, kN/m)
W weight (lb, kip, N, kN);
total load from a uniform distribution (lb, kip, N, kN);
wind load for LRFD design
x a distance in the x direction (in, ft, mm, m)
x the distance in the x direction from a reference axis to the centroid of a shape (in, mm)
x̂ the distance in the x direction from a reference axis to the centroid of a composite shape (in,
mm)
X bearing-type connection with bolt threads excluded from shear plane
y a distance in the y direction (in, ft, mm, m);
distance from the neutral axis to the y-level of a beam cross section (in, mm)
y the distance in the y direction from a reference axis to the centroid of a shape (in, mm)
ŷ the distance in the y direction from a reference axis to the centroid of a composite shape (in,
mm)
Z plastic section modulus of a steel beam (in3, mm3)
' symbol for feet
" symbol for inches
# symbol for pounds
α coefficient of thermal expansion (/°C, /°F);
angle, in a math equation (degrees, radians)
β angle, in a math equation (degrees, radians)
δ elongation (in, mm)
δP elongation due to axial load (in, mm)
δs shear deformation (in, mm)
δT elongation due to change in temperature (in, mm)
Δ beam deflection (in, mm);
an increment
ΔLL beam deflection due to live load (in, mm)
Δmax maximum calculated beam deflection (in, mm)
ΔTL beam deflection due to total load (in, mm)
ΔT change in temperature (°C, °F)
ε strain (no units)
εt thermal strain (no units)

6
ENDS 231 Symbols F2007abn

φ diameter symbol;
angle of twist (degrees, radians);
resistance factor in LRFD steel design
φb resistance factor for flexure in LRFD steel design
φc resistance factor for compression in LRFD steel design
φt resistance factor for tension in LRFD steel design
φv resistance factor for shear in LRFD steel design
λc design constant for slenderness evaluation for steel columns in LRFD design
μ Poisson’s ratio
γ specific gravity of a material (lb/in3, lb/ft3, N/m3,kN/m3);
angle, in a math equation (degrees, radians);
shearing strain;
load factor in LRFD design
γD dead load factor in LRFD steel design
γL live load factor in LRFD steel design
θ angle, in a trig equation (degrees, radians);
slope of the deflection of a beam at a point (degrees, radians)
π pi
ρ radial distance (in, mm)
σ engineering symbol for normal stress (axial or bending)
τ engineering symbol for shearing stress
Σ summation symbol
ω (also w) load per unit length on a beam (lb/ft, kip/ft, N/m, kN/m)

7
 THE DEACON’S MASTERPIECE
Or, the Wonderful “one-Hoss Shay”
A Logical Story
By Oliver Wendell Homes

HAVE you heard of the wonderful one-hoss-shay, 'n' the way t' fix it, uz I maintain,
That was built in such a logical way Is only jest
It ran a hundred years to a day, T' make that place uz strong uz the rest."
And then, of a sudden, it--ah, but stay
I'll tell you what happened without delay,
Scaring the parson into fits, So the Deacon inquired of the village folk
Frightening people out of their wits,-- Where he could find the strongest oak,
Have you ever heard of that, I say? That couldn't be split nor bent nor broke,--

Seventeen hundred and fifty-five, That was for spokes and floor and sills;
Georgius Secundus was then alive,-- He sent for lancewood to make the thills;
Snuffy old drone from the German hive; The crossbars were ash, from the straightest trees,
That was the year when Lisbon-town The panels of whitewood, that cuts like cheese,
Saw the earth open and gulp her down, But lasts like iron for things like these;
And Braddock's army was done so brown, The hubs of logs from the "Settler's ellum,"
Left without a scalp to its crown. Last of its timber,--they couldn't sell 'em,
It was on the terrible earthquake-day Never an axe had seen their chips,
That the Deacon finished the one-hoss-shay. And the wedges flew from between their lips
Their blunt ends frizzled like celery-tips;
Step and prop-iron, bolt and screw,
Now in building of chaises, I tell you what, Spring, tire, axle, and linchpin too,
There is always somewhere a weakest spot,-- Steel of the finest, bright and blue;
In hub, tire, felloe, in spring or thill, Thoroughbrace bison-skin, thick and wide;
In panel, or crossbar, or floor, or sill, Boot, top, dasher, from tough old hide
Found in the pit when the tanner died.

In screw, bolt, thoroughbrace,--lurking still,

Find it somewhere you must and will,-- That was the way he "put her through."
Above or below, or within or without,-- "There!" said the Deacon, "naow she'll dew."
And that's the reason, beyond a doubt,
A chaise breaks down, but doesn't wear out.
Do! I tell you, I rather guess
She was a wonder, and nothing less!
But the Deacon swore (as Deacons do,
With an "I dew vum," or an "I tell yeou,"
He would build one shay to beat the taown Colts grew horses, beards turned gray,
'n' the keounty 'n' all the kentry raoun'; Deacon and deaconess dropped away,
It should be so built that it couldn' break daown! Children and grandchildren--where were they?
--"Fur," said the Deacon, "t 's mighty plain But there stood the stout old one-hoss-shay
Thut the weakes' place mus' stan' the strain; As fresh as on Lisbon-earthquake-day!

1
 THE DEACON’S MASTERPIECE

EIGHTEEN HUNDRED;--it came and found First of November, 'Fifty-five!

The Deacon's Masterpiece strong and sound. This morning the parson takes a drive.
Eighteen hundred increased by ten;-- Now, small boys, get out of the way!
"Hahnsum kerridge" they called it then. Here comes the wonderful one-hoss-shay,
Eighteen hundred and twenty came;-- Drawn by a rat-tailed, ewe-necked bay.
Running as usual; much the same. "Huddup!" said the parson. --Off went they.
Thirty and forty at last arrive,
And then come fifty, and FIFTY-FIVE.
The parson was working his Sunday's text,--
Had got to fifthly, and stopped perplexed
Little of all we value here At what the--Moses--was coming next.
Wakes on the morn of its hundredth year All at once the horse stood still,
Without both feeling and looking queer. Close by the meet'n'-house on the hill

In fact, there's nothing that keeps its youth --First a shiver, and then a thrill,
So far as I know, but a tree and truth. Then something decidedly like a spill,--
(This is a moral that runs at large; And the parson was sitting upon a rock,
Take it.--You 're welcome.--No extra charge.) At half-past nine by the meet'n'-house clock,--
Just the hour of the Earthquake shock!

FIRST OF NOVEMBER,--the Earthquake-day.--

There are traces of age in the one-hoss-shay-- --What do you think the parson found,
A general flavor of mild decay, When he got up and stared around?
But nothing local, as one may say. The poor old chaise in a heap or mound,
There couldn't be,--for the Deacon's art As if it had been to the mill and ground!
Had made it so like in every part You see, of course, if you 're not a dunce,
That there wasn't a chance for one to start. How it went to pieces all at once,--
For the wheels were just as strong as the thills, All at once, and nothing first,--
And the floor was just as strong as the sills, Just as bubbles do when they burst.
And the panels just as strong as the floor,
And the whippletree neither less nor more,
And the back-crossbar as strong as the fore, End of the wonderful one-hoss-shay.
And spring and axle and hub encore, Logic is logic. That's all I say.
And yet, as a whole, it is past a doubt
In another hour it will be worn out!

2
ENDS 231 Note Set 1.1 F2007abn

Math for Structures I

1. Parallel lines never intersect.

2. Two lines are perpendicular (or normal) when they intersect at a right angle = 90°.

3. Intersecting (or concurrent) lines cross or meet at a point.

4. If two lines cross, the opposite angles are identical:

β α
α β

5. If a line crosses two parallel lines, the intersection angles with the same orientation are
identical:
β α
α β
β α
α β

6. If the sides of two angles are parallel and intersect in the same fashion, the angles are
identical.

α α

7. If the sides of two angles are parallel, but intersect in the opposite fashion, the angles are
supplementary: α+β = 180°.

α β α
8. If the sides of two angles are perpendicular and intersect in the same fashion, the angles are
identical.

1
ENDS 231 Note Set 1.1 F2007abn

9. If the sides of two angles are perpendicular, but intersect in the opposite fashion,
the angles are supplementary: α+β = 180°.

β
α
α
10. If the side of two angles bisects a right angle, the angles are complimentary:
α+ γ = 90°.

γ
α

11. If a right angle bisects a straight line, the remaining angles are
complimentary: α+ γ = 90°. α
90°
γ

12. The sum of the interior angles of a triangle = 180°.

B
13. For a right triangle, that has one angle of 90°, the sum of the other angles = 90°.

90°
C A
14. For a right triangle, the sum of the squares of the sides equals the square of the hypotenuse:
AB 2 + AC 2 = CB 2

15. Similar triangles have identical angles in the same orientation. Their sides are related by:

Case 1: A AB AC BC
= =
AD AE DE
C
B E
A′
D
Case 2: α
A
AB AC BC
α C′ γ = =
A′B′ A′C ′ B′C ′
γ
C β
B
β
B′

2
ENDS 231 Note Set 1.1 F2007abn

16. For right triangles:

opposite side AB
sin = = sin α =
hypotenuse CB B
adjacent side AC
cos = = cos α =
hypotenuse CB α
C
opposite side AB A
tan = = tan α =
adjacent side AC
(SOHCAHTOA)

17. If an angle is greater than 180° and less than 360°, sin will be less than 0.
If an angle is greater than 90° and less than 270°, cos will be less than 0.
If an angle is greater than 90° and less than 180°, tan will be less than 0.
If an angle is greater than 270° and less than 360°, tan will be less than 0.

18. LAW of SINES (any triangle)

B α C
sin α sin β sin γ
= =
A B C β
γ
19. LAW of COSINES (any triangle) A

A2 = B 2 + C 2 − 2BC cos α

20. Surfaces or areas have dimensions of width and length and units of length squared (ex. in2 or
inches x inches).

21. Solids or volumes have dimension of width, length and height or thickness and units of
length cubed (ex. m3 or m x m x m)

22. Algebra: If a⋅b= c⋅d then it can be rewritten:

a ⋅b + k = c ⋅d + k add a constant
c ⋅d = a ⋅b switch sides
c ⋅d divide both sides by b
a=
b
a d divide both sides by b⋅c
=
c b

23. Cartesian Coordinate System

Y
. (x,y) - coordinates

O -origin X
3
ENDS 231 Note Set 1.1 F2007abn

24. Solving equations with one unknown:

1st order polynomial: 2x − 1 = 0 L 2 x = 1L x= 1

2

−b
ax + b = 0 L x=
a

2nd order polynomial − b ± b 2 − 4ac two answers

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 L x= (radical cannot be
2a negative)
x2 −1 = 0L − 0 ± 02 − 4( −1)
x= L x = ±1
(a = 1, b = 0, c = −1) 2 ⋅1

25. Solving 2 linear equations simultaneously:

Equations can be added and factored to eliminate one variable:

ex: 2x + 3y = 8 2x + 3y = 8
4x − y = 2 multiply both sides by 3 12 x − 3 y = 6
and add 14 x + 0 = 14
simplify x =1
put x=1 in an equation for y 2 ⋅ 1 + 3y = 8
simplify 3y = 6
y =2

26. Derivatives of polynomials dy

y = constant =0
dx
y=x dy
=1
dx
y = ax dy
=a
dx
dy
y = x2 = 2x
dx
dy
y = x3 = 3x 2
dx

27. The minimum and maximum of a function can be found by setting the derivative = 0 and
solving for the unknown variable.

28. Calculators (and software) process equations by an “order of operations”, which typically
means they process functions like exponentials and square roots before simpler functions
such as + or -. BE SURE to specify with parenthesis what order you want, or you’ll get the
wrong answers. It is also important to have degrees set in your calculator for trig functions.

For instance, Excel uses – for sign (like -1) first, then will process exponents and square
roots, times and divide, followed by plus and minus. If you type 4x10^2 and really mean
(4x10)^2 you will get an answer of 400 instead of 1600.
4
ENDS 231 Note Set 1.2 F2007abn

Numerical Computations
from Statics and Strength of Materials, 5th ed. Morrow & Kokernak, Prentice Hall, 2004

1
ENDS 231 Note Set 1.2 F2007abn

2
ENDS 231 Note Set 1.3 F2007aba

Problem Solving, Units and Numerical Accuracy

Problem Solution Method:

1. Inputs GIVEN:
Outputs FIND: on graph paper
“Critical Path” SOLUTION

2. Draw simple diagram of body/bodies & forces acting on it/them.

3. Choose a reference system for the forces.

4. Identify key geometry and constraints.

5. Write the basic equations for force components.

6. Count the equations & unknowns.

7. SOLVE

8. “Feel” the validity of the answer. (Use common sense. Check units…)

Example: Two forces, A & B, act on a particle. What is the resultant?

B
1. GIVEN: Two forces on a particle and a diagram with size and orientation
A
FIND: The “resultant” of the two forces

SOLUTION:

2. Draw what you know (the diagram, any other numbers in the problem statement that
could be put on the drawing….)

3. Choose a reference system. What would be the easiest? Cartesian, radian?

4. Key geometry: the location of the particle as the origin of all the forces
Key constraints: the particle is “free” in space

5. Write equations:
size of A2 + size of B 2 = size of resultant
size of B
sin α =
size of A + B
6. Count: Unknowns: 2, magnitude and direction ≤ Equations: 2 ∴ can solve

7. Solve: graphically or with equations

8. “Feel”: Is the result bigger than A and bigger than B? Is it in the right direction?
(like A & B)

1
ENDS 231 Note Set 1.3 F2007aba

Units

Units Mass Length Time Force

kg ⋅ m
SI kg m s N=
s2
Absolute lb ⋅ ft
lb ft s Poundal = 2
English s
Technical lbf ⋅ s 2
slug = ft s lbforce
English ft
Engineering
lb ft s lbforce
English
lbforce = lb( mass ) × 32.17 ft
s2

gravitational g c = 32.17 ft
s2 (English)
constant
g c = 9.81 m (SI)
s2

conversions 1 in = 25.4 mm
(pg. vii) 1 lb = 4.448 N

Numerical Accuracy

Depends on 1) accuracy of data you are given

2) accuracy of the calculations performed

The solution CANNOT be more accurate than the less accurate of #1 and #2 above!

DEFINITIONS: precision the number of significant digits

accuracy the possible error

Relative error measures the degree of accuracy:

relative error
× 100 = degree of accuracy (%)
measurement
For engineering problems, accuracy rarely is less than 0.2%.

2
ENDS 231 Note Set 2 F2007aba

Forces and Vectors

Characteristics
• Forces have a point of application – tail of vector
size – units of lb, K, N, kN
direction – to a reference system, sense indicated by an arrow
• Classifications include: Static & Dynamic
• Structural types separated primarily into Dead Load and Live Load with further identification
as wind, earthquake (seismic), impact, etc.

Rigid Body
• Ideal material that doesn’t deform
• Forces on rigid bodies can be internal – within or at connections
or external – applied

• Rigid bodies can translate (move in a straight line)

or rotate (change angle)

• Weight of truck is external (gravity)

• Push by driver is external

• Reaction of the ground on wheels is external

If the truck moves forward: it translates

If the truck gets put up on a jack: it rotates

• Transmissibility: We can replace a force at a point on a body by that force on another point
on the body along the line of action of the force.

F F

External conditions haven’t changed

1
ENDS 231 Note Set 2 F2007aba

For the truck:

• The same external forces will result in the same conditions for motion

• Transmissibility applies to EXTERNAL forces. INTERNAL forces respond differently

when an external force is moved.

• DEFINITION: 2D Structure - A structure that is flat and may contain a plane of symmetry.
All forces on this structure are in the same plane as the structure.

Internal and External

• Internal forces occur within a member or between bodies within a system
• External forces represent the action of other bodies or gravity on the rigid body

Force System Types

• Collinear – all forces along the same line

• Coplanar – all forces in the same plane

• Space – out there

Further classification as

• Concurrent – all forces go through the same point

• Parallel – all forces are parallel

2
ENDS 231 Note Set 2 F2007aba

Graphical Addition
R
• Parallelogram law: when adding two vectors acting at a point, the result
is the diagonal of the parallelogram
F
• The tip-to-tail method is
R F
another graphical way to add
vectors.
P

• With 3 (three) or more vectors, successive application of the parallelogram law will find the
resultant OR drawing all the vectors tip-to-tail in any order will find the resultant.

Rectangular Force Components and Addition

• It is convenient to resolve forces into perpendicular components (at 90°).
F
• Parallelogram law results in a rectangle. y

• Triangle rule results in a right triangle. Fy

θ
x
F Fx
F
Fy
Fy

Fx
Fx

θ is: between x & F

Fx = F⋅cosθ
} magnitudes are scalar and can be negative
Fy = F⋅sinθ Fx & Fy are vectors in x and y direction

F= Fx2 + F y2

Fy
tanθ =
Fx

3
ENDS 231 Note Set 2 F2007aba

When 90° < θ < 270°, Fx is negative

When 180° < θ < 360°, Fy is negative
When 0° < θ < 90° and 180° < θ < 270°, tanθ is positive
When 90° < θ < 180° and 270° < θ < 360°, tanθ is negative

• Addition (analytically) can be done by adding all the x components for a resultant x
component and adding all the y components for a resultant y component.

