The knowledge and skills that the students are

expected to gain from this module may be used in their

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION
academic endeavors, in their chosen disciplines, and in
TOPIC 1: Communication process, principles, and ethics their future careers as they compose and produce
Introduc relevant oral, written, audio-visual, and/ or web-based
tion output for various purposes complying with the
“To effectively communicate, we must realize that provisions of C.M.O. 20, series of 2013, and guided by
we are all different in the way we perceive the world the content of the syllabus from the Commission on
and use this understanding as a guide to our Higher Education.
communication with others.”- Anthony Robbins
-RMMT, 2020
Communication in the 21st century has become
much complex than it was decades past. The
continuous development in human society allowed for
individuals to form communities. The first
Overview
development was the appearance of language. Though
All of us are constantly in a state of giving and
limited with grunts and sounds, and gestures, it is by
receiving communications. Problems arise when one
no means null. This allowed for homo sapiens to
does not receive, or understand, the message sent in the
collaborate in hunting. The next development was the
communication as it was intended, or when one
invention of the written language. With materials
subconsciously sends a nonverbal message that
available, communication traversed through time and
contradicts the spoken word. This module attempts to
space. Knowledge could now be passed and preserved
help students understand the importance of good
not only through oral tradition but also through
communications skills at school and at work. It will
materials available around (e.g. wood, clay, etc.). The
focus on (1) the understanding of communication and
third development that significantly changed
its components, (2) the process and elements of
communication from the last two developments was
communication, (3) the principles behind it, and (4)
printing. Printing made it possible to make identical
ethics of communication.
copies of documents and distribute it far and wide. It
was considered as the first technology to
communication then. This technology was further
developed when communication had been able to
reach distances without physically moving for it to
take place. In the past, postal services and
transportation made it possible for artifacts to be
delivered to different places. However, the critical
fourth development made communication easier. The COMMUNICATION
electronic communication like the telegraph to Alexander (1984) stated that communication occurs
telephone, fax machines and now the internet when a sender expresses an emotion or a feeling,
revolutionized communication. creates an idea, or senses the need to communicate.
This module is about writing, speaking and The communication process is triggered when the
presenting to different audiences and for various sender makes a conscious or an unconscious decision to
purposes that will aid the student to have a deeper share the message with another person—the receiver. It
understanding of effective communication using is a process wherein the exchange of information
English. It aims to develop students ‘communicative between two or more people (Bernales, Balon and
competence and enhance their cultural and Biligan, 2018). Keyton (2011) supported this notion of
intercultural awareness through multimodal tasks by communication when he defined it as Communication
providing them opportunities for communicating can be defined as the process of transmitting
effectively and appropriately in multicultural contexts. information and common understanding from one
person to another. For communication to succeed, both
the participants must be able to exchange information
and understand each other. If this flow of information is telephone to relay a lot of statistical information; you
interrupted or blocked communication fails. The word would need to write that message on paper. Poor
communication is derived from the Latin word, ― listening skills can constitute a barrier also (Alexander,
“communis”, which means common. In our everyday 1984).
living, for a communication to be effectively
transmitted, elements of communication must be Sub-topic 1: Nature, Definitions and
present and these include a) Speaker, b) Message, c) Components of Communication
Receiver, d) Channel, e) Feedback, and f)
Communicative Situation. DEFINITIONS OF
Alexander (1984) further explains that every COMMUNICATION
communicative act is based on something that conveys 1. Communication is a process by which we
meaning, and that conveyance is the message. The assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create
message may be either verbal (spoken or written) or shared understanding.
nonverbal (body language, physical appearance, or  This process requires a vast repertoire of skills:
vocal tone). Messages may also come from the context  Intrapersonal
—or place and time—of the communication. For  Speaking interpersonal
instance, if you choose to make a critical comment to  Questioning processing
someone, the place and the time you choose to make  Analyzing
that comment will make a big impact on how it will be  Listening
received.  Evaluating
Moreover, every message is sent and received  Observing
through one of our five senses—it is seen, heard, 2. It can be seen as processes of information
touched, tasted, or smelled. The sensory media through transmission governed by three levels of semiotic
which messages are sent and received are rules:
communication channels. In a work setting, messages  Syntactic
may be seen through body movement, letters, memos,  Pragmatic
newsletters, bulletin board notices, signs, emails, and so  Semantic
on. Messages that are heard come through 3. It is therefore a social interaction where at least
conversations, interviews, presentations, telephones, two interacting agents share a common set of signs
radios, and other audio media. Sight and sound are the and a common set of semiotic rules.
two most frequent communication channels used in our 4. The Oxford Advanced Learner ‘s Dictionary
society. defines communication, as the act of passing news,
When the receiver gets the message (through information…, the act of sharing or exchanging
seeing, hearing, feeling, touching, or smelling), he or thoughts, ideas, feelings with others or with a
she will usually give feedback (return message) group; the act of participating with or sharing in
unconsciously or consciously. Thus, the common, the ―we-belong-to-same-feeling‖ as in
communications process is on-going. communication with… or the act of thinking about
The worst assumption a sender of a message can oneself.
make is that the message will be received as intended.
