Measurement ofLength 33

2R -h =
or R h
a= h(2R -h) or
h 2h2
a- and cos30" V3
2 f r o m Fig. 2.16)

But
between any of the two legs.
distance
the
where lis

R-6h2 )
AEXPERIMENT 1

body using
Vernier Callipe
spherical/cylindrical
small
AIMAo
measure
diameter of a
magnifying lens.
APpARATUS
bob) or a cylinder and a
a spherical body (pendulum
Vernier Callipers,

division of main
THEORY of vernier scale
lies ahead of Nth
between the jaws,
the zero
If with the body
(M.s.R.) N. =
v e r n i e r scale
then main scale reading division of main scale, then
scale, coincides with any
of vernier scale
If nth division
count of vernier
callipers)
reading (V.S.R.) (L.C. is least
n x (L.C.) constant of vernier callipers)
= nx (V.C.) (V.C. is vernier (L.C. = V.C.
M.S.R. + V.S.R.
reading, T.R.
=
Total
= N+nx (V.C.).

DIAGRAM
Main Scale

5 6 7 8 9 10
ulunlunlunluulualulunlulhnlunl

luuluuu

Sphere
diameter of a sphere.
Callipers-Measuring
Fig. Vernier

PROCEDURE vernier callipers and record

constant (V.C.) i.e. least count (L.C.) of the
Determine the vernier
it stepwise.
 OBSERVATIONSs
Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the Vernier Callipers
1 M.S.D. = 1 mm
10 V.S.D. = 9 M.S.D.

9
1 V.S.D. = 10 M.S.D. = 0.9 mm
10

Vernier Constant, V.C. = 1 M.S.D. -1 V.S.D. =

(1-0.9) mm = 0.1 mm
=0.01 cm.
Zero error (i)... cm, (i)...Cm, (ii)....cm.
Mean zero error (e) = . . . cm.

ean zero correction (c) = -

e =
.. cm.

Table for the Diameter (D)

Vernier Scale Readtng Total Reading
Main Scalde
Serial No. of No. of Vernier Value Oberved Corrected
Reading (N) division nx (V.C.)J D D,+
Observations DN+n
(cm) coinciding (n) xV.C.

a)AOB D, (a)
1
D,b)
(a)A GB D, (a)
2
(b)1 D, (6)
a) AG B D, (a)
3-
D,(b)
ARaSUreTiento fLength 35

CALCYATION

M e a n corrected diameter,
D_ (b) D (a)+ Dh)
D,(a) +D,(b) + D,(a) + +

D 6

RESP
cm
sphere/cylinder i s . . .

The diameter of the given

PREPAUTIONS

should be made smooth (by oiling, if necessary).

scale o n main scale
of vernier
Mation
should be carefully found
and properly recorded.
and zero e r r o r
constant
Vernier (without undue pressure on it
between the jaws firmly but gently
The
should be gripped
body
from the jaws). least at three different
and taken at

AObservations
should be taken at
right angles at o n e place
places.
sorRCES OF E R R O R

main scale.
scale may be loose o n
The vernier
to the main scale.
not be at right angles
The jaws may
on scale may not be correct and clear.
The graduations

4 Parallax may be there in taking observations.

EXPERIMENT 1A
Vernier
depth of given beaker/calorimeter using
internal diameter and
a

ATMTe measure

volume.
Callipers and hence find its

APPxRATUs
Vernier Callipers, a beaker or a calorimeter, magnifying glass.

THEÓRY
Same as in Experiment 1A.
) For measuring internal diameter and depth.
(ii) For valume:
Volume of beaker or calorimeter = internal area of cross-section x depth

or

where, D internal diameter of beaker/calorimeter

d depth of beaker/calorimeter.
 Physics
MARAM

Min Sca

10

Beaker

Fig. (a) Internal diameter of beaker.

Beaker

Fig.(b) Depth ofbeaker.