Ry
Rx = ∑Fx , Ry = ∑ Fy and R = Rx2 + R 2y tan θ =
Rx

CAUTION: An interior angle, φ, between a vector and either coordinate axis can be
used in the trig functions. BUT No sign will be provided by the trig function, which
means you must give a sign and determine if the component is in the x or y direction.
φ
For example, F sin φ = opposite side, which whould be negative in x! F

Example 1 (page 9)

Steps:
1. GIVEN: Write down what’s given (drawing
and numbers).
2. FIND: Write down what you need to find.
(resultant graphically)
3. SOLUTION:
4. Draw the 400 lb and 600 lb forces to scale with
tails at 0. (If the scale isn’t given, you must choose
one that fits on your paper, ie. 1 inch = 200 lb.)
5. Draw parallel reference lines at the ends of the
vectors.
6. Draw a line from O to the intersection of the
reference lines
7. Measure the length of the line
8. Convert the line length by the scale into pounds
(by multiplying by the force measure and dividing
by the scale value, ie X inches * 200 lb / 1 inch).

4
ENDS 231 Note Set 2 F2007aba

Alternate solution:

4. Draw one vector

5. Draw the other vector at the TIP of the first one (away from the tip).
6. Draw a line from 0 to the tip of the final vector and continue at step 7

Example 2 (pg 12)

1.5 mm = 1 lb. or 1mm = 2/3 lb.

5
ENDS 231 Note Set 2 F2007aba

Example 3 (pg 16)

Also determine the embedment length, L, if the

anchor can resist 500 N for ever cm of embedment.

6
ENDS 231 Note Set 2 F2007aba

Example 4 (pg 19) Determine the resultant vector analytically with the component method.

7
ENDS 231 Note Set 3 F2007abn

Moments

Moment of a Force About an Axis

• Two forces of the same size and direction acting at different points are not equivalent. They
may cause the same translation, but they cause different rotation.

• DEFINITION: Moment – A moment is the tendency of a force to make a body rotate about
an axis. It is measured by F×d, where d is the distance perpendicular to the line of action of
the force and through the axis of rotation.

F
C F M = F ⋅d C M = F ⋅ d′
(about A) (force at C)
A B A B

not equivalent

• For the same force, the bigger the lever arm (or moment arm), the bigger the moment
magnitude, i.e. M A = F ⋅ d1 < M A = F ⋅ d 2

• Units: SI: N⋅m, KN⋅m

Engr. English: lb-ft, kip-ft

• Sign conventions: Moments have magnitude and rotational direction:

positive - negative –
CCW + CW -

1
ENDS 231 Note Set 3 F2007abn

• Moments can be added as scalar quantities when there is a sign convention.

F
F
d
A B ≠ A B
d

+F⋅d
A ⋅ ⋅B -F⋅d

• Repositioning a force along its line of action results in the same moment about any axis.

B B
F
d′ d′
A = A
d d
F

MA = F⋅d MA = F⋅d
MB = F⋅d′ + MB = F⋅d′

• A force is completely defined (except for its exact position on the line of action) by Fx, Fy,
and MA about A (size and direction).

• The sign of the moment is determined by which side of the axis the force is on.

F
negative or
d positive
F
d
A

• Varignon’s Theorem: The moment of a force about any axis is equal to the sum of moments
of the components about that axis.

F Q F

P
d1
d d2
.A .A
M = F ⋅ d = P ⋅ d1 + Q ⋅ d 2
2
ENDS 231 Note Set 3 F2007abn

• Proof 1: Resolve F into components along line BA and perpendicular to it (90°).

F⊥ F d from A to line AB = 0
θ d
d from A to F⊥ = dBA =
B. d cosθ
θ FBA = F sin θ
FBA
.A
F⊥ = F cosθ
d
∑M = − F ⋅ d = − FBA ⋅ 0 − F⊥ ⋅ d BA = − F cosθ ⋅ = −F ⋅ d
cosθ

• Proof 2: Resolve P and Q into PBA & P⊥, and QBA & Q⊥.
Q
Q⊥ Q
B. P P⊥ P
. QBA
.B
.A B .A .A
PBA

d from A to line AB = 0
MA by P = − P⊥ ⋅ d BA MA by Q = − Q⊥ ⋅ d BA
∑M = − P⊥ ⋅ d BA + (−Q⊥ ⋅ d BA )

and we know dBA from Proof 1, and by definition: P⊥ + Q⊥.= F⊥. We know dBA and F⊥ from
above, so again M = -F⊥·dBA = -F·d

• By choosing component directions such that d = 0 to one of the components, we can simplify
many problems.

Example 1 (pg 24)

3
ENDS 231 Note Set 3 F2007abn

Example 2
(pg 26)

(Moment at A)

Moment Couples

• Moment Couple: Two forces with equal magnitude, parallel lines of action and opposite
sense tend to make our body rotate even though the sum of forces is 0. The sum of the
moment of the forces about any axis is not zero.

d1 ∑M = F ⋅d 2 − F ⋅ d1 = M
d A
d2 M = F ( d 2 − d1 )

F M = −F ⋅ d : moment of the couple (CW)

• M does not depend on where A is. M depends on the perpendicular distance between the line
of action of the parallel forces.

• M for a couple (defined by F and d) is a constant. And the sense (+/-) is obtained by
observation.

• Just as there are equivalent moments (other values of F and d that result in M) there are
equivalent couples. The magnitude is the same for different values of F and resulting d or
different values of d and resulting F.

M M
M = F ⋅d F= d=
300 N d F
100 mm 300 N 200 N 250 mm
120 N
120 N
200 N 150 mm
4
ENDS 231 Note Set 3 F2007abn

Equivalent Force Systems

• Two systems of forces are equivalent if we can transform one of them into the other with:

1.) replacing two forces on a point by their resultant

2.) resolving a force into two components
3.) canceling two equal and opposite forces on a point
4.) attaching two equal and opposite forces to a point
5.) moving a force along its line of action’
6.) replacing a force and moment on a point with a force on another (specific) point
7.) replacing a force on point with a force and moment on another (specific) point
* based on the parallelogram rule and the principle of transmissibility

• The size and direction are important for a moment. The location on a body doesn’t matter
because couples with the same moment will have the same effect on the rigid body.

Addition of Couples

• Couples can be added as scalars.

• Two couples can be replaced by a single couple with the magnitude of the algebraic sum of
the two couples.

Resolution of a Force into a Force and a Couple

• The equivalent action of a force on a body can be reproduced by that force and a force
couple:

If we’d rather have F acting at A′ which isn’t in the line of action, we can instead add F and
–F at A′ with no change of action by F. Now it becomes a couple of F separated by d and
the force F moved to A′. The size is F⋅d=M

F F F
A′ A′ d
A -F A

The couple can be represented by a moment symbol:

F M=F⋅d
A′
• Any force can be replaced by itself at another point and the A
moment equal to the force multiplied by the distance between
the original line of action and new line of action.

5
ENDS 231 Note Set 3 F2007abn

Resolution of a Force into a Force and a Moment

• Principle: Any force F acting on a rigid body (say the one at A) may be moved to any given
point A′, provided that a couple M is added: the moment M of the couple must equal the
moment of F (in its original position at A) about A′.

F F M=F⋅d
F F
A′ A′ d A′
-F A A
A

• IN REVERSE: A force F acting at A′ and a couple M may be combined into a single

resultant force F acting at A (a distance d away) where the moment of F about A′ is equal to
M.

Resultant of Two Parallel Forces

• Gravity loads act in one direction, so we may have parallel forces on our structural elements.
We know how to find the resultant force, but the location of the resultant must provide the
equivalent total moment from each individual force. R
B
A

C D C D
a x
b

A⋅a + B ⋅b
R = A+ B MC = A⋅a + B ⋅b = R ⋅ x ⇒ x =
R

Example 3 (pg 19)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 3 F2007abn

Example 4 (pg 34)

15k

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ENDS 231 Note Set 4 F2007abn

Equilibrium of a Particle

• EQUILIBRIUM is the state where the resultant of the forces on a particle is zero.

ex: 2 forces of same size, opposite direction

X

ex: 4 forces, polygon rule shows that it closes

• Analytically: Rx = ∑ Fx = 0 Ry = ∑ Fy = 0 (scalar addition)

M = ∑M = 0 (always true when the forces run through the point)

• NEWTON’S FIRST LAW: If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the particle will
remain at rest (if originally at rest) or will move with constant speed in a straight line (if
originally in motion).

Collinear Force System

• All forces act along the same line. Only one equilibrium equation is needed: ∑F ( in −line ) =0

• Equivalently: R x = ∑ Fx = 0 and Ry = ∑ Fy = 0
We know that ΣM has to equal 0 for no rotation.

Concurrent Force System

• All forces act through the same point. Only two equilibrium equations are needed:
R x = ∑ Fx = 0 and Ry = ∑ Fy = 0
We know that ΣM has to equal 0 for no rotation.

• FREE BODY DIAGRAM (aka FBD): Sketch of a significant isolated particle of a body or
structure showing all the forces acting on it. Forces can be from

- externally applied forces

- weight of the rigid body
- reaction forces or constraints
- externally applied moments
- moment reactions or constraints
- forces developed within a section member
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ENDS 231 Note Set 4 F2007abn

• How to solve when there are more than three forces on a free body:
1. Resolve all forces into x and y components using known and unknown forces and
angles. (Tables are helpful.)

2. Determine if any unknown forces are related to other forces and write an equation.

3. Write the two equilibrium equations (in x and y).

4. Solve the equations simultaneously when there are the same number of equations
as unknown quantities. (see math handout)

• Common problems have unknowns of: 1) magnitude of force

2) direction of force

Example 1 (pg 49)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 4 F2007abn

Example 2 (pg 56)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 4 F2007abn

• CABLES: have the same tension all along the length if they are not cut. The force
magnitude is the same everywhere in the cable even if it changes angles. Cables CANNOT
be in compression. (They flex instead.)

• CABLE STRUCTURES:

High-strength steel is the most common material used for cable structures because it has a
high strength to weight ratio.

Cables must be supported by vertical supports or towers and must be anchored at the ends.
Flexing or unwanted movement should be resisted. (Remember the Tacoma Narrows
Bridge?)

Cables with a single load have a concurrent force

system. It will only be in equilibrium if the cable is
symmetric.

The forces anywhere in a straight segment can be

resolved into x and y components of T x = T cos θ and
T y = T sin θ .

The shape of a cable having a uniform distributed load is almost parabolic, which means the
geometry and cable length can be found with:

y = 4 h( Lx − x 2 ) / L2 h
y
where y is the vertical distance from the straight
line from cable start to end L
h is the vertical sag (maximum y) x
x is the distance from one end to the
location of y
L is the horizontal span.

2 4
Ltotal = L(1 + 8 3 h 2 − 32 5 h )
L L4

where Ltotal is the total length of parabolic cable

h and L are defined above.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 4 F2007abn

Example 3 (pg 55)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 5 F2007abn

Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

• Definition: Equilibrium is the state when all the external forces acting on a rigid body form a
system of forces equivalent to zero. There will be no rotation or translation. The forces are
referred to as balanced.

Rx = ∑ Fx = 0 Ry = ∑ Fy = 0 AND ∑M = 0
• It is ABSOLUTELY NECESSARY to consider all the forces acting on a body (applied
directly and indirectly) using a FREE BODY DIAGRAM. Omission of a force would ruin
the conditions for equilibrium.

FREE BODY DIAGRAM STEPS;

1. Determine the free body of interest. (What body is in equilibrium?)

2. Detach the body from the ground and all other bodies (“free” it).

3. Indicate all external forces which include:

- action on the free body by the supports & connections
- action on the free body by other bodies
- the weigh effect (=force) of the free body itself (force due to gravity)

4. All forces should be clearly marked with magnitudes and direction. The sense of forces
should be those acting on the body not by the body.

5. Dimensions/angles should be included for moment computations and force computations.

6. Indicate the unknown angles, distances, forces or moments, such as those reactions or
constraining forces where the body is supported or connected. (Text uses hashes on the
unknown forces to distinguish them.)

• Reactions can be categorized by the type of connections or supports. A reaction is a force

with known line of action, or a force of unknown direction, or a moment. The line of action
of the force or direction of the moment is directly related to the motion that is prevented.

prevents motion: prevents motion: prevents:

up and down vertical & horizontal rotation & translation

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ENDS 231 Note Set 5 F2007abn

Reactions and Support Connections Structural Analysis, 4th ed., R.C. Hibbeler

2
ENDS 231 Note Set 5 F2007abn

ƒ The line of action should be indicated on the FBD. The sense of direction is determined by
the type of support. (Cables are in tension, etc…) If the sense isn’t obvious, assume a sense.
When the reaction value comes out positive, the assumption was correct. When the reaction
value comes out negative, the assumption was opposite the actual sense. DON’T CHANGE THE
ARROWS ON YOUR FBD OR SIGNS IN YOUR EQUATIONS.

ƒ With the 3 equations of equilibrium, there can be no more than 3 unknowns. COUNT THE
NUMBER OF UNKNOWN REACTIONS.

Example 1
(similar to ex. on pg 65)

500 lb known

check:

reactions for the pin-type support at A = Ax & Ay

reactions and components for the smooth surface at B = B (perpendicular to ground only)

# equations = 3

procedure:

Write summation of forces in x and y and set = 0.

Choose a place to take a moment. Summing

moments at A means that Ax, Ay and Bx have
moment arms of zero.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 5 F2007abn

ƒ The general rule is to sum at point where there are the most unknown reactions which usually
results in one unknown left in the equation. This “point” could also be where two lines of
action intersect.

ƒ More than one moment equation can be used, but it will not be unique. Only 3 equations are
unique. Variations:

∑F = 0
x ∑F = 0
y ∑M 1 =0 or

∑F = 0
x ∑M = 0
1 ∑M 2 =0 or

∑M = 0
1 ∑M = 0
2 ∑M 3 =0

Recognizing support unknowns in FBD’s

F F

3
unknowns

3
weight unknowns
m⋅g

3
+ weight m⋅g
unknowns

F1 F2 F1 F2

6 – 2 bodies
unknowns
not independent

2
m⋅g unknowns
weight

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ENDS 231 Note Set 5 F2007abn

Example 2 (pg 63)

Example 3 (pg 67)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 5 F2007abn

Statical Indeterminancy and Improper Constraints

ƒ Definition: A completely constrained rigid body has the same number of unknown reactions
as number of equilibrium equations and cannot move under the loading conditions. The
reactions are statically determinate.

ƒ Definition: Statically indeterminate reactions appear on a rigid body when there are more
unknown reactions than the number of equilibrium equations. The reactions that cannot be
solved for are statically indeterminate. The degree of indeterminacy is the number of
additional equations that would be needed to solve, i.e. one more = 1st degree, 2 more = 2nd
degree...

Example of Static Indeterminancy: 60 lb

Find the reactions on the cantilever when a pin is 200 lb-ft
added at C A B 55°
C
5’ 9’
60 lb
200 lb-ft
A B 55°
C With 5 unknowns, two won’t be solvable.
(statically indeterminate to the 2nd degree)

ƒ Definition: When the support conditions provide the same or less unknown reactions as the
equations of equilibrium but allow the structure to move (not equilibrium), the structure is
considered partially constrained. This occurs when the reactions must be either concurrent
or parallel.

Example of Partial Constraints:

B
0.75 m
Find the reactions when the pin support at A changes to a
roller A 30°

1m
B 100 N
0.75 m

A 30° If ΣF has to equal 0, the x component must be 0, meaning

B = 0.
1m A would have to equal 100 N, but then ΣM wouldn’t be 0.
100 N

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ENDS 231 Note Set 5 F2007abn

ƒ The condition of at most as many unknown reactions as equilibrium equations is necessary

for static determinacy, but isn’t sufficient. The supports must completely constrain the
structure.

ƒ We’d like to avoid partial or improper constraint in the design of our structures. However,
some structures with these types of constraints may not collapse. They may move. Or they
may require advanced analysis to find reaction forces.

Example of Partial Constraints and Static Indeterminacy:

500 mm
Find the weight and reactions when the sleeve 200 mm
track is horizontal A B

k = 5 N/mm
k(Δl) = F by spring
length of unstretched spring = 450 mm W

For ΣF to equal 0, the spring force must be 0

(x component = 0) meaning it can’t be stretched
if there is no movement W

Rigid Body Cases:

1. Two-force body: Equilibrium of a body subjected to two forces on two points requires that
those forces be equal and opposite and act in the same line of action.

F1 F1
B B B F1
d d
A F2 A Aα

F2 F2

(A) (B) (C)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 5 F2007abn

2. Three-force body: Equilibrium of a body subjected to three forces on three points requires
that the line of action of the forces be concurrent (intersect) or parallel AND that the resultant
equal zero.

F2 F2 F2
F3
F3 F3
B d1 B B
A C A C d2 A Cα
F1 F1
F1

(A) (B) (C)

Cables with Several Concentrated Loads or Fixed Geometry

• In order to completely constrain cables, the number of unknown support reactions will be
more than the available number of equilibrium equations. We can solve because we have
additional equations from geometry due to the slope of the cable.

• The tension in the cable IS NOT the same everywhere, but the horizontal component in a
cable segment WILL BE.

4m 6m
A B
Tx
2m

Tx

45 kN 45 kN
C

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ENDS 231 Note Set 6 F2007abn

Truss Structures
• A truss is made up of straight two-force members connected at its ends. The triangular
arrangement produces stable geometry. Loads on a truss are applied at the joints only.
• Joints are pin-type connections (resist translation, not rotation).
• Forces of action and reaction on a joint must be equal and opposite.
• Members in TENSION are being pulled.
• Members in COMPRESSION are being squeezed.
• External forces act on the joints.

• Truss configuration:
Three members form a rigid assembly with 3 (three) connections.
To add members and still have a rigid assembly, 2 (two) more must be added with one
connection between.
For rigidity: b = 2n – 3, where b is number of members and n is number of joints

Method of Joints

• The method takes advantage of the conditions of equilibrium at each joint.