So many things can go wrong during the 5. Communication is derived from the Latin word
communications process that we should always assume “communis” which means, ―Belonging to many
that something will go wrong and take steps to prevent or ―equally and “communico” – to confer with
that occurrence. Barriers to good communications are others. It is the mutual exchange of information,
always present. For instance, the language itself can be ideas, and understanding by any effective means
a barrier—unclear wording, slang, jargon, the tone. (Ballesterros, 2003).
Another barrier is the failure of the sender to realize that 6. Communication refers to the process of human
his or her body language might contradict the spoken beings responding to the symbolic behavior of
message. The channel used to convey the message other persons (Adler and Rodman, 1997).
might be wrong. For instance, you would not use the
  COMMUNICATION IS HUMAN. people about these rules. This is easiest to see
 COMMUNICATION IS A PROCESS. when we observe people who don‘t follow
 COMMUNICATION IS SYMBOLIC. linguistic conventions. For example, recall how
7. The communication done by animals is unusual the speech of children and immigrant
relatively different from humans. The manner by speakers of a language sounds.
which we communicate or use different gestures, 10. In addition to this, nonverbal communication
facial expression, etc. to communicate is different can have symbolic meaning. As with words, some
from the dance that is done by bees to instruct their nonverbal behaviors, though arbitrary, have clearly
hive-mates on the location of food or the agreed upon meanings. For example, to most North
chimpanzees that have been taught to express Americans placement of a thumb and first finger
themselves using sign language like deaf humans. together while facing the palm of the hand outward
8. We often talk about communication as if it stands for the idea of something being ―OK! But
occurred in discrete, individual acts. In fact, even more than words, many nonverbal behaviors
communication is a continuous, ongoing process. are ambiguous. Does a frown signify anger or
Consider, for example, a friend ‘s compliment unhappiness? Does a hug stand for a friendly
about your appearance. Your interpretation of greeting or a symbol of the hugger‘s romantic
those words will depend on a long series of interest in you? One can‘t always be sure (Adler and
experiences stretching far back in time: how have Rodman, 1997).
others judged your appearance? How do you feel Other Concepts of Communication
about your looks? How honest has your friend 1. Allen Louis – Communication is the
been in the past? How have you been feeling about sum of all things (telling, listening and
one another recently? All of this history will help understanding). It is a systematic activity under
shape your response to the other person ‘s remark. any given circumstances.
In turn, the words you speak and the way you say 2. Henry Kuntz – Communication is the
them will shape the way your friend behaves transferring of information from one person to
toward you and others- both in this situation and in another whether or not he/she elicits that
the future. confidence.
This example shows that it’s inaccurate to talk 3. George Terry – Communication is the
about ―acts‖ of communication as if they exchange of ideals, feelings, and emotions
occurred in isolation. To put it differently, between two or more persons.
communication isn‘t a series of incidents pasted 4. Keith Davis – The purpose of passing
together like photographs in a scrapbook; instead, information and understanding between two
it is more like a motion picture in which the persons… without the bridge of communication
meaning comes from the unfolding of an no one can cross the river of understanding.
interrelated series of images. The fact that
communication is a process is reflected in the Types of Communication according to
transactional model.
Mode
9. Symbols are used to represent things, processes,
A message may be imparted through these types;
ideas, or events in ways that make communication
verbal-non-verbal and visual. While communication
possible. The most significant feature of symbols is
is often thought of as verbal, the non-verbal mode is
their arbitrary nature. For example, there‘s no
equally essential as it enhances one’s message.
logical reason why the letters in book should stand
for the object you‘re reading in class. Speakers of
A. VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Spanish call it a libro, and Germans label it a Buch.
(Linguistics) The process of sending and
Even in English, another term would work just as
receiving messages with words, including writing and
well as long as everyone agreed to use it in the
sign language.
same way. We overcome the arbitrary nature of
It refers to the form of communication in which
symbols by linguistic rules and customs. Effective
communication depends on agreement among message is transmitted verbally.
 Communication is done by word of mouth and a  In written communication, written signs or
piece of writing. symbols are used to communicate.
 In written communication message can be
VERBAL COMMUNICATION: ORAL transmitted via email, letter, report, memo etc.
 Spoken words are used  Written communication is most common form
 It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, of communication being used in business.
telephonic conversation, video, radio, television,
voice over internet. Verbal Communication: Written- Advantages
 Communication is influenced by pitch, volume,  Messages can be edited and revised
speed and clarity of speaking.  Written communication provides record and
backup.