Measurement of Length 37

PROCEDURE

tV.) 1e, least cOint of tfhe vernier callipers and rerord

Determine the vernier constant
stepwise.
the movable jaw BD in
close contact error.
with the hxed jaw AC and hnd the zero Do
Rring
it. If there is no zero error,
then record, zero error as nil.
three times and record
of internal diameter
Measurement
till each of then touches
Put the jaws
Cand D inside the beaker or calorimeter and open then
beaker or calorimeter, without any undue pressure on the walls Tightern
the inner wall of the
the screw attached to the vernier scale gently.

the zero mark of the vernier scale on the main scale. Record the main
Note the position of
zero mark of the vernier scale. This reading (N) is called main
srale
scale reading just before the
reading (M S.R.).

of the vernier scale division which coincides with some division of the
Note the number (n)
main scale.

the vernier callipers by 90° for measuring internal diameter

Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating
in a perpendicular direction.

Find total reading and apply zero correction.

Measurement of depth

8Keepthe edge of the main scale of vernier callipers on its peripheral edge. This should be done
in such a way that the tip of the strip is able to go freely inside the beaker along its depth.
Keep sliding the moving jaw of the vernier callipers until the strip just touches the bottom of
the beaker. Take care that it is just perpendicular to the bottom surface. Now, tighten the screw
of the vernier callipers.
Repeat steps 4 and 5 for four different positions along the circumference of the upper edge of
the beaker or calorimeter.

11 Find total reading and apply zero correction.

Take mean of two different values of internal diameter and four different values of the depth.

Calculate the volume by using proper formula and show that in the result with proper unit.

oBSVATiONS
Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the vernier callipers
1 M.S.D. 1 mm
10 V.S.D. = 9 M.S.D.

9
1 V.S.D. = M.S.D. = 0.9 mm
10
 Ca deoe Praetieal Phy
Vesma emstant - MSD VSD-(1 09 mm
.1 mum -0 1 m

A a se erter te)

Table fer the

iste mal Biametoy ()

VernierScale Rending
Main Se Totel Rendng
Reding (N Ne. ofVerier
FOeeseee (em) divieion Vabue Obsarved
coinciding (n) In(V.C. D-N+n Cowverted
V.C.
D-D

D,
D,
D
Table for the depth (d)
Serial Position Main Scale Vernier Scale Reading
N Total Reading
Reading (N)
efObs No. of Vernier
(cm) Value Observed
division Comectel
[nx (V.C.) d=N+n
coinciding (n) x (V.C.)
d4
at A

at d

at C

at

CAKCULATIONS
Mean corrected internal
diameter,
D D,(a)+D,(b) cm
2
Mean corrected depth

d t d , +d, +d CI
4

Valune of beaker/calorimeter
Cm
Measurement ofLength

,RUTLT

The volume of the beaker/calorimeter is.em

PPCAUTIONS

Same as gven in Experiment 1.

ERCES OF ERROR
Same as given in Experiment 1

VIVA VOCE
a.1. Why is a slide callipers called aVernier Callipers?
Ans Because it was first designed by a French mathematician, Pierre Vernier.
Q2. What is the principle ofa vernier scale?
Ans. The number of vernier scale divisions coinciding with main scale divisions should either be one
less or one more.

1V.S.D. =
1M.S.D.
No. of divisions on V.S.
Q.3. Define vernier constant.
Ans. It is the difference between value of one main scale division and one vernier scale division ofa
Vernier Callipers.
Q,4. Define least count of a measuring instrument.
Ans. It is the least quantity that the instrument can measure accurately. (For a Vernier Callipers, its
least count is equal to vernier constant.)
Q.5. Give least counts of a metre scale, Vernier Callipers, screw gauge and a
spherometer.
Ans. Metre scale (1 mm), Vernier Callipers (0.1 mm), screw gauge and spherometer (0.01 mm).
Q.6. What is a zero error?
Ans. It is the error in the vernier callipers, if the zeros of the main scale and vernier scale do not
coincide when the lower jaws are in contact.
.7. How does zero error arise in the instrument?
Ans. it arises due to wear and tear of the instrument caused by its long use.