1. Determine support reaction forces.

2. Draw a FBD of each member AND each joint

3. Identify geometry of angled members

4. Identify zero force members and other special (easy to solve) cases

5. Each pin is in equilibrium ( ∑ Fx = 0 and ∑ Fy = 0 for a concurrent force system)

6. Total equations = 2n = b+3 (one force per member + 3 support reactions)

Advantages: Can find every member force

Disadvantages: Lots of equations, easy to lose track of forces found.

Tools available: Tip-to-tail method for 3 joint forces must close

Analytically, there will be at most 2 unknowns with 2 equilibrium
equations.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 6 F2007abn

P P
C
F D
A E B

Joint Configurations (special cases to recognize for faster solutions)

Case 1) Two Bodies Connected

A C C
B or B
A

(0)
(0)

FAB has to be equal (=) to FBC

Case 2) Three Bodies Connected with Two Bodies in Line

C C A
D B B
A C
B
or or even
D D
A

(0)
(0) (0)

FAB and FBC have to be equal, and FBD has to be 0 (zero).

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ENDS 231 Note Set 6 F2007abn

Case 3) Three Bodies Connected and a Force – 2 Bodies aligned & 1 Body and a Force are
Aligned
Four Bodies Connected - 2 Bodies Aligned and the Other 2 Bodies Aligned

A P D C D
B D

C B B A C
B
A C
D A E E
P

FAB has to equal FBC, and [FBD has to equal P] or [FBD has to equal FBE]

Graphical Analysis

The method utilizes what we know about force triangles and plotting force magnitudes to scale.

1. Draw an accurate form diagram of the truss at a convenient scale with the loads and support
reaction forces.

2. Determine the support reaction forces.

3. Working clockwise and from left to right, apply interval notation to the diagram, assigning
capital letters to the spaces between external forces and numbers to internal spaces.

4. Construct a load line to a convenient scale of length to force by using the interval notation
and working clockwise around the truss from the upper left plotting the lengths of the vertical
and horizontal loads.

5. Starting at a left joint where we know there are fewer than three forces, we draw reference
lines in the direction of the unknown members so that they intersect. Label the intersection
with the number of the internal space.

6. Go to the next joint (clockwise and left to right) with two unknown forces and repeat for all
joints. The diagram should close.

7. Measure the line segments and apply interval notation to determine their sense: Proceeding
clockwise around the joint, follow the notation. The direction toward the joint is
compressive. The direction away from the joint is tensile.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 6 F2007abn

Example 1 (pg 90)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 6 F2007abn

Example 2 (pg 93)

•

5
ENDS 231 Note Set 6 F2007abn

Method of Sections (relies on internal forces being in equilibrium with external forces on a
section)

1. Determine support reaction forces.

2. Cut a section in such a way that force action lines intersect and no more than 3 members are
cut.

3. Solve for equilibrium. Sum moments about an intersection of force lines of action

Advantages: Quick when you only need one or two forces (only 3 equations needed)
Disadvantages: Not always easy to find a place to cut a section or see where force lines intersect

P P
C
F D
A E B

• Compound Truss: A truss assembled of simple trusses and additional links. It has b=2n-3,
is statically determinate, rigid and completely constrained with a pin and roller. It can be
identified by triangles with pins in the middle of some sides.

• Statically Indeterminate Trusses:

Occur if there are more members than equations for all the joints
OR if there are more reaction supports unknowns than 3

• Diagonal Tension Counters: Crossed bracing of cables or slender members is commonly

used in bridge trusses, buildings and towers. These trusses look indeterminate, but can be
solved statically because the bracing cannot hold a compressive force. The members are
excluded in the analysis.
5lb
Method:
E F G H
1. Determine support reaction forces.
4′
2. Cut a section in such a way that the tension
A D
counters are exposed. B 6′ C 6′
6′
3. Solve for force equilibrium in y with one counter. 10lb 20lb
If the value is positive (in tension), this is the
solution.

4. Solve for force equilibrium in y with the other counter.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 6 F2007abn

Example 3 (pg 99)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 8 F2007abn

Truss Analysis using Multiframe4D

1. The software is on the computers in the college computing lab (http://thelab.tamu.edu) in

Programs under the Windows Start menu. Multiframe4D is under the COSC menu.
2. There is a tutorial in the Help menu (Chapter 1 – 2D Tutorial) that lists the tasks and order in
greater detail. The first task is to define the unit system:
• Choose Units… from the View menu. Unit sets are available, but specific units can
also be selected by double clicking on a unit or format and making a selection from the
menu.

3. To see the scale of the geometry, a grid option is available:

• Choose Grid… from the View menu

4. To create the geometry, you must be in the Frame window (default). The symbol is the
frame in the window toolbar:

The Member toolbar shows ways to create members:

The Generate toolbar has convenient tools to create typical structural

shapes.
• To create a truss, use the add
connected members button:

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ENDS 231 Note Set 8 F2007abn

• Select a starting point and ending point with the cursor. The location of the cursor and
the segment length is displayed at the bottom of the geometry window. The ESC button
will end the segmented drawing. Continue to use the add connected members button.
Any time the cursor is over an existing joint, the joint will be highlighted by a red circle.
• The geometry can be set
precisely by selecting the joint
(drag), and bringing up the
joint properties menu (right
click) to set the coordinates.

• The support types can be set by selecting the joint

(drag) and using the Joint Toolbar (pin shown), or the
Frame / Joint Restraint ... menu (right click).
NOTE: If the support appears at both ends of the member, you
had the member selected rather than the joint. Select
the joint to change support for and right click to select
the joint restraints menu or select the correct support on
the joint toolbar.

The support forces will be determined in the analysis.

5. All members must have sections assigned (see section 6.) in order to calculate reactions and
deflections. To use a standard steel section proceed to step 6. For custom sections, the
section information must be entered. To define a section:
• Choose Edit Sections / Add
Section… from the Edit
menu
• Type a name for your new
section
• Choose group Frame from
the group names provided so
that the section will remain
with the file data
• Choose a shape. The Flat
Bar shape is a rectangular
section.
• Enter the cross section data.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 8 F2007abn

Table values 1-9 must have values for a Flat Bar, but not all are used for every analysis. A
recommendation is to put the value of 1 for those properties you don’t know or care about.
Properties like tf, tw, etc. refer to wide flange sections.
• Answer any query. If the message says there is an error, the section will not be created
until the error is corrected.
6. The standard sections library loaded is for the United States. If another section library is
needed, use the Open Sections Library... command under the file menu, choose the library
folder, and select the SectionsLibrary.slb file.

Select the members (drag to make bold) and assign sections with the Section button on the
Member toolbar:

• Choose the group name and section name:

(STANDARD SHAPES) (CUSTOM)

7. In order for Multiframe4D to recognize that the truss members are two-force bodies, all
members must be highlighted and assigned pinned ends with the Pinned Ends button on the
Member toolbar:

8. The truss geometry is complete, and in order to define the

load conditions you must be in the Load window represented
by the green arrow:
9. The Load toolbar allows a joint to be loaded with a force or a moment in global coordinates,
shown by the first two buttons. It allows a member to be loaded with a distributed load,
concentrated load or moment (next three buttons) in global coordinates, as well as loading
with distributed or single force in the local coordinate
system (last two buttons).
• Choose the joint to be loaded (drag) and select the load
type (here shown for point loading):

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ENDS 231 Note Set 8 F2007abn

• Choose the direction by the arrow shown. There is no

need to put in negative values for downward loading.
• Enter the values of the load

NOTE: Do not put support reactions

as applied loads. The analysis will
determine the reaction
valuesMultiframe2D will
automatically generate a grouping
called a Load Case named Load
Case 1 when a load is created. All
additional loads will be added to this
load case unless a new load case is
defined (Add case under the Case
menu).

10. In order to run the analysis after the geometry, member properties and loading has been
defined:
• Choose Analyze Linear from the Case menu
11. If the analysis is successful, you can view the results in the
Plot window represented by the red moment diagram:

12. The Plot toolbar allows the numerical values to be shown (1.0
button), the reaction arrows to be shown (brown up arrow) and
reaction moments to be shown (brown curved arrow):

• To show the axial force diagram, Choose the purple Axial Force
button. Tensile members will have “T” by the value (if turned
on), while compression members will have “C” by the value
• To show the deflection diagram, Choose the blue Deflection
button
• To animate the deflection diagram, Choose Animate... from the Display menu. You can
also save the animation to a .avi file by checking the box.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 8 F2007abn

• To see exact values of axial load and deflection, double click on the member and move
the vertical cross hair with the mouse. The ESC key will return you to the window.

13. The Data window (D) allows you to view all data “entered” for the geometry, sections and
loading. These values can be edited.

14. The Results window (R) allows you to view all results of the analysis
including displacements, reactions, member forces (actions) and
stresses. These values can be cut and pasted into other Windows
programs such as Word or Excel.

NOTE: Px’ refers to the axial load (P) in the local axis x direction (x’).

15. To save the file Choose Save from the File menu.
16. To load an existing file Choose Open... from the File menu.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 9 F2007abn

Pinned Frames and Arches

• A FRAME is made up of members where at least one member has more than 3 forces on it
- Usually stationary and fully constrained

• A PINNED FRAME has member connected by pins

- Considered non-rigid if it would collapse when the supports are
removed
- Considered rigid if it retains it’s original shape when the supports are
removed

• A RIGID FRAME is all one member with no internal pins

- Typically statically indeterminate
- Portal frames look like door frames
- Gable frames have a peak.

• INTERNAL PIN CONNECTIONS:

- Pin connection forces are equal and opposite between the bodies they connect.
- There are 2 unknown forces at a pin, but if we know a body is a two-force body, the
direction of the resultant force is known.

G
C
E F

A D
Ax
Ay
D

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ENDS 231 Note Set 9 F2007abn

• AN ARCH is a structural shape that can span large distances and sees compression along its
slope. It may have no hinges (or pins), two hinges at the supports, or two hinges at the
supports with a hinge at the apex. The three-hinged arch types are statically determinate with
2 bodies and 6 unknown forces.

Solution Procedure

1. Solve for the support forces on the entire frame (FBD) if possible.
2. Draw a FBD of each member:
- Consider all two-force bodies first.
- Pins are integral with members
- Pins with applied forces should belong to members with greater than two forces
[Same if pins connect 3 or more members]
- Draw forces on either side of a pin equal and opposite with arbitrary direction chosen for
the first side
- Consider all multi-force bodies
- Represent connection forces not known by x & y components
- There are still three equilibrium equations available, but the moment equations may be
more helpful when the number of unknowns is greater than two.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 9 F2007abn

Example 1 (pg 114)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 9 F2007abn

Example 2 (pg 115)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 10 S2008abn

Loads – Tracing, Concentrated and Distributed

Load Tracing

• LOAD TRACING is the term used to describe how the loads on and
in the structure are transferred through the members (load paths) to
the foundation, and ultimately supported by the ground.

• It is a sequence of actions, NOT reactions. Reactions in statically

determinate members (using FBD’s) can be solved for to determine
the actions on the next member in the hierarchy.

• The tributary area is a loaded area that contributes to the load on the
member supporting that area, ex. the area from the center between two
beams to the center of the next two beams for the full span is the load on
the center beam

plan
• The tributary load on the member is found by concentrating (or
consolidating) the load into the center.

load
w=( ) x(tributary width)
area

where:
w = distributed load in units of load/length

Support Conditions & Loading

• Types of loads:
- Concentrated – single load at one point
- Distributed – loading spread over a distance or area

P1 P2

concentrated distributed

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ENDS 231 Note Set 10 S2008abn

• Types of supports:
- statically determinate
(number of unknowns ≤ number of equilibrium equations)

L L L
simply supported overhang cantilever
(most common)

- Statically indeterminate:

L L
continuous
(most common case when L1=L2)

Distributed Loads

Distributed loads may be replaced by concentrated loads acting through the balance/center of the
distribution or load area: THIS IS AN EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEM.

• w is the symbol used to describe the load per unit length.

• W is the symbol used to describe the total load.

w⋅ x W 2w
w⋅ x =W w =
2 2 w w
0
x x x
W W
W/2 W/2

x/2 x/2 2x/3 x/3 x/2 x/6 x/3

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ENDS 231 Note Set 10 S2008abn

Example 1 (pg 168)

The loads are: 60 lb/ft2 live load, 8 lb/ft2 dead load, 10

lb/ft self weight of 12’ beams, and 100 lb self weight of
columns.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 10 S2008abn

Example 2

Figure 3.1

4
ENDS 231 Note Set 10 S2008abn

Example 3 (pg 70)

Example 4 (pg 71)

5
ENDS 231 Note Set 11 F2007abn

Centers of Gravity - Centroids

• The center of gravity is the location of the equivalent force representing the total weight of a
body comprised of particles that each have a mass gravity acts upon.
z y ∑ΔW
ΔW4 ΔW1
ΔW3 ΔW2

Resultant force: Over a body of constant x

thickness in x and y
n

∑ F = ∑ ΔW
z
i =1
i =W W = ∫ dW

Location: x , y is the equivalent location of the force W from all ΔWi’s over all x & y
locations (with respect to the moment from each force) from:
n
∫ xdW ∑( xΔW )
∑ M y = ∑ xi ΔWi = xW
i =1
x W = ∫ xdW ⇒ x =
W
OR x=
W
n
∫ ydW ∑( yΔW )
∑ M x = ∑ yi ΔWi = yW
i =1
yW = ∫ ydW ⇒ y =
W
OR y=
W

• The centroid of an area is the average x and y locations of the area particles

For a discrete shape (ΔAi) of a uniform thickness and material, the weight can be defined as:
ΔWi = γtΔA i where:
γ is weight per unit volume (= specific weight) with units of N/m3 or lb/ft3
tΔA i is the volume

So if W = γtA :
∑( xΔA) ∑( yΔA)
x γtA = ∫ xγtdA ⇒ x A = ∫ xdA OR x= and similarly y=
A A

Similarly, for a line with constant cross section, a ( ΔWi = γaΔLi ):

∑( xΔL ) ∑( yΔL )
xL = ∫ xdL OR x= and yL = ∫ ydL OR y=
L L

• x , y with respect to an x, y coordinate system is the centroid of an area AND the center of
gravity for a body of uniform material and thickness.
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ENDS 231 Note Set 11 F2007abn

• The first moment of the area is like a force moment: and is the y
area multiplied by the perpendicular distance to an axis.
.A
Q x = ∫ ydA = yA Q y = ∫ xdA = xA y

• Centroids of Common Shapes x

• x

b
3
x
b

2
ENDS 231 Note Set 11 F2007abn

• Symmetric Areas

- An area is symmetric with respect to a line when every point on one side is mirrored on
the other. The line divides the area into equal parts and the centroid will be on that axis.

- An area can be symmetric to a center point when every (x,y) point is matched by a (-x,-y)
point. It does not necessarily have an axis of symmetry. The center point is the centroid.

- If the symmetry line is on an axis, the centroid location is on that axis (value of 0). With
double symmetry, the centroid is at the intersection.

- Symmetry can also be defined by areas that match across a line, but are 180° to each
other.

Basic Steps

1. Draw a reference origin.

2. Divide the area into basic shapes

3. Label the basic shapes (components)

4. Draw a table with headers of Component, Area, x , x A , y , yA

5. Fill in the table value

6. Draw a summation line. Sum all the areas, all the x A terms, and all the yA terms

7. Calculate x̂ and ŷ

• Composite Shapes

If we have a shape made up of basic shapes that we know centroid locations for, we can find
an “average” centroid of the areas.
y
n n n n
x̂A = x̂ ∑ Ai = ∑ xi Ai ŷA = ŷ ∑ Ai = ∑ yi Ai
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1
A1 A2 A3
Centroid values can be negative.
Area values can be negative (holes) x

3
ENDS 231 Note Set 11 F2007abn

Example 1 (pg 243)

x ( in.) x ΔA ( in.3 ) y ( in.) yΔA ( in.3 )

202 .5 in 3
x̂ =
40 .5 in 2
= 5 in

94 .5 in 3
ŷ =
40 .5 in 2
= 2 .33 in

x ΔA yΔA

Example 2 (pg 245)

A 6” thick concrete wall panel is precast to the dimensions as shown. Using the lower left
corner as the reference origin, determine the center of gravity (centroid) of the panel.

4
ENDS 231 Note Set 11 F2007abn

Example 3 (pg 249)

5
ENDS 231 Note Set 12 F2007abn

Moments of Inertia

• The cross section shape and how it resists bending and twisting is important to understanding
beam and column behavior.

• Definition: Moment of Inertia; the second area moment y

I y = ∫ x 2 dA I x = ∫ y 2 dA

We can define a single integral using a narrow strip: dA = y⋅dx

for Ix,, strip is parallel to x for Iy, strip is parallel to y x

x el dx
*I can be negative if the area is negative (a hole or subtraction).

• A shape that has area at a greater distance away from an axis through its centroid will have a
larger value of I.

x x x x

• Just like for center of gravity of an area, the moment of inertia can be determined with
respect to any reference axis.

• Definition: Polar Moment of Inertia; the second area moment using polar coordinate axes

J o = ∫ r 2 dA = ∫ x 2 dA + ∫ y 2 dA
r
Jo = Ix + I y
o θ
• Definition: Radius of Gyration; the distance from the moment of pole
inertia axis for an area at which the entire area could be considered as
being concentrated at.
Ix
I x = rx A ⇒ rx =
2
radius of gyration in x
A
Iy
ry = radius of gyration in y
A
Jo
ro = polar radius of gyration, and ro2 = rx2 + ry2
A

1
ENDS 231 Note Set 12 F2007abn

The Parallel-Axis Theorem

• The moment of inertia of an area with respect to any axis not through its centroid is equal to
the moment of inertia of that area with respect to its own parallel centroidal axis plus the
product of the area and the square of the distance between the two axes.

dA y′
I = ∫ y dA = ∫ ( y ′-d ) dA
2
2
B B′ axis through centroid
at a distance d away
= ∫ y ′ 2 dA + 2d ∫ y ′dA + d 2 ∫ dA y d from the other axis

A A′ axis to find moment of

inertia about

but ∫ y ′dA = 0 , because the centroid is on this axis, resulting in:

I x = I cx + Ad y (text notation) or I x = I x + Ad y
2 2

where Icx (or I x )is the moment of inertia about the centroid of the area about an x axis and
dy is the y distance between the parallel axes

I y = I y + Ad x
2
Similarly Moment of inertia about a y axis
J o = J c + Ad 2 Polar moment of Inertia
ro2 = rc2 + d 2 Polar radius of gyration
r =r +d
2 2 2
Radius of gyration

* I can be negative again if the area is negative (a hole or subtraction).