Verbal Communication: Oral- Advantages  A written communication enables receiver to
 It brings quick feedback. fully understand it and send appropriate
 In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial feedback
expression and body language one can guess  Easy to preserve: The documents of written
whether he/she should trust what ‘s being said communication are easy to preserve. Oral and
or not. non-verbal communication cannot be
 It saves time in communication. preserved. If it is needed, important information
 It is quick in obtaining feedback once delivered. can be collected from the preserved documents.
 It provides complete understanding of  Easy presentation of complex matter: Written
communication delivered and there is chance to communication is the best way to represent any
make it clearer in case of doubts in complex matter easily and attractively.
interpretation of words or ideas.  Permanent record: The documents of written
 It is more reliable method of communication. communication act as a permanent record.
 It is flexible and effective for all. When it is needed, important information can
be easily collected from the preserved
 It is powerful means of persuasion and control.
documents.
 It is cheaper way of communication and hence
 Prevention of wastage of time and money:
saves money.
Written communication prevents the waste of
money and time. Without meeting with each
Verbal Communication: Oral- Disadvantages
other the communicator and communicate can
 It has issues when communicating with distant exchange their views.
people.
 Accurate presentation: Through the documents
 It is difficult for certain people to understand of the written communication top executive can
speech due to various speech tones used in present the information more accurately and
verbal communication. clearly. As it is a legal document everybody
 This form of communication is not suitable for takes much care does draft it.
lengthy message.  Use as a reference: If it is needed, written
 There is chance of leak of secret information communication can be used as future reference.
with the help of modern devices such as  Delegation of authority: Written
polygraph or lie detector. Often secret communication can help the authority to
information can be obtained while the person is delegate the power and authority to the
under the influence of alcohol. subordinate. It is quite impossible to delegate
power without a written document.
VERBAL COMMUNICATION: WRITTEN  Longevity: Written document can be preserved
for a long time easily. That is why; all the
 important issues of an organization should be  Useless for illiterate person: It messages
back and white. receiver is illiterate, written communication is
 Effective communication: Written quite impossible. This is major disadvantage
communication helps to make communication written communication.
effective. It is more dependable and effective  Difficult to maintain secrecy: It is an
than those of other forms of communication. unexpected medium to keep business secrecy.
 Maintaining image: Written communication Secrecy is not always possible to maintain
helps to maintain the images of both the person through written communication. Because here
and the organization. It also protects the images needs to discuss everything in black and white.
of the company or organization.  Lack of flexibility: Since writing documents
 Proper information: It is a proper and complete cannot be changed easily at any time. Lack of
communication system. There is no opportunity flexibility is one of the most important
to include any unnecessary information in a limitations of written communication.
written document.  Delay in response: It takes much time to get a
 Less distortion possibility: In this response from the message receiver; prompt
communication system information is recorded response is not possible in case of written
permanently. So, there is less possibility of communication that is possible in oral
distortion and alteration of the information. communication.
 No opportunity to misinterpret: there is any  Delay in decision making: Written
opportunity to misinterpret the information or communication takes much time to
messages of written communication. communicate with all the parties concerned. So
 Controlling tool: Written communication can the decision maker cannot take decisions
help to control the organizational activity. The quickly.
written document may be used as a tool for  Cost in record keeping: It is very difficult and
controlling. expensive to keep all the records in written
 Easy to verify: The information and messages communication.
that are preserved can be verified easily. If  Complex words: Sometimes the writer uses
there arises any misunderstanding any party can complex words in writing a message. It
easily verify the information. becomes difficult to meaning out to the reader.
 Others: Clear understanding, Legal document, So the objectives of the communication may
Acceptability, Reduction of risk, Creating lose.
confidence, Easy circulation, Wide access or  Lack of direct relation: If there is no direct
coverage etc. relation between the writer and the reader,
writer communication cannot help to establish a
Verbal Communication: Written- Disadvantages direct relation between them.
 Expensive: Written communication is  Other: Prompt feedback is impossible,
comparatively expensive. For this Slowness, Bureaucratic attitude, Understanding
communication paper, pen, ink, typewriter, problem between boos and subordinates, lack in
computer and a large number of employees are quick clarification and correction, formality
needed. problem, lack of personal intimacy, etc.
 Time consuming: Written communication takes
time to communicate with others. It is a time- B. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
consuming media. It costs the valuable time of Nonverbal communication is the sending or
both the writer and the reader. receiving of wordless messages. Such gesture, body
 Red-Taoism: Red-Taoism is one of the most language, posture, tone of voice or facial expressions is
disadvantages of written communication. It called nonverbal communication. It is all about the
means to take time for approval of a project. body language of speaker.
 It has three elements: oneself. Some label it as self or inner talk, inner
1. Appearance (speaker) - Clothing, hairstyle, dialogue. Psychologists call it with other names such as
neatness, use of cosmetics; Appearance self-verbalization or self-statement.