Q.8. When is zero error

positive and when is it negative?
Ans. Zero error is positive when vernier zero is to the right of main scale zero and negative if it is to
the left.
.9. How is zero error
ans.
applied?
Zero error is
algebraically subtracted from the observed reading
a

Q10. What is zero

correction? How is it applied"
Ans. Negative of zero error is zero correction. It is algebraically added to the observed reading.
11. What is the utility of vernier scale over metre scale?
Ans. increases the accuracy of measurement.
It
 EXPERIMENT2
AM meaure diameter of a given wire using screw gauge.

APPARATus
Screygauge, wire, half-metre scale and magnifying lens.
THEORY
if with the wirebetween plane faces Aand B, the edge of the cap lies ahead of
Nth dime
linear scale, then, linear scale reading (L.S.R.) = N.
If mth division of circular scale lies over reference line, then, circular
scale rrad
(C.S.R)= nx (L.C.) (L.C. is least count of screw gauge)
Total reading (T.R.) L.S.R. + C.S.R. N +nx (L.C.).
= =

2 if D be the mean diameter and I be the mean

length of the wire,
volume of the wire, V= :

DIAGKAM
Wire
B S N
5 K

Fig. Serew gauge measuring diameter af the wire

OBSEKVATIONS

of the Screw Gauge

1. Determination of Least Count
1 L.S.D. = 1 mm

Number of full rotations given to screw =

4

Distance moved by the screw =

4 mm

d 4 mm
Hence, pitch p - = =1 mmn
n 4

Number of divisions on circular scale = 1000

1 mm
Hence, least count, 0.01 mm 0.001 cm
100

3/Zero Error. ()..mm, (ii).. mm, (i)..mm.

Mean zero error (e) = . . mm

Mean zero correction (¢) = -

e =... mm.
 Cokemans Practicai
Tai
cider Sea Rendivg
Totel Ree
Ne ef C be
Smle dtvidon es Orera
eference me Curece

ia) A
D ta

a) A B D,b)
D,la
(c)AOB D,b)
3
D,a)
D,b)
CALULATIONS
Length of the wire, 1= (1) ... cm,
Mean diameter of the wire,
ti)...cm, ii)..m.
D=
D(a)+ D, (b) +..+ D,(a) + D,(6)
=
...... mm =
...... Cm
Mean length of the wire,

Cm
3
Volume of the wire,

cm°.

RES
Thevolume of the given wire is . . cm.

PREÇAUTIONS
To avoid
undue preseure; the screw should always be rotated by ratchet Rand to
The screw should move
freely without friction.
Measuremernt of Length
The sero cerrection, with proper sign should be noted very carefully and added
algebraically
4 Fer same set of observations, the screw should be moved in the same
direction to avoid back
lash error of the screw.

At each place, the diameter of the wire should be measured in two

and then the mean of the two be taken.
perpendicular directions
Readings should be taken atleast for five different places
equally spaced aiong the whole length
of the wire
Error due to parallax should be avoided.

soU ES OF ERROR

The screw may have friction.

The screw gauge may have back-lash error.
Circular scale divisions may not be of equal size.
The wire may not be uniform.

EXPERIMENT 2A
AIM: To measure thickmess of a given sheet using screw
gauge.
APPARATUS
Screw gauge, sheet (it must be
rigid) and magnifying lens.
THEORY
Sarne as in Experiment 2.

PROCEDURE
Steps 1 to 6 are same as in Experiment 2.
Repeat steps 4. 5,6 for 5 different positions spread equally throughout the surface of the
Record observation in tabuiar form. sheet.
Find total
reading and apply zero correction in each case.
Take mean of different values of thickness.

OBSERVATiONS
1 Determination of least count of the screw gauge.
Same as in Experiment 2
2. Zero Errar.