** If I is not given in a chart, but x & y are: YOU MUST CALCULATE I WITH I = I − Ad 2

Composite Areas:

I = ∑ I + ∑ Ad 2 where I is the moment of inertia about the centroid of the component area
d is the distance from the centroid of the component area to the
centroid of the composite area (ie. dy = ŷ - y )
Basic Steps

1. Draw a reference origin.

2. Divide the area into basic shapes
3. Label the basic shapes (components)
4. Draw a table with headers of
Component, Area, x , x A , y , yA , I x , dy, Ady2, I y , dx, Adx2
5. Fill in the table values needed to calculate x̂ and ŷ for the composite
6. Fill in the rest of the table values.
7. Sum the moment of inertia ( I ’s) and Ad2 columns and add together.
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ENDS 231 Note Set 12 F2007abn

Moments of Inertia of Common Shapes

about centroid

3
ENDS 231 Note Set 12 F2007abn

Example 1 (pg 257)

Find the moments of inertia ( x̂ = 3.05”, ŷ = 1.05”).

Example 2 (pg 253)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 12 F2007abn

Example 3 (pg 258)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 13 S2008abn

Beam Structures and Internal Forces

• BEAMS

- Important type of structural members (floors, bridges, roofs)

- Usually long, straight and rectangular
- Have loads that are usually perpendicular applied at points along the length

Internal Forces 2

• Internal forces are those that hold the parts of the member together for equilibrium

- Truss members:

F A B F

F A F′ F′ B F

- For any member: T´

F = internal axial force

(perpendicular to cut across section)
V = internal shear force T´
T
(parallel to cut across section)
M = internal bending moment V

Support Conditions & Loading

• Most often loads are perpendicular to the beam and cause only internal V
shear forces and bending moments M

• Knowing the internal forces and moments is necessary when

R
designing beam size & shape to resist those loads

• Types of loads

- Concentrated – single load, single moment

- Distributed – loading spread over a distance, uniform or non-uniform.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 13 S2008abn

• Types of supports

- Statically determinate: simply supported, cantilever, overhang L

(number of unknowns < number of equilibrium equations) Propped
- Statically indeterminate: continuous, fixed-roller, fixed-fixed
(number of unknowns < number of equilibrium equations)

Sign Conventions for Internal Shear and Bending Moment Restrained

(different from statics and truss members!)
V
When ∑Fy **excluding V** on the left hand side (LHS) section
is positive, V will direct down and is considered POSITIVE. M

When ∑M **excluding M** about the cut on the left hand side
(LHS) section causes a smile which could hold water (curl upward), M will be counter clockwise
(+) and is considered POSITIVE.

On the deflected shape of a beam, the point where the shape changes from smile up to frown is
called the inflection point. The bending moment value at this point is zero.

Shear And Bending Moment Diagrams

The plot of shear and bending moment as they vary across a beam length are extremely important
design tools: V(x) is plotted on the y axis of the shear diagram, M(x) is plotted on the y axis of
the moment diagram.

The load diagram is essentially the free body diagram of the beam with the actual loading (not
the equivalent of distributed loads.)

Maximum Shear and Bending – The maximum value, regardless of sign, is important for design.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 13 S2008abn

Method 1: The Equilibrium Method

Isolate FDB sections at significant points along the beam and determine V and M at the cut
section. The values for V and M can also be written in equation format as functions of the
distance to the cut section.

Important Places for FBD cuts

- at supports
- at concentrated loads
- at start and end of distributed loads
- at concentrated moments

Method 2: The Semigraphical Method

Relationships exist between the loading and shear diagrams, and between the shear and
bending diagrams.

Knowing the area of the loading gives the change in shear (V).

Knowing the area of the shear gives the change in bending moment (M).

Concentrated loads and moments cause a vertical jump in the diagram.

ΔV dV
= = −w (the negative shows it is down because we give w a positive value)
Δx dx
lim 0

xD
VD − VC = − ∫ wdx = the area under the load curve between C & D
xC
*These shear formulas are NOT VALID at discontinuities like concentrated loads

ΔM dM
= =V
Δx dx
lim 0

xD
M D − M C = ∫ Vdx = the area under the shear curve between C & D
xC
* These moment formulas ARE VALID even with concentrated loads.

*These moment formulas are NOT VALID at discontinuities like applied moments.

The MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT from a curve that is continuous can be found
⎛ dM ⎞
when the slope is zero ⎜ = 0 ⎟ , which is when the value of the shear is 0.
⎝ dx ⎠

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ENDS 231 Note Set 13 S2008abn

Basic Curve Relationships (from calculus) for y(x)

Horizontal Line: y =b (constant) and the area (change in shear) = b·x,

resulting in a:

Δy ⋅ Δx
Sloped Line: y = mx+b and the area (change in shear) = , resulting in
2
a:

Δy ⋅ Δx
Parabolic Curve: y = ax2+ b and the area (change in shear) = ,
3
resulting in a:

3rd Degree Curve: y = ax3 + bx2 +cx + d

Free Software Site: http://www.rekenwonder.com/atlas.htm

w (force/length)
BASIC PROCEDURE: load

1. Find all support forces.

V diagram: x ⋅ w = VA ⇒ x = VA
height = VA w
2. At free ends and at simply supported ends, the
shear will have a zero value.
shear
3. At the left support, the shear will equal the A
width = x
reaction force.
4. The shear will not change in x until there is another load, where the shear is reduced if
the load is negative. If there is a distributed load, the change in shear is the area under
the loading.
5. At the right support, the reaction is treated just like the loads of step 4.
6. At the free end, the shear should go to zero.
M diagram:
7. At free ends and at simply supported ends, the moment will have a zero value.
8. At the left support, the moment will equal the reaction moment (if there is one).
9. The moment will not change in x until there is another load or applied moment, where the
moment is reduced if the applied moment is negative. If there is a value for shear on the
V diagram, the change in moment is the area under the shear diagram.
For a triangle in the shear diagram, the width will equal the height ÷ w!
10. At the right support, the moment reaction is treated just like the moments of step 9.
11. At the free end, the moment should go to zero.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 13 S2008abn

Parabolic Curve Shapes Based on Triangle Orientation

In order to tell if a parabola curves “up” or “down” from a triangular area in the preceding
diagram, the orientation of the triangle is used as a reference.

Geometry of Right Triangles

A
Similar triangles show that four triangles, each with ¼ the area of 4
the large triangle, fit within the large triangle. This means that ¾ A
of the area is on one side of the triangle, if a line is drawn though A 4 A
the middle of the base, and ¼ of the area is on the other side. 4 4

By how a triangle is oriented, we can determine the curve shape in the next diagram.

CASE 1: Positive triangle with fat side to the left.

75%

CASE 2: Positive triangle with fat side to the right.

+ 25%

CASE 3: Negative triangle with fat side to the left.

-
75%

CASE 4: Negative triangle with fat side to the right.

25%
-

5
ENDS 231 Note Set 13 S2008abn

Example 1 (pg 273)

6
ENDS 231 Note Set 13 S2008abn

Example 2 (pg 275)

20 k
10 k

RDx RD(y)
RB

10 k
w=2k/ft

A B C D

20 k 10 k

V↑+
x

M↑+

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ENDS 231 Note Set 13 S2008abn

Example 3 (pg 283)

8
ENDS 231 Note Set 13 S2008abn

Example 4 (pg 285)

20 k

RCx
RA RC(y)
w =2 k/ft

A B C
15 k 5k

V↑+

M↑+

9
ENDS 231 Note Set 13 S2008abn

Example 5 (pg 286)

MRA
4k
RAx
2k 8 k-ft
RAy

18 k-ft 8 k-ft
4k
4k A B C
2k 2k

V↑+

M↑+

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ENDS 231 Note Set 13 S2008abn

Example 6 (changed from pg 284)

0.75 m

0.75 m from the

SOLUTION:
Determine the reactions: 10 kN 6 kN

∑ Fx = RBx = 0
MRB
RBx = 0 kN
∑ Fy = −10kN − (2 m)(3m) + RBy = 0
kN RBy = 16 kN
∑ M B = (10kN )(2.25m) + (6kN )(1.5m) + M RB = 0 MRB = -31.5kN-m RBx
RBy
Draw the load diagram with the distributed load as given with the reactions. 10 kN
w = 2 kN/m
Shear Diagram: *31.5kN-m
I II
Label the load areas and calculate:

Area I = (-2 kN/m)(0.75 m) = -1.5 kN

A C B
Area II = (-2 kN/m)(2.25 m) = -4.5 kN 16 kN
VA = 0 V↑+
VC = VA + Area I = 0 -1.5 kN = -1.5 kN and (kN)
VC = VC + force at C = -1.5 kN -10 kN= -11.5 kN x
VB = VC + Area II = -11.5 kN -4.5 kN = -16 kN and III
VB = VB + force at B = -16 kN +16 kN= 0 kN
-1.5
Bending Moment Diagram: IV
-11.5
Label the load areas and calculate:
V
Area III = (-1.5 kN)(0.75 m)/2 = -0.5625 kN-m -16.5
Area IV = (-11.5 kN)(2.25m) = -25.875 kN-m
Area V = (-16 – 11.5 kN)(2.25m)/2 = -5.0625 kN-m
*M↑+
MA = 0 (kN-m) x
MC = MA + Area III = 0 - 0.5625 kN-m = - 0.5625 kN-m
MB = MC + Area IV + Area V = - 0.5625 kN-m - 25.875 kN-m - 5.0625 kN-m =
= -31.5 kN-m and -0.5625
MB = MB + moment at B = -31.5 kN-m + 31.5 kN-m = 0 kN-m

positive
MRB bending
moment
-31.5

11
ENDS 231 Note Set 13 S2008abn

Example 7 (pg 287)

SOLUTION:
Determine the reactions: 450 N 450 N

∑ Fx = RBx = 0 RBx = 0 kN
∑ Fy = RAy − (300 m)(3m) 1 2 + −(300 N m)(3m) 1 2 + RBy = 0
N

or by load tracing RAy & RBy = ( wL/2)/2 = (300 N/m)(6 m)/4 = 450 N RBx
∑ M A = −(450N )( 2 3 × 3m) − (450N )(3 + 13 × 3m) + RBy (6m) = 0 RA(y) RB(y)
N/m
RBy = 450 N
w = 300

Draw the load diagram with the distributed load as given with the reactions. I II
Shear Diagram:
A C B
Label the load areas and calculate: 450 N 450 N
Area I = (-300 N/m)(3 m)/2 = -450 N
Area II = -300 N/m)(3 m)/2 = -450 N

VA = 0 and VA = VA + force at A = 0 + 450 N = 450 N

VC = VA + Area I = 450 N -450 N = 0 N
VB = VC + Area II = 0 N – 450 N = -450 N and
VB = VB + force at B = -450 N + 450 N = 0 N
450
V↑+
Bending Moment Diagram: (N)
III x
Label the load areas and calculate:

Areas III & IV happen to be parabolic segments with an area of 2bh/3: IV

Area III = 2(3 m)(450 N)/3 = 900 N-m
Area IV = -2(3 m)(450 N)/3 = -900 N-m -450

MA = 0
MC = MA + Area III = 0 + 900 N-m = 900 N-m
MB = MC + Area IV = 900 N-m - 900 N-m = 0
M↑+ 900
We can prove that the area is a parabolic segment by using
the equilibrium method at C: (N-m)
x
∑ M sec tion cut = M C − (450N )(3m) + (450N )( 1 3 × 3m) =0
so Mc = 900 N-m
450 N

MC

V
450 N
12
ENDS 231 Note Set 14 F2007abn

Beam Analysis Using Multiframe4D

1. The software is on the computers in the college computing lab (http://thelab.tamu.edu) in

Programs under the Windows Start menu. Multiframe4D is under the COSC menu.
2. There is a tutorial in the Help menu (Chapter 1 – 2D Tutorial) that lists the tasks and order in
greater detail. The first task is to define the unit system:
• Choose Units… from the View menu. Unit sets are available, but specific units can
also be selected by double clicking on a unit or format and making a selection from the
menu.

3. To see the scale of the geometry, a grid option is available:

• Choose Grid… from the View menu

4. To create the geometry, you must be in the Frame window (default). The symbol is the
frame in the window toolbar:

The Member toolbar shows ways to create members:

The Generate toolbar has convenient tools to create typical structural

shapes.
• To create a beam with supports at one or both
ends, use the add member button:

1
ENDS 231 Note Set 14 F2007abn

• Select a starting point and ending point with the cursor. The location of the cursor and
the segment length is displayed at the bottom of the geometry window.
• To create a beam with supports NOT at the ends, use the add
connected members button to create segments between
supports and ends
• Select a starting point and ending point with the cursor. The location of the cursor and
the segment length is displayed at the bottom of the geometry window. The ESC button
will end the segmented drawing.
• The geometry can be set
precisely by selecting the
beam member, bringing up the
specific menu (right click),
choosing Member Properties
to set the length.

• The support types can be set by selecting the joint

(drag) and using the Joint Toolbar (pin shown), or the
Frame / Joint Restraint ... menu (right click).
NOTE: If the support appears at both ends of the beam,
you had the beam selected rather than the joint. Select
the joint to change the support for and right click to
select the joint restraints menu or select the correct
support on the joint toolbar.
The support forces will be determined in the analysis.

5. All members must have sections assigned (see section 6.) in order to calculate reactions and
deflections. To use a standard steel section proceed to step 6. For custom sections, the
section information must be entered. To define a section:
• Choose Edit Sections / Add Section…
from the Edit menu
• Type a name for your new section
• Choose group Frame from the group
names provided so that the section
will remain with the file data
• Choose a shape. The Flat Bar shape is
a rectangular section.
• Enter the cross section data.

2
ENDS 231 Note Set 14 F2007abn

Table values 1-9 must have values for a Flat Bar, but not all are used for every analysis. A
recommendation is to put the value of 1 for those properties you don’t know or care about.
Properties like tf, tw, etc. refer to wide flange sections.
• Answer any query. If the message says there is an error, the section will not be created
until the error is corrected.

6. The standard sections library loaded is for the United States. If another section library is
needed, use the Open Sections Library... command under the file menu, choose the library
folder, and select the SectionsLibrary.slb file.

Select the members (drag to make bold) and assign sections with the Section button on the
Member toolbar:

• Choose the group name and section name:

(STANDARD SHAPES) (CUSTOM)

7. The beam geometry is complete, and in order to define the load conditions you must be in the
Load window represented by the green arrow:

8. The Load toolbar allows a joint to be loaded with a force or a moment in global coordinates,
shown by the first two buttons. It allows a member to be loaded with a distributed load,
concentrated load or moment (next three buttons) in global coordinates, as well as loading
with distributed or single force in the local coordinate system (last two buttons).

• Choose the member to be loaded (drag) and select the

load type (here shown for distributed loading):

3
ENDS 231 Note Set 14 F2007abn

• Choose the distribution type and

direction. Note that the arrow
shown is the direction of the
loading. There is no need to put in
negative values for downward
loading.
• Enter the values of the load and
distances (if any). Distances can be
entered as a function of the length ,
i.e. L/2, L/4...

NOTE: Do not put support reactions as

applied loads. The analysis will determine
the reaction values.
Multiframe4D will automatically generate a
grouping called a Load Case named Load
Case 1 when a load is created. All additional
loads will be added to this load case unless a
new load case is defined (Add case under the
Case menu).

9. In order to run the analysis after the

geometry, member properties and loading has been defined:
• Choose Analyze Linear from the Case menu
10. If the analysis is successful, you can view the results in the
Plot window represented by the red moment diagram:

11. The Plot toolbar allows the numerical values to be shown (1.0
button), the reaction arrows to be shown (brown up arrow) and
reaction moments to be shown (brown curved arrow):

• To show the moment diagram, Choose the red Moment button

• To show the shear diagram, Choose the green Shear button

• To show the axial force diagram, Choose the purple Axial Force
button

• To show the deflection diagram, Choose the blue Deflection

button
• To animate the deflection diagram, Choose Animate... from the Display menu. You can
also save the animation to a .avi file by checking the box.
4
ENDS 231 Note Set 14 F2007abn

• To see exact values of shear, moment and deflection, double click on the member and
move the vertical cross hair with the mouse. The ESC key will return you to the window.

12. The Data window (D) allows you to view all data “entered” for the geometry, sections and
loading. These values can be edited.

13. The Results window (R) allows you to view all results of the analysis including
displacements, reactions, member forces (actions) and stresses. These values can be cut and
pasted into other Windows programs such as Word or Excel.

NOTE: Px’ refers to the axial load (P) in the local axis x direction (x’). Vy’ refers to the
shear perpendicular to the local x axis, and Mz’ refers to the bending moment.

14. To save the file Choose Save from the File menu.

15. To load an existing file Choose Open... from the File menu.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 15 F2007abn

Mechanics of Materials

Mechanics of Materials is a basic engineering science that deals with the relation between
externally applied load and its effect on deformable bodies. The main purpose of Mechanics of
Materials is to answer the question of which requirements have to be met to assure STRENGTH,
RIGIDITY, AND STABILITY of engineering structures.