(surrounding) – room size, lighting, decorations, Intrapersonal communication can be defined also
furnishings as communication with one‗s self, and that may include
2. Body language - facial expressions, gestures, self-talk, acts of imagination and visualization, and
postures even recall and memory (McLean, 2005).
3. Sounds - voice tone, volume, speech rate You read on your phone that your friends are going
to have dinner at your favorite restaurant. What comes
C. VISUAL COMMUNICATION to mind? Sights, sounds, and scents? Something special
Visual communication, on the other hand, is the that happened the last time you were there? Do you
type of communication that uses visuals to convey contemplate joining them? Do you start to work out a
information and/or messages. Some examples are signs, plan of getting from your present location to the
symbol, imagery, maps, graphs, charts, diagrams, restaurant? Do you send your friends a text asking if
pictograms, photos, drawings or illustrations, and even they want company? Until the moment when you hit
various forms of electronic communication. the ―send button, you are communicating with
Visual communication now occupies an yourself.
important place in any work environment. For instance, Communications expert Leonard Shedletsky
during presentations, instructors, managers, doctors, examined intrapersonal communication through the
lawyers, legislators and the like use visuals to transfer eight basic components of the communication process
data into digestible information. Very likely, they have (i.e., source, receiver, message, channel, feedback,
greater success in catching the attention of the audience environment, context, and interference) as
making the latter easily recall the information. transactional, but all the interaction occurs within the
individual (Shedletsky, 1989). From planning to
Verbal Communication: Visual- Advantages problem solving, internal conflict resolution, and
It makes use of technology that provides apps evaluations and judgments of self and others, we
(applications), videos and images that rely less on the communicate with ourselves through intrapersonal
printed word making presentations more interesting. communication. All this interaction takes place in the
This leaves a powerful effect on the audience and mind without externalization, and all of it relies on
prospective clients. previous interaction with the external world.
Speakers/presenters should be mindful of the
content of their presentation since wrong and irrelevant B. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
information may lead to miscommunication. Likewise, Interpersonal communication can be defined as
they should pay attention to graphic elements, such as communication between two people, but the definition
position, color, size, shape and orientation as all these fails to capture the essence of a relationship. This broad
play an important role in the presentation of slides. definition is useful when we compare it to intrapersonal
Audience size should be considered as well when communication, or communication with ourselves, as
preparing slide presentations or other forms of visuals. opposed to mass communication, or communication
with a large audience, but it requires clarification. The
developmental view of interpersonal communication
Types of Communication according to
places emphasis on the relationship rather than the size
Context of the audience, and draws a distinction between
This sub-section, context in communication is impersonal and personal interactions. Family for many
referred to as composite of people interacting with each is the first experience in interpersonal relationships,
other. Communication may also be classified according but as we develop professionally, our relationships at
to context: (1) intrapersonal; (2) interpersonal work may take on many of the attributes we associate
A. INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION with family communication. We look to each other with
The Latin prefixes intra-means within or inside. similar sibling rivalries, competition for attention and
Intrapersonal communication then means talking to
resources, and support. The workplace and our peers Similarly, Bernales, Balon and Biligan (2018)
can become as close, or closer, than our birth families, stated that when the flow of information is blocked
with similar challenges and rewards. To summarize, for some reason or the parties cannot make
interpersonal relationships are an important part of the themselves understood, then communication fails.
work environment.
Communication is the art and process of creating
KEY TAKEAWAYS and sharing ideas. Effective communication
1. Communication is defined as the process of depends on the richness of those ideas.
transmitting information and common
understanding from one person to another.
2. There are three types of communication according
to mode: So how do we communicate effectively?
1. Verbal Communication; 2. Non-verbal We must consider a deeper understanding of the
communication, and; 3. Visual Communication. process and elements of communication.
3. There are also two types of communication Communication process may be simple to complex
according to context: 1. Intrapersonal depending on the situation. To understand the
Communication, and; 2. Interpersonal process there is a need to know the elements or
Communication components of the process.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Speaking and listening are vital elements of
communication. Therefore, in any
communication situation, you are both speaker
and listener. (Villamarzo, 2003)
Eugene White (1960) mentions eight stages in
the cycle of communication. These are:
Thinking
Receiving
Symbolizing
Decoding o Expressing
Reacting, and
Transmitting
Monitoring
Sub-topic 2: The Process and Elements of Roman Jacobson mentions the following as
Communication components of communication:
COMMUNICATION AS PROCESS Addressor (speaker)
In a survey conducted by the Katz Business Addressee (listener
School at the University of Pittsburg, organizations Context (situation)
rated communication skills as the most important Contact
factor used in selecting their management staff. The Code, and
study found that oral and written communication Message
skills were important in predicting job success, as
was the ability to communicate well with others in Gronbeck defines model as ―a picture or a
the workplace (Mtd Training, 2010). representation of a thing or process that identifies
This result makes sense after all since the key parts or elements and indicates how each
communication is innate to us. Therefore, for us to element affects the operations of all of the
be able to communicate well is important. If we are elements.