Same as i Experiment 2
 CdkemeinePractical Phye
Piron Compiste the aralleiogram OACB Then, OB 1AC represents Q
pytits
OC heromea the diagomal of paralelogram OACB

Hemce from paralleingram law of vecter additton,

-P (Proved)
S.06. EQUILIBRIUM OF VECTORS AND EQUILIBRANT
Twe or more vectors satid to be
VECTO
are in
equilibrium if their resultant is zero
In this.
vetor balamces the other
remaining vectors thts case, each
A
single vector which balances other vectors, is called an
be
equal and oppasite of the resultant of equilibrantof other vertor
of other.
other vectors.

EXPERIMENT 6
AIMTo find the weight of a
given body using parallelogram law
of vectors.
APPARATUs
Parallelogram law of forces apparatus
slotted weights, (Gravesand's apparatus), plumb line,
body (a wooden block) whose
a
two hang
drawing paper sheet, drawing pins, mirror weight is to be determined, thin strong or
strip, sharp pencil, half metre thread
scale, set squares, pr
THEORY
If the body of unkmown weight S suspended from middle hanger, balances weights Pa
surpended from other two hangers, then P+ +` =0

The
S P+Q +2PQ cos
unkncwn weight can be
calculated from equation (1).
 81
e c t o r
A a d i t i o n

oRSpRVATION

balance = . . . g
spring
Least count of balance =
. . .
g
error of spring
Zero
of unknown body
by spring balance . g
Weight
Let 1 cm - 50g.
Scale
Forces
Sides
Resultant Unknown Weight
weight S
by spring Error
Serial OA OB OC forceR balance
P
No. of
Obs gwt) gwt) (cm) (cm) (cm) (gwt) gwt) gwt) (gwt)
150 3 3 3.9 195 195 200 5
150
1

2
3.

Observation 1 is given as sample)

(Note.

CALeULATIONS

3.9 cm, R 50 3.9 = 195 g

OC = x

Unknown weight, S = 195 g.

Mean unknown weight, S

S++S, +S,
= =
195 g
3
Weight by spring balance = 200 g

Difference 5g

RESUET
The unknown weight of given body = 195 g

The error is within the limits of experiment error.

PRECAUTIONS
The board should be stable and vertical.
The pulleys should be frictionless.
3. The hangers should not touch the board or table

4. Junction 0 should be in the middle of the paper sheet.

5. Points should be marked only when weights are at rest.
6. Points should be marked with sharp pencil.
7. Arrows should be marked to show direction of forces.

8. Aproper scale should be taken to make fairly big parallelogram.

 dkomecng Practe
82
s O u K C s OFERROR

Poileys may have frietion

be ncewrate.
Weights may not

Paants may not be marked correctly.

not be much acturate
measured by epring balance may
Weght
VIVA VOCE

Q.1 Befine a scalar quantity.

Ams. Read Art. 5.01

Q.2. Defime a vector quantity.

Ans. Read Art. 5.01
Q.3. Howa geometrical vector represents a vector quantity?
Ans. Read Art. 5.02.
Q4. Define addition of vectors.
Ans. Read Art. 5.03.

Q.5. State parallelogram law of addition of two vectors.

Ans. Read Art. 5.04 (a).
Q6. Write expression for magnitude and direction of the resultant of two ver.
ectoes
Ans. The required expression are:

For magnitude, R=P +Q +2PQ cos

Q sin 8
For direction, tan B
P+Qcos0
Q.7. State triangle law of addition of two vectors.
Ans. Read Art. 5.05 (a).
Q.8. Define equilibrium of vectors.
Ans. Read Art. 5.06.
Q.9. Defne an equilibrant vector.
Ans. Read Art. 5.06
Q10. Can the law ofvectors be used to add forces and velocities?
Ans. Yes, they can be used, because forces and velocities are also vectors.
Q.11. Why is addition of vectors different from addition of scalars?
Ans. Because vectors have direction also, which makes all the difference.
Q.12. Why is addition of vectors called composition of vectors?
Ans.
Composition means collection. By addition we collect (convert) many ve
vertor.
Q13. What is meant
by resolution of vectors?
Ans. it 1s reverse of composition of vectors. The breaking of a single vector
called resolution of vectors
 nder Gravity and Acceleration Due to Gravity
M o t i o nU n d e

85
EXPERIMENT 7
T s i n g aa s i simple pendulum, plot its L-T graph and use it to find the effective length of second's
pendulhum.