To solve a problem in Mechanics of Materials, one has to consider THREE ASPECTS OF THE
PROBLEM:
1. STATICS: equilibrium of external forces, internal forces, stresses
2. GEOMETRY: deformations and conditions of geometric fit, strains
3. MATERIAL PROPERTIES: stress-strain relationship for each
material, obtained from material testing.

• STRESS – The intensity of a force acting over an area.

Normal Stress

Stress that acts along an axis of a member; can be internal or external; can be compressive or
tensile.
P A B P

P A P′ P′ B P

P P
f =σ = Strength condition: f = < f allowable or Fallowed
Anet Anet

Shear Stress

Stress that acts perpendicular to an axis or length of a member, or parallel to the cross section is
called shear stress. P
Shear stress cannot be assumed to be uniform, so we refer to average
shearing stress.
P

P P
fv =τ = Strength condition: f v = A < τ allowable or Fallowed
Anet net

1
ENDS 231 Note Set 15 F2007abn

Bearing Stress

A compressive normal stress acting between two bodies.

P
fp =
Abearing

Bending Stress

A normal stress caused by bending; can be compressive or

tensile. (Discussed in Note Set on Beam Bending.)

Torsional Stress

A shear stress caused by torsion (moment around the axis).

(Discussed in Note Set on Torsion.)

Bolts in Shear and Bearing

Single shear - forces cause only one shear “drop” across the bolt.

2
ENDS 231 Note Set 15 F2007abn

Double shear - forces cause two shear changes across the bolt.

Bearing of a bolt on a bolt hole – The bearing surface can be represented by projecting the cross
section of the bolt hole on a plane (into a rectangle).
P P
fp = =
A td

3
ENDS 231 Note Set 15 F2007abn

Example 1 (pg 201)

Determine the bearing stress in the

strap from the bolt diameter chosen.

4
ENDS 231 Note Set 15 F2007abn

Example 2 (pg 202)

5
ENDS 231 Note Set 16 F2007abn

Stress and Strain – Elasticity

Normal Strain

In an axially loaded member, normal strain, ε is the change in the length, δ

with respect to the original length, L. δ
ε=
L
It is UNITLESS, but may be called strain or microstrain (μ).

δs

φ L

Shearing Strain

In a member loaded with shear forces, shear strain, γ is the change in

the sheared side, δs with respect to the original height, L. For small
angles: tan φ ≅ φ .
δ
γ = s = tan φ ≅ φ
L
In a member subjected to twisting, the shearing strain is a measure of
the angle of twist with respect to the length and distance from the
center, ρ: ρφ
γ =
L

Testing of Load vs. Strain

Behavior of materials can be measured by

recording deformation with respect to the
size of the load. For members with constant
cross section area, we can plot stress vs.
strain.

BRITTLE MATERIALS - ceramics, glass,

stone, cast iron; show abrupt fracture at
small strains.

DUCTILE MATERIALS – plastics, steel;

show a yield point and large strains
(considered plastic) and “necking” (give
warning of failure)

SEMI-BRITTLE MATERIALS – concrete;

show no real yield point, small strains, but have some “strain-hardening”.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 16 F2007abn

Linear-Elastic Behavior

In the straight portion of the stress-strain diagram, the materials are elastic, which means if they
are loaded and unloaded no permanent deformation occurs.

True Stress & Engineering Stress f

True stress takes into account that the area of the cross section changes E
with loading.
1
Engineering stress uses the original area of the cross section.
ε

Hooke’s Law – Modulus of Elasticity

In the linear-elastic range, the slope of the stress-strain diagram is constant, and has a value of E,
called Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus.
f = E ⋅ε

Isotropic Materials – have the same E with any direction of loading.

Anisotropic Materials – have different E’s with the direction of loading.

Orthotropic Materials – have directionally based E’s

Plastic Behavior & Fatigue

Permanent deformations happen outside the linear-elastic range and are called plastic
deformations. Fatigue is damage caused by reversal of loading.

• The proportional limit (at the end of the elastic range) is the greatest stress valid using
Hooke’s law.

• The elastic limit is the maximum stress that can be applied before permanent deformation
would appear upon unloading.

• The yield point (at the yield stress) is where a ductile material continues to elongate without
an increase of load. (May not be well defined on the stress-strain plot.)

• The ultimate strength is the largest stress a material will see before rupturing, also called the
tensile strength.

• The rupture strength is the stress at the point of rupture or failure. It may not coincide with
the ultimate strength in ductile materials. In brittle materials, it will be the same as the
ultimate strength.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 16 F2007abn

• The fatigue strength is the stress at failure when a member is subjected to reverse cycles of
stress (up & down or compression & tension). This can happen at much lower values than
the ultimate strength of a material.

• Toughness of a material is how much work (a combination of stress and strain) us used for
fracture. It is the area under the stress-strain curve.

Concrete does not respond well to tension and is tested in compression. The strength at crushing
is called the compression strength.

Materials that have time dependent elongations when loaded are said to have creep. Concrete
and wood creep. Concrete also has the property of shrinking over time.

Poisson’s Ratio y

For an isometric material that is homogeneous, the properties are the

same for the cross section:
εy = εz
z
There exists a linear relationship while in the linear-elastic range of
the material between longitudinal strain and lateral strain: x
lateral strain εy ε μf x
μ =− =− =− z εy = εz = −
axial strain εx εx E

Positive strain results from an increase in length with respect to overall length.
Negative strain results from a decrease in length with respect to overall length.

μ is the Poisson’s ratio and has a value between 0 and ½, depending on the material

Relation of Stress to Strain

P
P δ f PL
f = ; ε = and E = so E = A which rearranges to: δ =
A L ε δ AE
L

Orthotropic Materials

One class of non-isotropic materials is orthotropic materials

that have directionally based values of modulus of elasticity
and Poisson’s ratio (E, μ).

Ex: plywood, laminates, fiber reinforced polymers with

direction fibers

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ENDS 231 Note Set 16 F2007abn

Stress Concentrations

In some sudden changes of cross section, the stress concentration

changes (and is why we used average normal stress). Examples are
sharp notches, or holes or corners.

(Think about airplane window shapes...)

Maximum Stress

When both normal stress and shear

stress occur in a structural member, the
maximum stresses can occur at some
other planes (angle of θ).

Maximum Normal Stress happens at θ = 0° AND

Maximum Shearing Stress happens at θ = 45° with only normal stress in the x direction.

Allowable Stress Design (ASD) and Factor of Safety (F.S.)

ultimate load ultimate stress

There are uncertainties in material strengths: F .S = =
allowable load allowable stress

ultimate stress
Allowable stress design determines the allowable stress by: allowable stress =
F .S

Load and Resistance Factor Design – LRFD

There are uncertainties in material strengths and in structural loadings.

γ D RD + γ L RL ≤ φRu
where γ = load factor for Dead and Live loads
R = load (dead or live)
φ = resistance factor
Rn = nominal load (capacity)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 16 F2007abn

Example 1 (pg 222)

6.1a)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 16 F2007abn

Example 2 (metric, pg 223)

Using the following design values, determine the minimum size of D1

for bearing on the concrete: φ =0.70 γ D = 1.4
f c′ = 24 MPa Fb = 0.85 f c′

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ENDS 231 Note Set 17 F2007abn

Torsion, Thermal Effects and Indeterminacy

Deformation in Torsionally Loaded Members

Axi-symmetric cross sections subjected to axial moment or torque

will remain plane and undistorted.

At a section, internal torque (resisiting applied torque) is made up of

shear forces parallel to the area and in the direction of the torque.
The distribution of the shearing stresses depends on the angle of
twist, φ. The cross section remains plane and undistored.

Shearing Strain

Shearing strain is the angle change of a straight line segment

ρφ
along the axis. γ =
L
where
ρ is the radial distance from the centroid to the point under strain.
cφ
The maximum strain is at the surface, a distance c from the centroid: γ max =
L

G is the Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity: τ = G ⋅γ

Shearing Strain and Stress

In the linear elastic range: the torque is the summation of torsion stresses
over the area:
τJ Tρ
T = gives: τ =
ρ J

Maximum torsional stress, τmax, occurs at the outer diameter (or perimeter).

Polar Moment of Inertia

For axi-symmetric shapes, there is only one value for polar moment of
inertia, J, determined by the radius, c:

solid section: J=
πc 4
hollow section: J =
(
π c o 4 − ci 4 )
2 2

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ENDS 231 Note Set 17 F2007abn

Combined Torsion and Axial Loading

Just as with combined axial load and shear, combined torsion and
axial loading result in maximum shear stress at a 45° oblique “plane”
of twist.

Shearing Strain
TL T i Li
In the linear elastic range: φ = and for composite shafts: φ =Σ
JG i J i Gi

Torsion in Noncircular Shapes

J is no longer the same along the lateral axes. Plane sections do not
remain plane, but distort. τmax is still at the furthest distance away from
the centroid. For rectangular shapes:
T TL
τ max = φ =
c1ab 2 c 2 ab 3G
For a/b > 5: b

c1 = c 2 =
1
3
(
1 − 0 .630 b
a
) a

a>b
Open Sections

For long narrow shapes where a/b is very large

(a/b→ ∞) c1 = c2 = 1/3 and:
T TL
τ max = 1 ab 2
φ=
1 ab 3G
3 3

Shear Flow of Closed Thin Walled Sections

a
q is the internal shearing force per unit length, and is constant on a cross section
even though the thickness of the wall may very. is the area bounded by the
centerline of the wall section; si, is a length segment of the wall and ti is the
corresponding thickness of the length segment.

T TL si
τ =
2ta φ =
a
4t 2
∑t
i i

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ENDS 231 Note Set 17 F2007abn

Shear Flow in Open Sections

The shear flow must wrap around at all edges, and the total torque is distributed
among the areas making up the cross section in proportion to the torsional rigidity
of each rectangle (ab2/3). The total angle of twist is the sum of the φ values from each
rectangle. ti is the thickness of each rectangle and bi is the length of each rectangle.
Tt max TL
τ max = φ = 1 GΣb t 3
1 Σb t 3
3 i i 3 i i

Example 1

τJ (14 ksi )( 393.7 in 4 ) 1 ft

T= = ⋅ = 87.5 k − ft
ρ 5.25 in 12 in
π ( c o4 − c i4 ) π (( 5.25 in ) − ( 4.75 in ) )
4 4
J= = = 393.7 in 4
2 2
T
τ=
a
2t
T = τ 2t a = (14 ksi )2( 0.5in )(72in 2
)⋅
1 ft
12 in
= 84 k − ft

a⋅ ≈ (12in )( 6in ) = 72in 2

Tt max τJ (14 ksi )( 4.08 in 4 ) 1 ft

τ max = T= ⋅ = 4.8 k − ft
1
3
∑ bi t i3 t max 1in 12 in

J= 1
3
[10in( 0.5in ) 3
]
+ ( 5.5 in )(1in ) 3 + ( 5.5 in )(1in )3 = 4.08 in 4

Thermal Strains

Physical restraints limit deformations to be the same, or sum to zero, or be proportional with
respect to the rotation of a rigid body.
PL
We know axial stress relates to axial strain: δ = which relates δ to P
AE
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ENDS 231 Note Set 17 F2007abn

Deformations can be caused by the material reacting to a change in energy with temperature. In
general (there are some exceptions):
• Solid materials can contract with a decrease in temperature.
• Solid materials can expand with an increase in temperature.

The change in length per unit temperature change is the coefficient of thermal expansion, α. It

has units of ° F or °C and the deformation is related by: δ T = α (ΔT )L

Thermal Strain: ε T = αΔT

There is no stress associated with the length change with free
movement, BUT if there are restraints, thermal deformations
or strains can cause internal forces and stresses.

How A Restrained Bar Feels with Thermal Strain

1. Bar pushes on supports because the material needs to

expand with an increase in temperature.
2. Supports push back.
3. Bar is restrained, can’t move and the reaction causes
internal stress.

Superposition Method

If we want to solve a statically indeterminate problem that has extra support forces:

• We can remove a support or supports that makes the problem look statically determinate
• Replace it with a reaction and treat it like it is an applied force
• Impose geometry restrictions that the support imposes

For Example:
PL
δ T = α (Δ T )L δp = −
AE

+ α (Δ T )L = 0
PL
δ P + δT = 0 −
AE

P = α (Δ T )L/ = α (ΔT )AE = −α (Δ T )E

AE P
f =−
L/ A
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ENDS 231 Note Set 17 F2007abn

Example 2 (pg 228)

ALSO: If the beam is anchored to a concrete slab, and the steel sees a
temperature change of 50° F while the concrete only sees a change of
30° F, determine the compressive stress in the beam.

αc = 5.5 x 10-6 /° F Ec = 3 x 106 psi

αs = 6.5 x 10-6 /° F Es = 29 x 106 psi

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ENDS 231 Note Set 17 F2007abn

Example 3

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ENDS 231 Note Set 18 S2007abn

Beam Bending Stresses and Shear Stress

Pure Bending in Beams

With bending moments along the axis of the member only, a beam is
said to be in pure bending.

Normal stresses due to bending can be found for homogeneous

materials having a plane of symmetry in the y axis that follow
Hooke’s law.
y

x
Maximum Moment and Stress Distribution

In a member of constant cross section, the maximum bending moment will govern the design of
the section size when we know what kind of normal stress is caused by it.

For internal equilibrium to be maintained, the bending moment will be equal to the ∑M from the
normal stresses × the areas × the moment arms. Geometric fit helps solve this statically
indeterminate problem:

1. The normal planes remain normal for pure bending.

2. There is no net internal axial force.
3. Stress varies linearly over cross section.
4. Zero stress exists at the centroid and the line of centroids is the neutral axis (n. a)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 18 S2007abn

Relations for Beam Geometry and Stress

θ
Pure bending results in a circular arc deflection. R is the R
distance to the center of the arc; θ is the angle of the arc
(radians); c is the distance from the n.a. to the extreme fiber; fmax
is the maximum normal stress at the extreme fiber; y is a
distance in y from the n.a.; M is the bending moment; I is the c y
L
moment of inertia; S is the section modulus.
δ y ½δ ½δ
L = Rθ ε= =R f = Eε = f max
L c
f max I Mc M
M = Σ f i Ai M = Σ y i2 Ai I = Σy 2 A S= f max = =
c c I S
My bh 3 bh 2
Now: fb = for a rectangle of height h and width b: S= =
I 12 h 6
2

RELATIONS: 1 M *
My I
= fb = S =
R EI I c

Mc M M
f b −max = = S required ≥
I S Fb

*Note: y positive goes DOWN. With a positive M and y to the bottom fiber as positive, it results
in a TENSION stress (we’ve called positive)

Transverse Loading in Beams

We are aware that transverse beam loadings result in internal

shear and bending moments.

We designed sections based on bending stresses, since this stress

dominates beam behavior.

There can be shear stresses horizontally within a beam member.

It can be shown that f horizontal = f vertical

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ENDS 231 Note Set 18 S2007abn

Equilibrium and Derivation

In order for equilibrium for any element CDD’C’, there needs to be a horizontal force ΔH.

V = f D dA − f C dA

Q is a moment area with respect to the neutral axis of the area above or below the horizontal
where the ΔH occurs.
VT Q
Vlongitudin al = Δx
Q is a maximum when y = 0 (at the neutral axis). I

q is a horizontal shear per unit length → shear flow Vlongitudin al VT Q

q= =
Δx I
Shearing Stresses

f v − ave = 0 on the beam’s surface. Even if Q is a maximum at y = 0, we

don’t know that the thickness is a minimum there.

V V
fv = =
ΔA b ⋅ Δx

VQ
f v − ave =
Ib

Rectangular Sections

f v − max occurs at the neutral axis:

2
bh 3 Q = A y = b h ⋅ 1 2 h = bh
I = 2 2 8
12
then:

VQ V 18 bh 2 3V 3V
fv = = = fv =
Ib 1 bh 3 b
12 2bh 2A

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ENDS 231 Note Set 18 S2007abn

Webs of Beams

In steel W or S sections the thickness

varies from the flange to the web.

We neglect the shear stress in the flanges

and consider the shear stress in the web to
be constant:

3V V V
f v − max = ≈ f v −max =
2 A Aweb t web d

Webs of I beams can fail in tension shear across a

panel with stiffeners or the web can buckle.

Shear Flow

Even if the cut we make to find Q is not horizontal, but

arbitrary, we can still find the shear flow, q, as long as the
loads on thin-walled sections are applied in a plane of
symmetry, and the cut is made perpendicular to the surface of
the member.
VQ
q=
I

The shear flow magnitudes can

be sketched by knowing Q.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 18 S2007abn

Connectors to Resist Horizontal Shear in Composite Members

p
Typical connections needing to resist shear are y
p
plates with nails or rivets or bolts in composite p
8”
sections or splices. 2”
4.43”
x 4”
The pitch (spacing) can be determined by the ya
2”
capacity in shear of the connector(s) to the 12”
shear flow over the spacing interval, p.

Vlongitudin al VQ VQ
= Vlongitudin al = ⋅p
p I I
where
VQ connected
nFconnector ≥ ⋅p
area
p = pitch length
I
n = number of connectors connecting the connected area to the rest of the cross section

F = force capacity in one connector

Qconnected area = Aconnected area × yconnected area

yconnected area = distance from the centroid of the connected area to the neutral axis

Connectors to Resist Horizontal Shear in Composite Members p

p
Even vertical connectors have shear flow across them. p

The spacing can be determined by the capacity in shear of the

connector(s) to the shear flow over the spacing interval, p.
nFconnector I
p≤
VQ connected area

Unsymmetrical Sections or Shear

If the section is not symmetric, or has a shear not in that plane, the member can bend and twist.