not able to communicate well, the messages we Communication Model, therefore, is a sketch
send get lost in translation (Mtd Training, 2010). that shows the basic elements of the
communication process, and how each element  Content (is everything you say about
affects the other elements in the entire something: referential or relational)
communication process as a system  Ref- all relevant to
your topic;
 Rel – a suggestion of
COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION
any relationship to your listeners
1. SPEAKER/ SENDER  Structure (the pattern of organization
o A person who sends the message o A you follow  Style (how you express your
sender makes use of symbols (words or ideas)
graphs or visual aids) to convey the message
and produce required response.
o Sender maybe an individual or a group or an 3. CHANNEL OR MEDIUM
organization. o Is the means used to exchange or
o The views, background, approach, transmit the message o The channel or
skills, competencies and knowledge of the medium is the language you use.
sender have great impact on the message. o The means through which the sender
o The communication process begins must choose an appropriate medium for
with the sender, who is also called the transmitting the message else the message
communicator or source. The sender has some might not be conveyed.
kind of information – a command, request, or o It is also called channel; the medium is
idea – that he or she wants to share with the means by which a message is transmitted.
others. In order for the message to be Text messages, for example, are transmitted
received, the sender must first encode the through the medium of cell phones.
message in a form that can be understood and
then transmit it. 4. RECEIVER OR LISTENER
2. MESSAGE o a person for whom the message is
o Is the key idea that the sender wants to
communicate o It is a sign that elicits the
response of the recipient.
o Communication process begin with
decoding about the message to be conveyed.
o It must be ensured that the main
objective of the message is clear.
o Message is what you communicate
verbally or non –verbally o The message or
content is the information that the sender
wants to relay to the receiver. It is relayed
between the parties. Put all three together and
you have the communication process at its
most basic.
o It also refers to the thoughts, ideas, or intended, aimed or targeted o The degree to
information that you convey to your listeners. which the decoder understands the message is
 Verbal delivery of messages includes: dependent upon various factors such as:
 Elements of voice (rate, volume, pitch, knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness
and quality) to the message, and the reliance of the
 Articulation, and encoder on the decoder.
 Pronunciation o The person to whom a message is
 Verbal message consists of three directed is called the receiver or the
variables: interpreter. In order to comprehend the
information from the sender, the receiver must
 first be able to receive the sender ‘s (Figure shows a more elaborate model.) The sender
information and then decode or interpret it. first develops an idea, which is composed into a
message and then transmitted to the other party, who
5. FEEDBACK interprets the message and receives meaning.
o Is the main component of the Information theorists have added somewhat more
communication process as it permits the complicated language. Developing a message is known
sender to analyze the efficacy of the message? as encoding. Interpreting the message is referred to as
o It helps the sender in confirming the decoding.
correct interpretation of message by the The other important feature is the feedback cycle.
decoder. When two people interact, communication is rarely one
o Feedback maybe verbal or non-verbal. way only. When a person receives a message, she
o The communication process reaches its responds to it by giving a reply. The feedback cycle is
final point when the message has been the same as the sender receiver feedback noted in
successfully transmitted, received, and Figure 1. Otherwise, the sender can't know whether the
understood. other parties properly interpreted the message or how
o The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, they reacted to it. Feedback is especially significant in
indicating comprehension. Feedback may be management because a supervisor has to know how
direct, such as written or verbal response, or it subordinates respond to directives and plans. The
may take the form of an act or deed in manager also needs to know how work is progressing
response. and how employees feel about the general work
o The communication process is not situation.
always simple or smooth, of course. Two The critical factor in measuring the effectiveness of
other elements may affect how the message is communication is common understanding.
transmitted, received, and interpreted. Understanding exists when all parties involved have a
mutual agreement as to not only the information, but
6. NOISE o This can be any sort of also the meaning of the information. Effective
interference that affects the message being communication, therefore, occurs when the intended
sent, received, or understood. It can be as message of the sender and the interpreted message of
literal as static over a phone line or esoteric as the receiver are one and the same. Although this should
misinterpreting a local custom. be the goal in any communication, it is not always
achieved.
7. SITUATION or CONTEXT The most efficient communication occurs at a
o It refers to the time and place in which minimum cost in terms of resources expended. Time, in
communication occurs o This is the setting particular, is an important resource in the
and situation in which communication takes communication process. For example, it would be
place. Like noise, context can have an impact virtually impossible for an instructor to take the time to
of the successful exchange of information. It communicate individually with each student in a class
may have a physical, social, or cultural aspect about every specific topic covered. Even if it were
to it possible, it would be costly. This is why managers often
leave voice mail messages and interact by e mail rather
than visit their subordinates personally.