APPJRATUS

A damp with stand, a split cork, thread, bob, Vernier Callipers, stopclock/watch, metre scale

of chalk.
and a piege

akORY

Simple Pendulum. An ideal simplependulum consists of aheavy point mass (called bob) tied to one
end of a perfectly inextensible, flexible and weightless string. There is no ideal
simple pendulum.
lnpractice,we make a simple pendulum by a metallic
tying spherical bob to a fine cotton stitching
thread.

2. Length of Simple Pendulum. The distance between the point of suspension of the
pendulum
andits C.G.(whichis C.G.of the bob), is called the length of the simple
pendulum. is represented
It
by the symboll.

Length of simple pendulum = length of thread + length of hook of bob + mean radius of the

spherical bob

i.e. 1= l+h +r

3. Time Period of the Simple Pendulum. Time taken by the bob of the
simple pendulumto
make one complete vibration, is called the time period of the
simple pendulum.l It is represented
by the symbol T.

The time period is given by the formula,

T 2T

4T1
T2
g

or
4T
Knowing the value of Tand g, Ican be calculated.
 nmpnekensine Pra
sine Practical

36
DIAGRAM
Physr
Spit Clamp
cork

Stand
Thread

M130 m
M,120 om
Table M110 om
M100 om
M90 om
M80 cm
Hook
h
Lab
floor Bob
G
5 cm 5 cm
(a) (b)
Fig. (a) Simple Pendulum.

(6) Effective length of simple pendulum, l=l'+h+r

(c) Marks on thread.

PROCEDURE
1. Find the vernier constant and zero error of the vernier callipers and .
ecord
Experiment 1).
2. Determine the mean diameter of the spherical bob (as in Experiment 1). Findthe
e mea
() of the bob.
3. Find the length h of the hook attached to the bob by metre scale and recordit.
4. Take a cotton thread about 2 metres long and tie its one end with the hook.
5.Put ink marks, M, M2, Mg, . on the thread as distance of 80 cm, 90 cm, 100 cm.
120 cm, 130 cm, . . rom the centre of gravity of the bob. These distances giveefece
(0 of the simple pendulum.
6.Pass the thread through the two split parts of a cork with the thread comingout
80 cm mark.
7. Tight the two half cork pieces between the cdamp.
cmabove thel
. Fixtheclampina standkept on a table at sucha heightthat thebobisjust 2
floor
9. Marka point A on the floor just below the position of bob at rest (mean positon,
henond
Draw a straight line CAB, 10 cm long in direction along which bob will movewtm
A is middle point of CB.
OBSERVATIONS
Vernier constant of Vernier Callipers (V.C.)
= . cm.

Zero error of vernier callipers (e):

) Cm, (i)..cm, (tii) ...Cm.

Mean zero error, (e) = .... Cm

Mean zerocorrection (c) = -e = . . . . Cm

Observed diameter of the bob:

().cm, (11)..cm, (tii).. cm.
Mean observed diameter, d g . . . . . Cm

Mean corrected diameter, d do + C= .... cm

Mean radius of the bob, r .Cm

Length of hook of the bob, h . . . Cm

Standard value of g 980 cm s,
88
Comprehensue Practical Physice
Xeast count of stop clock/watch = 8

Zero error of stop clock/watch =. .

Zerp torrection of stop clock/watch - .