If the load is applied at the shear center there will not be twisting. This is the location where the
moment caused by shear flow = the moment of the shear force about the shear center.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 18 S2007abn

Example 1 (pg 303)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 18 S2007abn

Example 2 (pg 309)

Second Floor:

Roof: Snow +DL = 200 lb/ft

Walls: 400 lb on 2nd floor beams
Railing: 100 lb on beam overhang
Second Floor: DL + LL = 300 lb/ft
(including overhang)

Roof:

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ENDS 231 Note Set 18 S2007abn

Example 3 (pg 313)

ALSO: Determine the minimum nail

spacing required (pitch) if the shear
capacity of a nail (F) is 250 lb.

7 84

12 3 36

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ENDS 231 Note Set 18 S2007abn

Example 4

(n)

(n)
∴ (n)F

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ENDS 231 Note Set 21 F2007abn

Beam Design and Deflections

Criteria for Design
Mc
Allowable normal stress or normal stress from LRFD should not be Fb or φFn ≥ f b =
exceeded: I
M
Knowing M and Fb, the minimum section modulus fitting the limit is: S req 'd ≥
Fb
Besides strength, we also need to be concerned about serviceability. This involves things like
limiting deflections & cracking, controlling noise and vibrations, preventing excessive
settlements of foundations and durability. When we know about a beam section and its material,
we can determine beam deformations.

Determining Maximum Bending Moment

Drawing V and M diagrams will show us the maximum values for design. Remember:
V = Σ (− w) dx dV dM
= −w =V
M = Σ (V ) dx dx dx

Determining Maximum Bending Stress

For a prismatic member (constant cross section), the maximum normal stress will occur at the
maximum moment.

For a non-prismatic member, the stress varies with the cross section AND the moment.

Deflections

If the bending moment changes, M(x) across a beam of constant material and cross 1 M ( x)
=
section then the curvature will change: R EI
1
EI ∫
The slope of the n.a. of a beam, θ, will be tangent to the radius of θ = slope = M ( x)dx
curvature, R:
1 1
The equation for deflection, y, along a beam is: y=
EI ∫ θdx =
EI ∫∫ M ( x)dx
Elastic curve equations can be found in handbooks, textbooks, design manuals, etc...Computer
programs can be used as well. (BigBoy Beam freeware: http://forum.simtel.net/pub/pd/33994.html)

Elastic curve equations can be superpositioned ONLY if the stresses are in the elastic range.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 21 F2007abn

The deflected shape is roughly the shame shape as the bending moment diagram flipped but is
constrained by supports and geometry.

Boundary Conditions

The boundary conditions are geometrical values that we know

– slope or deflection – which may be restrained by supports
or symmetry.

At Pins, Rollers, Fixed Supports: y=0

At Fixed Supports: θ=0

At Inflection Points From Symmetry: θ=0

The Slope Is Zero At The Maximum Deflection ymax:.

dy
θ= = slope = 0
dx

Allowable Deflection Limits

All building codes and design codes limit deflection for beam types and damage that could
happen based on service condition and severity.
y max ( x) = Δ actual ≤ Δ allowable = L
value

Use LL only DL+LL

Roof beams:
Industrial L/180 L/120
Commercial
plaster ceiling L/240 L/180
no plaster L/360 L/240
Floor beams:
Ordinary Usage L/360 L/240
Roof or floor (damageable elements) L/480

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ENDS 231 Note Set 21 F2007abn

Lateral Buckling

With compression stresses in the top of a beam, a sudden “popping” or buckling can happen
even at low stresses. In order to prevent it, we need to brace it along the top, or laterally brace it,
or provide a bigger Iy.

Local Buckling in Steel I Beams– Web Crippling or Flange Buckling

Concentrated forces on a steel beam can cause the web to buckle (called web crippling). Web
stiffeners under the beam loads and bearing plates at the supports reduce that tendency. Web
stiffeners also prevent the web from shearing in plate girders.

Beam Loads & Load Tracing

In order to determine the loads on a beam (or girder, joist, column, frame, foundation...) we can
start at the top of a structure and determine the tributary area that a load acts over and the beam
needs to support. Loads come from material weights, people, and the environment. This area is
assumed to be from half the distance to the next beam over to halfway to the next beam.

The reactions must be supported by the next lower structural element ad infinitum, to the ground.

Design Procedure

The intent is to find the most light weight member satisfying the section modulus size.

1. Know Fb (allowable stress) for the material or Fy & Fu for LRFD.

2. Draw V & M, finding Mmax.
M max
3. Calculate Sreq’d. This step is equivalent to determining f b = ≤ Fb
S
bh 2
4. For rectangular beams S=
6
- For steel or timber: use the section charts to find S that will work and remember that
the beam self weight will increase Sreq’d. And for steel, the design charts show the
lightest section within a grouping of similar S’s.
- For any thing else, try a nice value for b, and calculate h or the other way around.
****Determine the “updated” Vmax and Mmax including the beam self weight, and verify that the
updated Sreq’d has been met.******

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ENDS 231 Note Set 21 F2007abn

5. Consider lateral stability

6. Evaluate horizontal shear stresses using Vmax to determine if f v ≤ Fv

3V V
For I and rectangular beams f v − max = ≈
2 A Aweb
P
7. Provide adequate bearing area at supports: fp = ≤ Fp
A
Tρ T
8. Evaluate shear due to torsion fv = or ≤ Fv
J c1 ab 2
(circular section or rectangular)

9. Evaluate the deflection to determine if Δmax LL ≤ ΔLL − allowed and/or Δmax Total ≤ ΔT − allowed

Redesign (with a new section) at any point that a stress or serviceability criteria is
NOT satisfied and re-evaluate each condition until it is satisfactory.

BEAM DIAGRAMS AND FORMULAS

For Various Static Loading Conditions, AISC ASD 8th ed.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 21 F2007abn

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ENDS 231 Note Set 21 F2007abn

6
ENDS 231 Note Set 21 F2007abn

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ENDS 231 Note Set 21 F2007abn

Allowable Moments in Beams with Unbraced Lengths

Allowable stresses are reduced when the unbraced length of the compression flange can buckle
called Lc. The limiting unbraced length at the lower stresses is called Lu. The maximum
moment that can be applied (taking self weight into account) can be plotted against the unbraced
length. The limit Lc is indicated by a solid dot (•), while Lu is indicated by an open dot ({).
Solid lines indicate the most economical, while dashed lines indicate there is a lighter section
that could be used. Cb, which is a modification factor for non-zero moments at the ends, is 1 for
simply supported beams (0 moments at the ends).

Example 1 (pg 328)

8
ENDS 231 Note Set 21 F2007abn

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ENDS 231 Note Set 21 F2007abn

Example 2 (pg 330)

10
ENDS 231 Note Set 21 F2007abn

Beam Design Flow Chart

Collect data: L, ω, γ, Δllimits; find beam charts

for load cases and Δactual equations

ASD Allowable Stress or LRFD

LRFD Design?

Collect data: Fb & Fv Collect data: load factors, Fy,

Fu, and equations for shear
capacity with φV
Find Vmax & Mmax from
constructing diagrams or
using beam chart formulas Find Vu & Mu from
constructing diagrams or
using beam chart formulas
with the factored loads
Find Sreq’d and pick a section
from a table with Sx greater or
equal to Sreq’d
Pick a steel section from a chart
having φbMn ≥ Mu for the known
unbraced length
Calculate ωself wt. using A found
and γ. Find Mmax-adj & Vmax-adj.

Is Vu ≤ φV(0.6FywebAweb) No
pick a section
with a larger
No Calculate Sreq’d-adj using Mmax-adj. Yes web area
Is Sx(picked) ≥ Sreq’d-adj?
(OR calculate fb. Is fb ≤ Fb?)

Yes

Calculate Areq’d-adj using Vmax-adj.

No
Is A(picked) ≥ Areq’d-adj?
pick a new section with a
(OR calculate fv. Is fv ≤ Fv?) larger area

Calculate Δmax (no load factors!)

using superpositioning and beam
chart equations with the Ix for the
section

is Δmax ≤ Δlimits?
This may be both the limit for live load No
deflection and total load deflection.) pick a section with a larger Ix

Yes (DONE)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 22 F2007abn

Steel– AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design

Load and Resistance Factor Design

The Manual of Steel Construction LRFD, 3rd ed. by the American Institute of Steel Construction
requires that all steel structures and structural elements be proportioned so that no strength limit
state is exceeded when subjected to all required factored load combinations.
Σγ i Ri ≤ φRn
where γ = load factor for the type of load
R = load (dead or live; force, moment or stress)
φ = resistance factor
Rn = nominal load (ultimate capacity; force, moment or stress)

Nominal strength is defined as the

capacity of a structure or component to resist the effects of loads, as determined by

computations using specified material strengths (such as yield strength, Fy, or ultimate
strength, Fu) and dimensions and formulas derived from accepted principles of structural
mechanics or by field tests or laboratory tests of scaled models, allowing for modeling
effects and differences between laboratory and field conditions

Load Factors and Load Combinations

Nominal loads that must be considered in design include

D = dead load due to the weight of the structural elements and other permanent features
supported by the structure, such as permanent partitions.
L = live load due to occupancy and movable equipment
Lr = live roof load
W = wind load
S = snow load
E = earthquake load
R = initial rainwater load or ice water load exclusive of the ponding contribution

The design strength, φRn , of each structural element or structural assembly must equal or exceed
the design strength based on the following combinations of factored nominal loads from ASCE 7
(2005):

1.4(D + F)
1.2(D + F) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (L or 0.8W)
1.2D + 1.6W + L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D + 1.0E + L + 0.2S
0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6 H
0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6 H

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 ENDS 231 Note Set 22 F2007abn

Steel Materials

W shapes are preferably in steel grade ASTM A992: Fy = 50 ksi, Fu = 65 ksi, E = 30,000 ksi.
ASTM A572 can be specified that has Fy = 60 or 65 ksi, Fu = 75 or 80 ksi, E = 30,000 ksi.
ASTM A36 is available for angles and plates with Fy = 36 ksi, Fu = 58 ksi, E = 29,000 ksi.

Pure Flexure

For determining the flexural design strength, φ b M n , for resistance to pure bending (no axial
load) in most flexural members where the following conditions exist, a single calculation will
suffice:
Σγ i Ri = M u ≤ φ b M n = 0.9 Fy Z

where Mu = maximum moment from factored loads

φb = resistance factor for bending = 0.9
Mn = nominal moment (ultimate capacity)
Fy = yield strength of the steel
Z = plastic section modulus f

fy = 50ksi
Plastic Section Modulus
E
Plastic behavior is characterized by a yield point and an
increase in strain with no increase in stress. 1
ε
εy = 0.001724

Internal Moments and Plastic Hinges

Plastic hinges can develop when all of the material in a cross section
sees the yield stress. Because all the material at that section can strain
without any additional load, the member segments on either side of the
hinge can rotate, possibly causing instability.

For a rectangular section:

I bh2 b(2 c )2 2 bc 2
Elastic to fy: M y = fy = fy = fy = fy
c 6 6 3

Fully Plastic: M ult or M p = bc 2 f y = 3 M y

2

For a non-rectangular section and internal

equilibrium at σy, the n.a. will not necessarily
be at the centroid. The n.a. occurs where the
Atension = Acompression. The reactions occur at the
centroids of the tension and compression areas.

Atension = Acompression
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ENDS 231 Note Set 22 F2007abn

Instability from Plastic Hinges

Shape Factor:

The ratio of the plastic moment to the elastic moment at yield:

Mp
k= k = 3/2 for a rectangle
My
k ≈ 1.1 for an I beam

Plastic Section Modulus

Mp
Z = and k=Z
fy S

Shear

The formulas for the determination of the shear strength on a section are too complex for routine
use with the variety of shapes available or possible for steel members. For members that possess
an axis of symmetry in the plane of loading, and where web stiffeners are not required, two
simplifying assumptions that result in a negligible loss of (theoretical) accuracy are permitted:

1. The contribution of the flanges to shear capacity may be neglected.

2. h t w ≤
418
F y where h equals the clear distance between flanges less the fillet or
corner radius for rolled shapes.

With these assumptions, the calculated strength becomes simple. Neglecting the flanges, all
symmetrical rolled shapes, box shapes, and built-up sections reduce to an equivalent rectangular
section with dimensions Σt w d and shear strength becomes φ vVn :

Σγ i Ri = Vu ≤ φ vVn = 0.9(0.6 Fyw Aw )

where Vu = maximum shear from factored loads

φv = resistance factor for shear = 0.9
Vn = nominal shear (ultimate capacity)
Fyw = yield strength of the steel in the web
Aw = twd = area of the web

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ENDS 231 Note Set 22 F2007abn

Design for Flexure

The nominal flexural strength Mn is the lowest value obtained according to the limit states of
1. yielding
2. lateral-torsional buckling
3. flange local buckling
4. web local buckling

For a laterally braced compact section (one for which the plastic moment can be reached before
local buckling) only the limit state of yielding is applicable. For unbraced compact beams and
noncompact tees and double angles, only the limit states of yielding and lateral-torsional
buckling are applicable.

With lateral-torsional buckling the nominal flexural strength is

M n = C b [constant based on M ' s and L' s ] ≤ M p (M u ≤ φb M n )

where Cb is a modification factor for non-uniform moment diagrams

where, when both ends of the beam segment are braced:
12.5M max
Cb =
2.5M max + 2 M A + 4 M B + 3M C
Mmax = absolute value of the maximum moment in the unbraced
beam segment
MA = absolute value of the moment at the quarter point of the
unbraced beam segment
MB = absolute value of the moment at the center point of the
unbraced beam segment
MC = absolute value of the moment at the three quarter point of
the unbraced beam segment length.

Beam design charts show φ b M n for unbraced length (Lb) of the compression flange in one-foot
increments from 1 to 50 ft. for values of the bending coefficient Cb = 1. For values of 1<Cb≤2.3,
the required flexural strength Mu can be reduced by dividing it by Cb. Lp, the limiting laterally
unbraced length for full plastic flexural strength when Cb = 1, is indicated by a solid dot (•) in
the beam design moment charts, while Lr, the limiting laterally unbraced length for inelastic
lateral-torsional buckling, is indicated by an open dot ({). Solid lines indicate the most
economical, while dashed lines indicate there is a lighter section that could be used.

NOTE: the self weight is not included in determination of φ b M n

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ENDS 231 Note Set 22 F2007abn

Example 1
Assume that for the design moment
calculation:
Dead load = 469 lb/ft
Live load = 1200 lb/ft
of ~28 kips, Live point load at midspan = 3 kips

Pl 3 3 kips ( 20 ft ) 3 ( 12 in ft ) 3
+ Δmax − P = = = 0.077 in
48 EI 48( 30 ,000 ksi )( 375 in 4 )
5( 2 kips / ft
+ 0.031kips / ft
)( 20 ft )4 ( 12 in ft )3
= = 0.650 in
384( 30 ,000 ksi )( 375 in4 )
= 0.650 in. + 0.077 in = 0.727 in. < 1. o.k.

= 0.9( 0.6Fyw Aw ) = 0.9( 0.6 )( 50ksi )(15.9in )( 0.275in ) = 118kips > 28kips o.k.

1.6(3k) =4.8k
10’ 10’

wl 2 Pl 2.48k / ft ( 20ft ) 2 4.8k ( 20ft )

DESIGN LOADS: Mu = + = + = 148k − ft
(before self weight is 8 4 8 4
included as a dead wl P 2.48k / ft ( 20ft ) 4.8k
Vu = + = + = 27.2k 1.2(469 lb/ft)+1.6(1200 lb/ft) =
load) 2 2 2 2 2.48k/ft
(Mu+self weight = 150 k-ft, Vu+self weight = 27.6 k)

3k
10’ 10’

2 k/ft + 31 lb/ft = 2.031 k/ft

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ENDS 231 Note Set 23 F2007abn

Columns and Stability

Design Criteria

Including strength (stresses) and servicability (including deflections), another requirement is that
the structure or structural member be stable.

Stability is the ability of the structure to support a specified load without undergoing
unacceptable (or sudden) deformations.

Physics

Recall that things like to be or prefer to be in their lowest energy state (potential energy).
Examples include water in a water tank. The energy it took to put the water up there is stored
until it is released and can flow due to gravity.

Stable Equilibrium

When energy is added to an object in the form of a

push or disturbance, the object will return to it’s
original position. Things don’t change in the end.

Unstable Equilibrium

When energy is added to an object, the object will

move and get more “disturbed”. Things change
rapidly .

Neutral Equilibrium

When energy is added to an object, the object will

move some then stop.. Things change.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 23 F2007abn

Column with Axial Loading

A column loaded centrically can experience unstable equilibrium,

called buckling, because of how tall and slender they are. This
instability is sudden and not good.

Buckling can occur in sheets

(like my “memory metal”
cookie sheet), pressure vessels
or slender (narrow) beams not
braced laterally.

Buckling can be thought of

with the loads and motion of a
column having a stiff spring at mid-height. There exists
a load where the spring can’t resist the moment in it any
longer.

Short (stubby) columns will experience crushing before

buckling.

Critical Buckling Load

The critical axial load to cause buckling is related to the deflected shape
we could get (or determine from bending moment of P·Δ).

The buckled shape will be in the form of a sine wave.