THE COMMUNICATION However, efficient time saving communications are
not always effective. A low cost approach such as an e
PROCESS mail note to a distribution list may save time, but it does
The goal of communication is to convey information not always result in everyone getting the same meaning
—and the understanding of that information—from one from the message. Without opportunities to ask
person or group to another person or group. This questions and clarify the message, erroneous
communication process is divided into three basic interpretations are possible. In addition to a poor choice
components: A sender transmits a message through a of communication method, other barriers to effective
channel to the receiver. communication include noise and other physical
distractions, language problems, and failure to persuasion. The model shows the process which the
recognize nonverbal signals. speaker must follow to communicate his idea or
Sometimes communication is effective, but not message to his intended listener. This process
efficient. A work team leader visiting each team involves four steps:
member individually to explain a new change in 1) A Speaker discovers some logical,
procedures may guarantee that everyone truly emotional and ethical proofs;
understands the change, but this method may be very 2) He arranges these materials
costly on the leader's time. A team meeting would be strategically; 3) He clothes the ideas in clear,
more efficient. In these and other ways, potential compelling words; and 4) He delivers the
tradeoffs between effectiveness and efficiency occur. resulting speech appropriately.
(―The Communication Process, n.d.)

The Communication Process IMPORTANT SKILLS OF A SPEAKER

There are many communication models that can The Aristotelian model seems to emphasize four
important ―faculties or skills of a speaker, which he
be used to visually describe different communication
situations. Here are some models that will allows us must use (observe) as a means of persuading his
listeners (audience) to act according to his please or
to get a deeper understanding of the communication
as process. intentions.
These skills are as follows:
I. ARISTOTLE’S COMMUNICATION 1) Logical reasoning skills coupled with
the ability to present ethical and emotional proofs
of ideas he advances or proposes;
2) Skills in organizing or positioning his
speech materials strategically (or simply put, the
proper ordering or sequencing of materials in
order to help the listener follow the speaker‘s
thoughts to an effective close or ending);
3) Skills in presenting his ideas/ messages
in clear and compelling words; and
MODEL (1) 4) Skills in delivering his resultant speech
in appropriate oratorical style (e.g. correct
Figure 2. Aristotle’s Model of Communication
(1)
Aristotle proposed the model before 300 B.C. He
found the importance of the audience role in
communication chain. This model is more focused
on public speaking than interpersonal
communication.
Aristotle ‘s Model of Communication is formed
with five (5) basic elements, namely:
1. Speaker, 2. Speech, 3. Occasion, 4.
Audience, and 5. Effect.
Aristotle advises speakers to build speech for
different audience on different time (occasion) and
for different effect.

II. ARISTOTLE’S MODEL OF

COMMUNICATION (2)
Aristotle defined communication (called
RHETORIC in his time) as ―the faculty of
observing, in any given case, the available means of
 pronunciation, volume of voice, rate of speed, (feedback) which changed the model from a linear to
gestures or body language, timing, etc.). cyclical model (Drew, 2020).
Figure 3. Aristotle’s Model of Communication Figure 4. Shannon’s Model of Communication
(2) It is known as the ―mother of all models‖ because
of its wide popularity. The model is also known as
‗information theory ‘or the Shannon theory ‘because
Shannon was the main person who developed the
theory.
The model ‘s primary value is in explaining how
messages are lost and distorted in the process of
communication (Drew, 2020).

IV. SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL

Drew, C. (2020) explains that the Shannon-Weaver
model follows the concept of communication in a linear
Although not specifically indicated in the model fashion from sender to receiver with the following
above, it is clear that the communication process has steps:
these elements:
Figure 5. Shannon- Weaver Model of
(1) a speaker, (2) an idea or Message, and (3) an
Communication
Audience or Listener (s). It can also be safely assumed
1. Sender (Information Source)
that there is a channel chosen – the means to carry the
The model starts with the sender. They are the
idea or message across to the listener; and the channel
person (or object, or thing) who has the information to
chosen is the human voice – the public speech
begin with (the information source). The sender starts
instrument.
the process by choosing a message to send, someone to
The Aristotelian model is SPEAKER-
send the message to, and a channel through which to
send the message.
A sender can send a message in multiple different
ways: it may be orally (through spoken word), in
writing, through body language, music, etc.
Example: An example of a sender might be the
person reading a newscast on the nightly news. They
will choose what to say and how to say it before the
newscast begins.

2. Encoder (Transmitter)
The encoder is the machine (or person) that converts
the idea into signals that can be sent from the sender to
the receiver. The Shannon model was designed
originally to explain communication through means
CENTERED. But, of course, during his time, the such as telephone and computers which encode our
emphasis was the training of speakers – public speakers words using codes like binary digits or radio waves.
called orators, skillful in the art of reasoning and However, the encoder can also be a person that turns
persuasion. an idea into spoken words, written words, or sign
language to communicate an idea to someone.