Thble for Length () and time (T)

S. No. Length of Timefor20vibrations Tme perlod

of Thrend Pendulum
Ob
1T+h+r
Mean
t
T 20
(
(cm) (cm) ()
1 78.4 80.0 35 37 36 36 1.8
3.24
2. 88.4 90.0 38 38 38 38 1.9
351
3. 98.4 100.0 40 40 40 40 2.0
4.00
4. 108.4 110.0 41 42 42 42 2.1
4.41
5. 118.4 120.0 43 45 44 44 2.2
4.84
6. 128.4 130.0 47 45 46 46 2.28
S20

(Note. Observations are given as sample and is taken as 10)

CALCLATIONS
a)With the table
For each length, write mean time for 20 vibrations,

t + 3s
3
Write mean values of t in column
(3) of above table.
For each
length, find time period T =s and write its value in column 4 and
20 write v
T in column 5 of the above table.
graph. Plot a
graph between 1 (column, 2b)
X-axis and T
and T (column 5) by taking
along ¥axis. The graph comes to be a
straight line.
 ceteration Due to Gravi
andAcce.
Gravity
nder

APH

Gragh betweonI and T tor e simple pendutum

Scale
X-axis 1 cm - 10 cm of
62 Y-axis 1 om-0.48 ofT

4.8

4.0

3.6

32

2.6 80 90 100 110 120 130 >x

070
Length of pendulum () in cm

It is line.
Fig. Graph between l and T* for a simple pendulum. straight
a

The graph is a straight line because,

and T2c l1
T
From this graph, for T =
4,I comes to be 100 cm.
Hence for second's pendulum (T-2s) length comes to be 100 cm.

RESUY
Experimentallength 100 cm
Actual length = 99.4 cm
Error 0.6 cm
0.6 0.6%
Fercentageerror = x 100
99 4
iis error is within the limit of the experimental error

PRECTIONS
Iread should be strong, weightless and inextensible.

Fomt
Po of suspension should be fixed in a rigid support.
 Comreers Practioat Ph
level.
cork obould be in
same

Lower faces of split

of vibratian of the pendi.
be perpendicnlar to the plane daubun
Spirung should
sin 0 (when 8s 18'
Amplitnde should be small to have
line
The bob sheald move alomg etreight
a

The bob should net apin during vibration

should be free from disturhances of buld
Place of experiment lding vbrant,
Current

be switched off.
Laboratory fan should
of hook and radius of bob
of pendulum should inchude length
10 Length
and started from zero.
11 Cunting should be proper
12 Clock/watch shouid be accurate
Length of pendulum should be increased in steps of 10 cm to bring appreriable cha
13

period
14 Metre scale used should be accurate.
SOYRCES OF ERROR

The string may not be weightless and inextensible.

Point of suspension may not be rigid.
The amplitude may not be small.

4 The bob may spin.

The air currents may disturb vibrations.
There may be an error in counting.

The stop clock/watch may be inaccurate.

There may be delay in starting and stopping the stopclock/watch.

EXPERIMENT 8
AM: To study variation of time period of a simple pendulum of a given length by talksy
same size but different masses and
interpret the result.
APPARATUs
Aclamp with stand, a split cork, thread, vernier callipers, stopclock/stopwatl metes

pendulum bobs of different masses.

THEORY
Simple Pendulum: See Experiment 7.
Length of Simple Pendulum: See
Experiment 7
 C hcmace Practta Pty
tan-
Hemce, tangerit of argle of repune in equal to the coefthcnt af static frictio
Applicatien. Usung an nclined plane with varable angle of tncanation, coefhe
can be detYmined

EXPERIMENT 9
AIMstdy the relatienship between force oflimiting frictiom and narmal rears
the co eficiemt offrictrien betuweem a block and a horinomtal surface end
APPARTYUS
Wiooxden block (writh a hook on one side), 50 g or 20 g weights, horizontal plane isl
with a frctioniess pulley at one end. pan, spring balance, thread, spirit level t

THEORY
sliding friction. It is the friction betweentwo surfaces ofthebodies in slidine
Force of siding friction. It is the least 1 rce required to make a body startsliding
Force of friction, Fo R
F- HR

where = co-efficient of friction, R is the normalreaction.