Euler Formula

Swiss mathematician Euler determined the relationship between the

critical buckling load, the material, section and effective length (as long as
the material stays in the elastic range):
π 2 EI min Pcr =
π 2 EI
=
π 2 EA
Pcritical =
(L )2
or
(Le )2 ⎛ Le ⎞ 2
⎜ r ⎟
⎝ ⎠
and the critical stress (if less than the normal stress) is:
Pcritical π 2 EAr 2 π 2E
f critical = = =
A A(L e )
2 2
⎛ Le ⎞
⎜ r ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where I=Ar2 and L e r is called the slenderness ratio. The smallest I of the section will govern.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 23 F2007abn

Yield Stress and Buckling Stress

The two design criteria for columns are that

they do not buckle and the strength is not
exceeded. Depending on slenderness, one
will control over the other.

But, because in the real world, things are

rarely perfect – and columns will not actually
be loaded concentrically, but will see
eccentricity – Euler’s formula is used only if
the critical stress is less than half of the yield
point stress:

π 2 EI min Pcritical Fy
Pcritical = ; f critical = <
(L )2
A 2

Le 2π 2 E
to be used for > Cc =
r Fy
where Cc is the column slenderness classification constant and is the slenderness ratio of a
column for which the critical stress is equal to half the yield point stress.

Effective Length and Bracing

Depending on the end support conditions for a column, the effective length can be found from
the deflected shape (elastic equations). If a very long column is braced intermittently along its
length, the column length that will buckle can be determined. The effective length can be found
by multiplying the column length by an effective length factor, K. Le = K ⋅ L

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ENDS 231 Note Set 23 F2007abn

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ENDS 231 Note Set 23 F2007abn

Example 1 (pg 346)

Example 2 (pg 346)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 23 F2007abn

Example 3 (pg357)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 24 S2008abn

Steel & Wood Column Design

Design Aims

If we know the loads, we can select a section that is adequate for strength & buckling.

If we know the length, we can find the limiting load satisfying strength & buckling.

Design Code Methodologies

Allowable Stress Design (ASD): the stress in a member must be less than an allowable stress
which is equal to the yield stress divided by a factor of safety.

Load and Resistance Factor Design: more efficient method that factors loads for importance and
compares the summation to a nominal strength that has been adjusted by a reduction factor.

Allowable Stress Design - Steel

American Institute of Steel Construction

(AISC) Manual of ASD, 9th ed:

Long and slender: [ Le/r ≥ Cc, preferably <

200]
Fcr 12 π 2 E
Fallowable = =
F .S . (
23 KL
r
)
2

The yield limit is idealized into a parabolic

curve that blends into the Euler’s Formula at
Cc.
2π 2 E
With Fy = 36 ksi, Cc = 126.1 Cc =
Fy
With Fy = 50 ksi, Cc = 107.0

Short and stubby: [Le/r < Cc]

⎡
⎢
Fa = 1 −
( )
KL 2
r
⎤
⎥ Fy
⎢ 2 C c2 ⎥ F .S .
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
with:
5 3
F .S . = +
KL ( ) ( )
r −
KL 3
r
3 8C c 8 C c3

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ENDS 231 Note Set 24 S2008abn

Procedure for Analysis

1. Calculate KL/r for each axis (if necessary). The largest will govern the buckling load.
2. Find Fa as a function of KL/r from Table 10.1 or 10.2 (pp. 361-364)
3. Compute Pallowable = Fa⋅A or alternatively compute factual = P/A
4. Is the design satisfactory?
Is P ≤ Pallowable? ⇒ yes, it is; no, it is no good
or Is factual ≤ Fa? ⇒ yes, it is; no, it is no good

Procedure for Design

1. Guess a size by picking a section.

2. Calculate KL/r for each axis (if necessary). The largest will govern the buckling load.
3. Find Fa as a function of KL/r from Table 10.1 or 10.2 (pp. 361-364)
4. Compute Pallowable = Fa⋅A or alternatively compute factual = P/A
5. Is the design satisfactory?
Is P ≤ Pallowable? ⇒ yes, it is; no, pick a bigger section and go back to step 2.
or Is factual ≤ Fa? ⇒ yes, it is; no, pick a bigger section and go back to step 2.
6. Check design efficiency by calculating percentage of stress used = Pactual ⋅100%
Pallowable
If value is between 90-100%, it is efficient.
If values is less than 90%, pick a smaller section and go back to step 2.

The critical load with respect to the slenderness ratio is presented in chart format in ASD, 8th ed,
as well as the allowable stress charts for compression members.

Allowable Stress Design - Wood

National Design Specification for Wood Construction (1992):

Any slenderness ratio, Le/d ≤ 50:

Fc′ = Fc (C D )(C M )(C t )(C F )(C p )

P
fc = ≤ Fc′
A

The curve uses factors to replicate the combination curve:

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ENDS 231 Note Set 24 S2008abn

where:
Fc’ = allowable compressive stress parallel to
the grain
Fc = compressive strength parallel to the grain
CD = load duration factor
CM = wet service factor (1.0 for dry)
Ct = temperature factor
CF = size factor
Cp = column stability factor off chart

For preliminary column design:

Fc′ = Fc* C p = (Fc C D )C p

Procedure for Analysis

1. Calculate Le/dmin
2. Obtain F’c
K cE E
compute FcE = with KcE =0.3 for sawn, = 0.418 for glu-lam
( )
le
d
2

3. Compute Fc* ≅ Fc C D with CD = 1, normal, CD =1.25 for 7 day roof...

4. Calculate FcE Fc* and get Cp from Appendix A, Table 14 (pp. 413-414)
5. Calculate Fc′ = Fc*C p
6. Compute Pallowable = F′c⋅A or alternatively compute factual = P/A
7. Is the design satisfactory?
Is P ≤ Pallowable? ⇒ yes, it is; no, it is no good
or Is factual ≤ F’c? ⇒ yes, it is; no, it is no good

Procedure for Design

1. Guess a size by picking a section

2. Calculate Le/dmin
3. Obtain F’c
K cE E
compute FcE = with KcE =0.3 for sawn, = 0.418 for glu-lam
( )
le
d
2

4. Compute Fc* ≅ Fc C D with CD = 1, normal, CD =1.25 for 7 day roof...

5. Calculate FcE Fc* and get Cp from Appendix A, Table 14 (pp. 413-414)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 24 S2008abn

6. Calculate Fc′ = Fc*C p

7. Compute Pallowable = F′c⋅A or alternatively compute factual = P/A
8. Is the design satisfactory?
Is P ≤ Pallowable? ⇒ yes, it is; no, pick a bigger section and go back to step 2.
or Is factual ≤ F’c? ⇒ yes, it is; no, pick a bigger section and go back to step 2.

Load & Resistance Factor Design

American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Manual of LRFD, 3rd ed:

Σγ i Qi ≤ φPn where
γ is a load factor
Q is a load type
φ is a resistance factor
Pn is the nominal load capacity (strength)

Load combinations, ex: 1.4D (D is dead load)

1.2D + 1.6L (L is live load)

For compression, φc = 0.85 and Pn = AgFcr

where :
Ag is the cross section area and Fcr is the critical stress shown below
(in Compact Sections).

Compact Sections

Compact sections are defined as sections with flanges continuously connected to the web or
webs and the width-thickness rations are less than limiting values given in the manual. This is to
avoid local buckling of the flange or the web.
Kl Fy Kl L e
Formula parts depend on λ c = where = ,
rπ E r r

when λc ≤ 1.5 :
( 2
)
Fcr = 0.658 λc F y where Fcr is the critical stress

when λc > 1.5 :

⎡ 0.877 ⎤
Fcr = ⎢ 2 ⎥ Fy
⎣ λc ⎦

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ENDS 231 Note Set 24 S2008abn

Sample AISC Table for Allowable Axial Loads (ASD)

Sample AISC Table for LRFD Design Strength in Compression

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ENDS 231 Note Set 24 S2008abn

Example 1 (pg 367)

Example 2 (pg 371) + chart method

ALSO: Select the column using the ASD design charts,

and the LRFD charts assuming that the load is a dead load
(factor of 1.4)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 24 S2008abn

Example 3 (pg 379)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 24 S2008abn

Example 4 (pg 381)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 25 S2008abn

Column Design – Centric & Eccentric Loading

Loading Location

Centric loading: The load is applied at the centroid of the cross section. The limiting
allowable stress is determined from strength (P/A) or buckling.

Eccentric loading: The load is offset from the centroid of the cross section because of how the
beam load comes into the column. This offset introduces bending along
with axial stress. (This can also happen with continuous beams across a
column or wind loading.)

Eccentric Loading

The eccentricity causes bending stresses by a moment of value P x e. Within the elastic range
(linear stresses) we can superposition or add up the normal and bending stresses:

P My
f x = fa + fb = +
A I

fa fb fx

The resulting stress distribution is still linear. And the n.a. moves (if there is one).

fa fb fx

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ENDS 231 Note Set 25 S2008abn

The value of e (or location of P) that causes the stress at an edge to become
zero is at the edge of the kern. As long as P stays within the kern, there will
not be any tension stress.

If there is bending in two directions (bi-axial bending), there will be one

more bending stress added to the total:
P M1y M 2z
f x = f a + f bx + f by = + +
With P, M1, and M2: A Iz Iy
y
b B
e1 x
h + + =
e2
z P
A x y z result

M 2 = P ⋅ e2 M 1 = P ⋅ e1

Eccentric Loading Design

Because there are combined stresses, we can’t just compare the axial stress to a limit axial stress
or a bending stress to a limit bending stress. We use a limit called the interaction diagram. The
diagram can be simplified as a straight line from the ratio of
axial stress to allowable stress= 1 (no bending) to the ratio of
bending stress to allowable stress = 1 (no axial load).
fa
Fa
The interaction diagram can be more sophisticated (represented 1
by a curve instead of a straight line). These type of diagrams
take the effect of the bending moment increasing because the
beam deflects. This is called the P-Δ (P-delta) effect.
fb
1 Fb
Limit Criteria Methods

fa f
1) + b ≤ 1 .0 interaction formula (bending in one direction)
Fa Fb

fa f f by
2) + bx + ≤ 1 .0 interaction formula (biaxial bending)
Fa Fbx Fby

f a f b × (Magnification factor )
3) + ≤ 1.0 interaction formula (P-Δ effect)
Fa Fb

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ENDS 231 Note Set 25 S2008abn

Steel - ASD:
fa C mx f bx C my f by
The modification factors are included in the form: + + ≤ 1 .0
Fa ⎛ fa ⎞ ⎛ f ⎞
⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ Fbx ⎜1 − a ⎟ Fby
⎝ F ′
ex ⎠
⎜ Fey′ ⎟⎠
⎝
where:
fa
1− = magnification factor accounting for P-Δ
Fe′
12 π 2 E
Fe′ =
( )2 = allowable buckling stress
23 KL
r
Cm = modification factor accounting for end conditions,
= 0.6 – 0.4 (M1/M2) where M1 and M2 are the end moments and M1<M2.
M1/M2 is positive when the member is bent in reverse curvature, negative
when bent in single curvature
= 0.85, members in frames subject to joint translation (sidesway)

Wood: - NDS:
2
⎡ fc ⎤ f bx
The modification factors are included in the form: ⎢ ′ ⎥ + ≤ 1 .0
⎣ Fc ⎦ Fbx′ ⎡⎢1 − c ⎤
f
⎣ FcEx ⎥⎦
where:
fc
1− = magnification factor accounting for P-Δ
FcEx
Fbx′ = allowable bending stress

Steel – LRFD:

The modification factors are included in the form for two conditions.

Pu Pu 8 ⎛ M ux M uy ⎞
For ≥ 0 .2 : + ⎜ + ⎟ ≤ 1 .0
φ c Pn φ c Pn 9 ⎜⎝ φb M nx φb M ny ⎟
⎠

Pu Pu ⎛ M ux M uy ⎞
For < 0 .2 : +⎜ + ⎟ ≤ 1 .0
φc Pn 2φ c Pn ⎜⎝ φb M nx φb M ny ⎟
⎠

where:
φ c = 0.85 for compression
φ b = 0.90 for flexure

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ENDS 231 Note Set 25 S2008abn

Column Design Methodology

In order to design an adequate section for allowable stress, we have to start somewhere:

1. Make assumptions about the limiting stress from:

- buckling
- axial stress
- combined stress
2. See if we can find values for r or A or S (=I/cmax)
3. Pick a trial section based on if we think r or A is going to govern the section size.
4. Analyze the stresses and compare to allowable using the allowable stress method or
interaction formula for eccentric columns.
5. Did the section pass the stress test?
- If not, do you increase r or A or S?
- If so, is the difference really big so that you could decrease r or A or S to make it
more efficient (economical)?
6. Change the section choice and go back to step 4. Repeat until the section meets the
stress criteria.

Example 1

17 .8
= 0.873
A992. 20 .38
Fb = 27.8 ksi. (b) bending

0.6( 6.15 )
9.2’ = = 0.13
27 .8
13.9’

50 ksi
Sx = 117 in3 12 π 2 ( 30000 )
Fe′ = = 230 ksi
23 ( 25 .9 )2

1 .0
= = 1.084
1 − 17 .8 / 230

20.38 ksi 0.873+0.13(1.084) = 1.01 ≈ 1.0

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ENDS 231 Note Set 25 S2008abn

Example 2

F’b = 2152 psi Fc = 1350 psi

A = 8.25 in2
Sx* = 7.56 in3

CD = 1.6 from wind loading

0.36

= 2376(0.36) = 855 psi

16in
12 in / ft

809
0.399
855

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ENDS 231 Note Set 26 F2007abn

Connections and Tension Member Design

Connections

Connections must be able to transfer any axial force, shear, or moment from member to member
or from beam to column.

Steel construction accomplishes this with bolt and welds. Wood construction uses nails, bolts,
shear plates, and split-ring connectors.

Bolted and Welded Connections

The limit state for connections depends on the
loads:
1. tension yielding
2. shear yielding
3. bearing yielding
4. bending yielding due to eccentric loads
5. rupture

Welds must resist tension AND shear stress. The

design strengths depend on the weld materials.

Bolted Connection Design

Bolt designations signify material and type of connection where

SC: slip critical
N: bearing-type connection with bolt threads included in shear plane
X: bearing-type connection with bolt threads excluded from shear plane

Bolts rarely fail in bearing. The material with the hole will more likely yield first.

Standard bolt holes are 1/16” larger than the bolt diameter.

ASD

Allowable shear values are given by bolt type, connection

type, hole type, diameter, and loading (Single or Double shear)
in AISC manual tables.

Allowable bearing force values are given by bolt diameter,

ultimate tensile strength, Fu, of the connected part,
and thickness of the connected part in AISC
manual tables.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 26 F2007abn

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ENDS 231 Note Set 26 F2007abn

Tension Member Design

In steel tension members, there may be bolt holes that reduce the size of the cross section.

Effective Net Area:

The smallest effective are

must be determined by
subtracting the bolt hole
areas. With staggered
holes, the shortest length
must be evaluated.

A series of bolts can also transfer a portion of the tensile force, and some of the effective net
areas see reduced stress.

ASD

For other than pin connected members: Ft = 0.60 Fy on gross area

Ft = 0.50 Fu on net area
For pin connected members: Ft = 0.45 Fy on net area
For threaded rods of approved steel: Ft = 0.33Fu on major diameter (static loading only)

LRFD

The limit state for tension members are: Pu ≤ φ t Pn

1. yielding φ t = 0.9 Pn = Fy Ag
2. rupture φ t = 0.75 Pn = Fu Ae

where Ag = the gross area of the member

(excluding holes)
Ae = the effective net area (with holes, etc.)
Fu = the tensile strength of the steel (ultimate)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 26 F2007abn

Welded Connections

Weld designations include the strength in the name, i.e.

E70XX has Fy = 70 ksi.

The throat size, T, of a fillet weld is determined

trigonometry by: T = 0.707 ×weld size

ASD

Allowable shear stress of a weld is limited to 30% of the

nominal strength.
Fv = 18 ksi for E60XX
Fv = 21 ksi for E70XX

Weld sizes are limited by the size of the parts being put
together and are given in AISC manual table J2.4 along with
the allowable strength per length of fillet weld, referred to as
S.

The maximum size of a fillet weld:

a) can’t be greater than the material thickness if it
is ¼” or less Allowable Strength of Fillet Welds
b) is permitted to be 1/16” less than the per inch of weld (S)
thickness of the material if it is over ¼” Weld Size E60XX E70XX
(in.) (k/in.) (k/in.)
3 2.39 2.78
The minimum length of a fillet weld is 4 times the 16

nominal size. If it is not, then the weld size used for ¼ 3.18 3.71
5 3.98 4.64
design is ¼ the length. 16
3
8
4.77 5.57
Intermittent fillet welds can not be less that four times 7
16
5.57 6.94
the weld size, not to be less than 1 ½”. ½ 6.36 7.42
5
8
7.95 9.27
¾ 9.55 11.13

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ENDS 231 Note Set 26 F2007abn

Framed Beam Connections

Coping is the term for cutting away part of the flange to connect a beam to
another beam using welded or bolted angles.

AISC provides tables that give angle sizes

knowing bolt type, bolt diameter, angle leg
thickness, and number of bolts (determined by
shear capacity).

Load and Factor Resistance Design

In addition to resisting shear and tension in bolts and shear in welds, the connected materials
may be subjected to shear, bearing, tension, flexure and even prying action. Coping can
significantly reduce design strengths and may require web reinforcement. All the following
must be considered:

• shear yielding
• shear rupture
• block shear rupture -
failure of a block at a beam as a
result of shear and tension
• tension yielding
• tension rupture
• local web buckling
• lateral torsional buckling

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ENDS 231 Note Set 26 F2007abn

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ENDS 231 Note Set 26 F2007abn

Example 1

(Table I-D)

(Table I-E)

For yielding in the cross section without holes: 

  Agross = (8”) × (½”) = 4.0 in.2  

  Pt = Ft × Agross 
 
where: 

  Ft = 0.6Fy= 0.6(36 ksi) = 21.6 ksi 
  Pt = 21.6 k/in.2 × 4.0 in.2 = 86.4 k 
 

The maximum connection capacity is governed by shear. 