III. SHANNON’S MODEL
This model argues that communication can be Examples: The encoder might be a telephone, which
broken down into 6 key concepts: sender, encoder, converts our voice into binary 1s and 0s to be sent down
channel, noise, decoder, and receiver. A later version of the telephone lines (the channel). Another encode might
the theory by Warren Weaver added a 7th concept be a radio station, which converts voice into waves to
be sent via radio to someone.
 someone speaking with a heavy accent, or when the
3. Channel sender mumbles when speaking.
The channel of communication is the infrastructure
that gets information from the sender and transmitter
5. Decoder
through to the decoder and receiver. We sometimes also
Decoding is the exact opposite of encoding.
call this the medium.
Shannon and Weaver made this model in reference to
Examples: A person sending an email is using the communication that happens through devices like
world wide web (internet) as a medium. A person telephones. So, in this model, there usually needs to be
talking on a landline phone is using cables and a device that decodes a message from binary digits or
electrical wires as their channel. waves back into a format that can be understood by the
receiver.
If we ‘re face-to-face, perhaps we don ‘t has a If we ‘re talking about direct communication
channel, except the sound waves from our voice that between people without the use of technology, there
carry the sound from the sender ‘s mouth to the receiver may still be a need for decoding. For example, you
‘s ear. might need to decode a secret message, turn written
words into something that makes sense in your mind by
4. Noise
reading them out loud, or you may need to interpret
Noise interrupts a message while it’s on the way
(decode) the meaning behind a picture that was sent to
from the sender to the receiver. It’s named after the idea
you.
that “noise” could interrupt our understanding of a
message. There are two types of noise: internal and
external. Examples: Decoders can include computers that
Internal noise happens when a sender makes a turn binary packets of 1s and 0s into pixels on a
mistake encoding a message or a receiver makes a screen that make words, a telephone that turns
mistake decoding the message. Here ‘s the two points signals such as digits or waves back into sounds, and
where it can happen: cell phones that also turn bits of data into readable
At the point of encoding (for example, when you (and listenable) messages.
misspell a word in a text message); At the point of
decoding (for example, when someone misinterprets a 6. Receiver (Destination)
sentence when reading an email) The receiver is the end-point of Shannon and
External noise happens when something external Weaver ‘s original linear framework. This is the step
(not in the control of sender or receiver) impedes the where the person finally gets the message, or what ‘s
message. So, external noise happens: left of it after accounting for noise.
At the point of transmission through the channel
(for example, when we ‘re having a conversation by Examples: Examples of a receiver might be: the
a busy highway and the receiver is having trouble person on the other end of a telephone, the person
hearing over the sound of cars) reading an email you sent them, an automated
One of the key goals for people who use this payments system online that has received credit card
theory is to identify the causes of noise and try to details for payment, etc.
minimize them to improve the quality of the
message. 7. Feedback
The feedback ‘step was not originally proposed
Examples: Examples of external noise may by Shannon and Weaver in 1948. Norbert Weiner
include the crackling of a poorly tuned radio, a lost came up with the feedback step in response to
letter in the post, an interruption in a television criticism of the linear nature of the approach.
broadcast, or a failed internet connection. (“Linear” means that the messages are only going
one way).
Feedback occurs when the receiver of the
Examples of internal noise may include someone
message responds to the sender in order to close the
having a headache so they can ‘t concentrate,
communication loop. They might respond to let the
 sender know they got the message or to show the understanding of society. It is where the
sender: communication takes place.
Whether they got the message clearly without For example, classrooms differ from country to
noise country just like people ‘s behaviors and how they
How well they understand the message communicate, etc.
Nonetheless, the “feedback” elements seem like a Note: We can communicate only to the extent
post-hoc add-on to the model, and is the subject of a that the social system allows. When we
lot of criticism (see later in this article on communicate, we take the social system into
“disadvantages of the model” for details). account.

Examples: Feedback does not occur in all  Culture: Culture of a particular society also
situations. Sometimes, like when watching TV, we comes under the social system.
don ‘t tend to let the people talking on the TV know According to this model, people can
what we ‘re thinking … we simply watch the show. communicate only if the above requirements are
met in the proper or adequate proportion.
Some times when feedback will occur include:
 Encoder: The sender of the message, from
During a chat between friends
where the message originates, is referred to as
When you write a reply email
the encoder. So the source encodes the
Through your facial expressions and body
message here.
language during a conversation Etc.
 Message
 Content – The body of a message, from the
V. BERLOS’ SMCR MODEL
beginning to the end, comprises its content.
Berlo‘s model follows the SMCR model. This model
For example, whatever the class teacher
is not specific to any particular communication.
teaches in the class, from beginning to end, is
Berlo‘s model includes a number of factors under
the content of the message.
each of the elements:
 Elements – It includes various things like
 Source: The source is situated where the
language, gestures, body language, etc. They
message originates.
constitute all the elements of a particular
 Communication skills – It is the skill of the
message. Any content is accompanied by
individual to communicate. For example, the
some elements.
ability to read, write, speak, listen etc.