At equilibrium, F= P+p
and R W+ w

DIAGKAM

R (Normal Reaction)
50 g Weight (w)

Block W P+p Puley

W+w Table Pan

(P)

Weight (o)

Fig. Studying the force of siding friction

Frton
pROCEDURI IRE

the orizontal table top and check the pulley to see that it is
horizontal
tab

oden block and put it on the table top. (Check frictionless (oil necesmar
Clean an it
Weighthe
horizontality of table top by spirt
J e v e l )

end ofa thread with the hook of the

s thread with
Tie
one
wooden block and pass it over the
he pulley.
pulley. (The
(The thread
must be horizontal).

thre
of the pan.
weight
Find the
Tie otherfree end of the thread with the
the pan and
ge wooden bloci horizontally by a force equal to itsletweight).
the pan
hang vertical. (The pan will pull
othe pan itself does not pull the block, put
itselfe
some
Since
to make the block just slide.
weights in the pan (from weight box).
thetable top
Tap
little by little, till the block
in pan little
weightsin
just starts sliding on tapping the table top
Incr a l weights put in the pan then record
Note the total
them in observation table
panand weights in pan givestthe force of sliding friction.) (sum of weight of

10 Putone
pans0
or 20 g weight over the wooden block
and repeat steps 8 and 9.
11.Repeatsteps8, 9, 10, six times. Every time increase weight by 50 gor 20 g
Recordtheobservationsintabularform asgivenahead.
12

OBSBRVATIONS

Weight of wooden block, W..g wt

Weight of pan, P= ....g wt.

Table for additional weights

Serial
Weights on Total weight being pulled Weight on pan Total weight (force)
No.
wooden block (w) (W+w) (gwt) prulling the block and
g wt) = Normalreaction (R) (g wt)
of weights(P+p)gwt)
Obs. g wt) =Limitingfriction ()
gwt)

1.

4.

6.

7. *
 CALKLATIONS prartt at Phir
Total weght (force) puling the bleck and weights gives the valse af
foren of stu
On hnrisontal surface, testal woights bæing
puled give normal maction R
palling these weights gives dynam friction F Tetal wei
Plat a graph between normal maction R and imiting friction F. taking R
akong axts along
The graph cenes to be a straight lne as shown below.

Greph beween Nemai Reaction (R) and Limiting Friction (F)

Seele
X axis 1 cm 50 g wt of R
Y-axis:1 cm= 25 g wt of F
200

75

150

125

100

75

50 A

25

00 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 X

400
Nomal Reaction (R) g wt (W+ w

Fig. Graph between R and F.

REyT
It is found that as the total weight
increase is in direct
pulled increases, force of limiting friction also m
proportion.
Ihe
graph shows that imiting friction Pis directly proportional to the
agreenent with law of limiting friction. (This normal veactionlaw
t
experiment may be taken as averiftcaton o
The constant
of the graph
ratio F/R, is called coeffhcient of friction (u). It can be calculated Dyfindng
 108
F 150 50
s l e p e
o f
line
s t r a i g h t
AB tan 0AC
lineAB
tan
R 300-100
100 1
tan0 R 200 0.5 (
F- uR

ut
(2)

(1)and (2),
equations

From tan = 0.5

H 0.5.

RAUTIONS

horlzontal,
(table top) should be
he surface
ofthread between
block and pulley should be horizontal.
hepart
r i n pan should be increased in smal steps and pan should not oscillate or rotate.

should be tappedgently each time.

Tabie top
be frictionless.
Pulgy should
C E S OF ERROR

not be horizontal.
The table top may
block and pulley may not be horizontal.
The thread part between

Pulley may not be frictionless.

Nete Readall the Articles 7.01 to 7.10. (Every Article is a question.)

VIVAVOCE
1. Whythread part between block and pulley is kept horizontal?
Aas t makes total weight of pan and weights effective in pulling the block horizontally.
2 Why is pulley kept frictionless?
effective. Priction in puiley will
done to keep the weight of pan and weights in it to be fully
is
reduce its effective value.
3. Why ruads become slippery after rains?
a lubricant preventing
Ans. feet and road. It acts as
anwater forms a thín layer between our Friction becomes less and
causes
wheel and road.
eicking of irregularities on the surface of
ipping increase friction?
Q4 r a k e surfaces are kept flat, though area ofsurface does not
not
surface being braked is
reduces pressure. The
e torce applied through more area

CTatched