  Pallow = 81.6 k 

7
ENDS 231 Note Set 26 F2007abn

Example 2

S = 4.64 k/in 

4.64 k/in = 102.1 k 

(page 4)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 26 F2007abn

Example 3

The steel used in the connection and beams is A992 with Fy = 50

ksi, and Fu = 65 ksi. Using A490-N bolt material, determine the
maximum capacity of the connection based on shear in the bolts,
bearing in all materials and pick the number of bolts and angle
length (not staggered). Use A36 steel for the angles.

W21x93: d = 21.62 in, tw = 0.58 in, tf = 0.93 in

W10x54: tf = 0.615 in

SOLUTION:

The maximum length the angles can be depends on how it fits between the top and bottom flange with some
clearance allowed for the fillet to the flange, and getting an air wrench in to tighten the bolts. This example uses 1”
of clearance:
Available length = beam depth – both flange thicknesses – 1” clearance at top & 1” at bottom
= 21.62 in – 2(0.93 in) – 2(1 in) = 17.76 in.
The standard lengths for non-staggered holes (L) and staggered holes (L’) are shown in Table II-A. The closest size
within the available length is 17 ½ in. This will fit 6 bolts (n) with a standard spacing.

We have a choice of bolt diameters of ¾”, 7/8” and 1” in Table II-A. These have allowable loads for shear
(double) of 148 kips, 202 kips, and 264 kips. But the last two values are shaded and the note says that “net shear on
the angle thickness specified is critical” and to see Table II-C. The angle thickness (t) is listed below the bolt
diameter.

Table II-C gives a value of 207 kips for a 7/8” bolt diameter, ½” angle thickness, and 17.5” length. It gives a value
of 242 kips for a 1” bolt diameter, 5/8” angle thickness, and 17.5” length. Therefore, 242 kips is the maximum
value limited by shear in the angle.
Pp = 264 kips for double shear of 1” bolts (Table I-D: 6 bolts⋅(44 k/bolt) = 264 kips)
Pv = 242 kips for net shear in angle
We also need to evaluate bearing of bolts on the angles, beam web, and column flange where there are bolt holes.
Table I-E provides allowable bearing load for the material type, bolt diameter and some material thicknesses. The
last note states that “Values for decimal thicknesses may be obtained by multiplying the decimal value of the
unlisted thickness by the value given for a 1-in. thickness”. This comes from the definition for bearing stress:

P
fP = ≤ F p , where Pp = t⋅d⋅Fp at the allowable bearing stress
td
For a constant diameter and allowable stress, the allowable load depends only on the thickness.

a) Bearing for 5/8” thick angle: There are 12 bolt holes through two angle legs to the column, and 12 bolt holes
through two angle legs either side of the beam. The material is A36 (Fu = 58 ksi), with 1” bolt diameters.
Pp = 12 bolts⋅(43.5 k/bolt) = 522 kips
b) Bearing for column flange: There are 12 bolt holes through two angle legs to the column. The material is
A992 (Fu = 65 ksi), 0.615” thick, with 1” bolt diameters.
Pp = 12 bolts⋅(78 k/bolt/1”)⋅(0.615 in) = 576 kips.
c) Bearing for beam web: There are 6 bolt holes through two angle legs either side of the beam. The
material is A992 (Fu = 65 ksi), 0.58” thick, with 1” bolt diameters
Pp = 6 bolts⋅(78 k/bolt/1”)⋅(0.58 in) = 271 kips.

Although, the bearing in the beam web is the smallest at 271 kips, with the shear on the bolts even smaller at 264
kips, the maximum capacity for the simple-shear connector is 242 kips limited by net shear in the angles.

9
ENDS 231 Note Set 27.1 F2007abn

Rigid and Braced Frames

Rigid Frames

Rigid frames are identified by the lack of pinned

joints within the frame. The joints are rigid and
resist rotation. They may be supported by pins or
fixed supports. They are typically statically
indeterminate.

Frames are useful to resist lateral loads.

Frame members will see

• shear
• bending
• axial forces

and behave like beam-columns.

Behavior

The relation between the joints has to be maintained, but the whole joint can
rotate. The amount of rotation and distribution of moment depends on the
stiffness (EI/L) of the members in the joint.

End restraints on columns reduce the effective length, allowing columns to be

more slender. Because of the rigid joints, deflections and moments in beams
are reduced as well.

Frames are sensitive to settlement because it induces strains and changes the stress distribution.

Types

Gabled – has a peak

Portal – resembles a door. Multi-story, multiple bay portal

frames are commonly used for commercial and industrial
construction. The floor behavior is similar to that of
continuous beams.

Staggered Truss – Full story trusses are staggered through the

frame bays, allowing larger clear stories.

Staggered Truss

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ENDS 231 Note Set 27.1 F2007abn

Connections

Steel – Flanges of members are fully attached to

the flanges of the other member. This can be
done with welding, or bolted plates.

Reinforced Concrete – Joints are monolithic with

continuous reinforcement for bending. Shear is resisted with stirrups and ties.

Braced Frames

Braced frames have beams and columns that are

“pin” connected with bracing to resist lateral loads.

Types of Bracing

• knee-bracing
• diagonal (including eccentric)

• X diagonal X

• K or chevron
• shear walls – which resist
lateral forces in the plane of
the wall

shear walls K

Rigid Frame Analysis

Structural analysis methods such as the portal method (approximate), the method of virtual work,
Castigliano’s theorem, the force method, the slope-displacement method, the stiffness method,
and matrix analysis, can be used to solve for internal forces and moments and support reactions.

Shear and bending moment diagrams can be drawn for frame members by isolating the member
from a joint and drawing a free body diagram. The internal forces at the end will be equal and
opposite, just like for connections in pinned frames. Direction of the “beam-like” member is
usually drawn by looking from the “inside” of the frame.

2
ENDS 231 Note Set 27.1 F2007abn

P
M+

M+
M+
Frame Design

The possible load combinations for frames with dead load, live load, wind load, etc. is critical to
the design. The maximum moments (positive and negative) may be found from different
combinations and at different locations. Lateral wind loads can significantly affect the
maximum moments.

Plates and Slabs

If the frame is rigid or non-rigid, the floors can be a

plate or slab (which has drop panels around columns).
These elements behave differently depending on their
supports and the ratio of the sides.

• one-way behavior: like a “wide” beam, when ratio of sides > 1.5
• two-way behavior: complex, non-determinate, look for handbook solutions

Floor Loading Patterns

With continuous beams or floors, the worst case loading typically

occurs when alternate spans are loaded with live load (not every
span). The maximum positive and negative moments may not be
found for the same loading case! If you are designing with
reinforced concrete, you must provide flexure reinforcement on the
top and bottom and take into consideration that the maximum may
move.

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 ENDS 231 Note Set 27.1 F2007abn

Example 1 10 kN/m
The rigid frame shown has been analyzed using an advanced
BAy structural analysis technique. The reactions at support A are:
MBA Ax = 2.37 kN, Ay = 21.59 kN, MA = -4.74 kN⋅m. The B
BAx reactions at support C are: Cx = -2.37 kN, Cy = 28.4 kN, MC 5m C
B = -26.52 kN⋅m. Draw the shear and bending moment
diagrams, and identify Vmax & Mmax. 6m
6m

BCy
MBC 10 kN/m A
4.74 kN⋅m A MBC 26.52 kN⋅m
2.37 kN MBA B 2.37 kN
BCx BCx B
21.59 kN
5m C
BAx BCy 28.41 kN
Solution:BAy

Reactions These values must be given or found from non-static analysis techniques. The values are given
with respect to the global coordinate system we defined for positive and negative forces and moments for
equilibrium.
Member End Forces The free-body diagrams of all the members and joints of the frame are shown above.
The unknowns on the members are drawn positive, and the opposite directions are drawn on the joint. We can
begin the computation of internal forces with either member AB or BC, both of which have only three unknowns.
Member AB With the magnitudes of reaction forces at A know, the unknowns are at end B of BAx, BAy, and
MBA, which can get determined by applying ∑ Fx = 0 , ∑ F y = 0 , and ∑ M B = 0 . Thus,
∑ Fx = 2.37 kN + BAx = 0 BAx = -2.37 kN, ∑ F y = 21.59 kN + BA y = 0 BAy = -21.59 kN
∑ M B = 2.37 kN ( 6 m ) − 4.74 kN ⋅ m + M BA = 0 MBA = -9.48 kN⋅m
Joint B Because the forces and moments must be equal and opposite, BCx = 2.37 kN, BCy = 21.59 kN and
MBC = 9.48 kN⋅m
Member BC All forces are known, so equilibrium can be checked:
∑ Fx = 2.37 kN − 2.37 kN = 0 ∑ F y = 21.59 kN + 28.49 kN − (10 kN / m )5 m = 0
∑ M B = 28.41kN ( 5 m ) − 10 kN / m( 5 m )( 2.5 m ) − 26.52 kN ⋅ m + 9.48 kN ⋅ m = 0

21.59 kN 23.3 kN⋅m

+V (2.84 m)
+M
(2.16 m)
-9.48 kN⋅m

-9.48 kN⋅m

-28.41 kN

-26.52 kN⋅m
4.74 kN⋅m
-2.37 kN

deflected shape
+M
+V

(based on +/- M)

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 ENDS 231 Note Set 27.1 F2007abn

Example 2 B
40 k 15 ft C
The rigid frame shown has been analyzed using an advanced structural analysis
technique. The reactions at support A are: Ax = -28.6 k, Ay = -15.3 k,
MA = 208 k-ft. The reactions at support D are: Dx = -11.4 k, Dy = 15.3 k, 12 ft
MD = 110 ft-k. Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams, and identify Vmax
18 ft
& Mmax..
A
Solution:
D
NOTE: The joints are not shown, and the load at joint B is put on only one body.
15.3 k
94.5 k-ft
15.3 k C
135 k-ft 11.4 k
40 k B B C 94.5 k-ft
11.4 k 11.4 k
11.4 k
135 k-ft 15 ft

18 ft
15.3 k
12 ft

15.3 k
208 k-ft A
28.6 k 110 k-ft
D 11.4 k
15.3 k
15.3 k

+V +M
-94.5 k-ft

135 k-ft
135 k-ft
28.6 k

-94.5 k-ft
11.4 k

-15.3 k
-208k-ft

110 k-ft
+M
+V

deflected shape
(based on +/- M)
+M
+V

5
ENDS 231 Note Set 27.2 F2007abn

Frame Analysis Using Multiframe4D

1. The software is on the computers in the college computing lab (http://thelab.tamu.edu) in

Programs under the Windows Start menu. Multiframe4D is under the COSC menu.
2. There is a tutorial in the Help menu (Chapter 1 – 2D Tutorial) that lists the tasks and order in
greater detail. The first task is to define the unit system:
• Choose Units… from the View menu. Unit sets are available, but specific units can
also be selected by double clicking on a unit or format and making a selection from the
menu.

3. To see the scale of the geometry, a grid option is available:

• Choose Grid… from the View menu

4. To create the geometry, you must be in the Frame window (default). The symbol is the
frame in the window toolbar:

The Member toolbar shows ways to create members:

The Generate toolbar has convenient tools to create typical structural shapes.

• To create a frame, use the multi-bay frame button:

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ENDS 231 Note Set 27.2 F2007abn

• Enter the number of bays (horizontally), number of stories (vertically) and the
corresponding spacings:

• If the frame does not have regular bays, use the add connected
members button to create segments:

• Select a starting point and ending point with the cursor. The location of the cursor and
the segment length is displayed at the bottom of the geometry window. The ESC button
will end the segmented drawing.

• The geometry can be set precisely by selecting the joint (drag), and bringing up the joint
properties menu (right click) to set the coordinates.

• The support types can be set by selecting

the joint (drag) and using the Joint Toolbar
(fixed shown), or the Frame / Joint
Restraint ... menu (right click).

NOTE: If the support appears at both ends

of the member, you had the member
selected rather than the joint. Select the joint to change
support for and right click to select the joint restraints
menu or select the correct support on the joint toolbar.

The support forces will be determined in the analysis.

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ENDS 231 Note Set 27.2 F2007abn

5. All members must have sections assigned (see section 6.) in order to calculate reactions and
deflections. To use a standard steel section proceed to step 6. For custom sections the
section information must be entered. To define a section:
• Choose Edit Sections / Add
Section… from the Edit
menu
• Type a name for your new
section
• Choose group Frame from
the group names provided
so that the section will
remain with the file data
• Choose a shape. The Flat
Bar shape is a rectangular
section.
• Enter the cross section data.

Table values 1-9 must have values for a Flat Bar, but not all are used for every analysis. A
recommendation is to put the value of 1 for those properties you don’t know or care about.
Properties like tf, tw, etc. refer to wide flange sections.
• Answer any query. If the message says there is an error, the section will not be created
until the error is corrected.

6. The standard sections library loaded is for the United States. If another section library is
needed, use the Open Sections Library... command under the file menu, choose the library
folder, and select the SectionsLibrary.slb file.

Select the members (drag to make bold) and assign sections with the Section button on the
Member toolbar:

• Choose the group name and section name:

(STANDARD SHAPES) (CUSTOM)

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ENDS 231 Note Set 27.2 F2007abn

7. The frame geometry is complete, and in order to define the load conditions you must be in
the Load window represented by the green arrow:

8. The Load toolbar allows a joint to be loaded with a force or a moment in global coordinates,
shown by the first two buttons. It allows a member to be loaded with a distributed load,
concentrated load or moment (next three buttons) in global coordinates, as well as loading
with distributed or single force in the local coordinate
system (last two buttons).

• Choose the member to be loaded (drag) and select the

load type (here shown for distributed loading):

• Choose the distribution type and

direction. Note that the arrow shown
is the direction of the loading. There
is no need to put in negative values
for downward loading.
• Enter the values of the load and
distances (if any). Distances can be
entered as a function of the length ,
i.e. L/2, L/4...

NOTE: Do not put support reactions as

applied loads. The analysis will
determine the reaction values.

Multiframe4D will automatically generate a grouping

called a Load Case named Load Case 1 when a load is
created. All additional loads will be added to this load case
unless a new load case is defined (Add case under the Case
menu).

9. In order to run the analysis after the geometry, member

properties and loading has been defined:
• Choose Analyze Linear from the Case menu
10. If the analysis is successful, you can view the results in the
Plot window represented by the red moment diagram:

4
ENDS 231 Note Set 27.2 F2007abn

11. The Plot toolbar allows the numerical values to be shown (1.0
button), the reaction arrows to be shown (brown up arrow) and
reaction moments to be shown (brown curved arrow):

• To show the moment diagram, Choose the red Moment button

• To show the shear diagram, Choose the green Shear button

• To show the axial force diagram, Choose the purple Axial Force
button

• To show the deflection diagram, Choose the blue Deflection

button
• To animate the deflection diagram, Choose Animate... from the Display menu. You can
also save the animation to a .avi file by checking the box.
• To see exact values of shear, moment and deflection, double click on the member and
move the vertical cross hair with the mouse. The ESC key will return you to the window.

12. The Data window (D) allows you to view all data “entered” for the geometry, sections and
loading. These values can be edited.

5
ENDS 231 Note Set 27.2 F2007abn

13. The Results window (R) allows you to view all results of the analysis including
displacements, reactions, member forces (actions) and stresses. These values can be cut and
pasted into other Windows programs such as Word or Excel.
NOTE: Px’ refers to the axial load (P) in the local axis x
direction (x’). Vy’ refers to the shear perpendicular to the
local x axis, and Mz’ refers to the bending moment.

14. To save the file Choose Save from the File menu.

15. To load an existing file Choose Open... from the File menu.

Example of Combined Stresses:

for member 3: Mmax = 19.6 k-ft, P = 1.76 k
knowing A = 21.46 in2, I = 796.0 in4, c = 7.08 in
1.76k 19.6k − ft ⋅ 7.08in 12in
f max = + ⋅ = 0.082ksi + 2.092ksi = 2.174ksi
21.46in 2 796in 4 ft

Results window:

where Sx’ refers to the axial stress, Sy’ refers to the bending stress around the local vertical
axis and Sz’ refers to the bending stress around the local horizontal axis.

6
ENDS 231 Note Set 28 F2007abn

System Selection and Design

from Architectural Structures,
Wayne Place, Wiley, 2007:

1
ENDS 231 Note Set 28 F2007abn

Design Criteria for the Behavior of the Overall System

Components of a system consist of vertical and horizontal elements. Connections of the vertical
to horizontal elements are also necessary. For the structural elements to behave and respond as
designed, the system must have the following qualities:
• the components stay together
• the system resists overturning, sliding, twisting and excessive distortion
• the system has internal stability
• the system has overall strength and stiffness

“Order” of Design

There is no set order to design of a structural system. But there are certain stages that can be
recognized. These may be referred to as preliminary, revised and final, or more formally as:

First order: which can include determining structural type and organization, design intent, and
contextual or programmatic emphasis. Preliminary member size charts are useful at this stage.

Second order: which can include evaluating structural strategies, choice of construction
materials, and structural system options with those materials. System selection design aids are
useful at this stage.

Third order: which, after the design has been narrowed down, is where analysis and design
(shape and size) of individual structural elements (beams, columns, connections, etc.) is
performed. The outcome here may direct further first order or second order investigations!!!
2
ENDS 231 Note Set 28 F2007abn

from Understanding Structures, Fuller Moore, McGraw-Hill, 1999:

3
ENDS 231 Note Set 28 F2007abn

from The Architect’s Studio Companion, 3rd ed., Allen & Iano, Wiley, 2002