 Treatment – It refers to the packing of the
 Attitudes – This includes attitudes towards the
message and the way in which the message is
audience, subject and towards oneself. For
conveyed or the way in which it is passed on
example, for the student, the attitude is to
or delivered.
learn more and for teachers, it is to help teach.
 Knowledge– Communicating also means that
Note: When there is too much treatment,
the person needs to be knowledgeable about
communication will not go smoothly.
the subject or topic. For e.g. a teacher needs to
know about the subject in detail that he or she  Structure– The structure of the message refers
teaches so that they can communicate to how it is arranged; the way people structure
properly such that the students understand the message into various parts.
here.
Note: Message is the same, but if the structure is
not properly arranged then the receiver will not
Note: It refers, not to the general knowledge, but
understand the message.
to the knowledge of the subject that the person is
communicating and their familiarity with it.
 Code– The code of the message refers to the
 Social system – The social system includes means through which it is sent and in what
the various aspects of society like values, form. It could be, for example, language, body
beliefs, culture, religion and a general language, gestures, music, etc. Even culture is
 a code. Through this, people give and receive communication will happen or take place properly.
messages and communication takes place. Hence, the source and the receiver should be similar.

Note: Only when the code is clear, the message For example, if the communication skill of the
will be clear. The wrong usage may lead to source is good, then the receiver should have equally
. good listening skills.
misinterpretation
It cannot be said that the receiver does not receive
 Channel– It refers to the five sense organs. the whole message because even though he may receive
The following are the five senses: it, but may not be able to interpret its meaning. For
• Hearing effective communication, the source and the receiver
• Seeing need to be on the same level.
• Touching Note: Self-image differs from person to person. For
• Smelling communication, the person should consider the
• Tasting receiver, speak accordingly and give them what they
Communication occurs through one or more of need.
these channels. Criticism of Berlo’s SMCR model of
Hearing: The use of ears to receive the message. communication:
For example, orally transmitted messages, 1. There is a lack of feedback. The effects are
interpersonal communication etc. practically unknown.
Seeing: Visual channels, for example, watching 2. It does not mention the barriers to
television so the message is conveyed through the communication.
scene/film. 3. There is no room for noise.
Touching: The sense of touch can be used as a 4. It is a rather complex model.
channel to communicate. For example, we touch, 5. It is a linear model of communication.
buy food, hugging our loved ones, etc. 6. It requires people to be on the same level for
effective communication to happen.
Smelling: Smell also can be a channel to However, that rarely happens in everyday
communicate. For example, perfumes, food, life.
fragrances etc. Charred smell communicates 7. The main drawback of the model is that it
something is burning. People can deduct which food omits the usage of sixth sense as a channel
is being cooked by its smell etc. of communication, which is an asset to
Tasting: The tongue is a muscular organ used in human beings (thinking, understanding,
the act of eat and taste food. For example, while a analyzing etc.)
food is being shared, the communication can happen (Source: BERLO’S SMCR MODEL OF
regarding its taste. COMMUNICATION. (2019, September
24). Retrieved June 5, 2020, from
Note: Despite not mentioning a medium, we need to
assume that as communication is taking place,
channels can be any of the 5 senses or combination

 Decoder: The person who receives the message

and decodes it is referred to a decoder.
 Receiver: The receiver needs to think all the
contents and elements of the source, so as to
communicate/responds to sender effectively.;
Berlo’s model believes that for effective
communication to take place, the source and the
receiver need to be on the same level. Only then
 https://www.communicationtheory.org/berlo model—based on the model by Charles Egerton
s-smcr-model-of-communication/ ) Osgood— in his book “The Process and Effects of
Figure 6. Berlo’s Model of Communication Mass Communication”. He later made some changes,
including introducing the field of experience, or
VI. SCHRAMM’S MODEL, 1954 commonality. This refers to what is mutually
understood between the recipient and the sender. A
physics professor can teach mathematical principles to a
class of psychology students, but it won‘t be easy as the
students don ‘t share a field of experience that would
have made it easier to understand the message.
Three Elements
According to the Schramm Communication Model,
communication is circular and the sender and recipient
of the message can be the same person. A message is
encrypted and passed on to the same person or to a
different person. It is up to the recipient to decrypt the
message, interpret it, and then encode it again before
sending the message to a new recipient (circular). There
is no fourth element, such as the in Berlo‘s SMCR
communication model.
Figure 6. Schramm’s model of communication  Source (Encoder)
The source of the message is the sender; the party
Janse (2019) in his article explains that the Schramm
who sent the message. The source has to be clear when
Communication Model is a cyclical communication
sending the message and has to be able to show why it
model containing all basic principles of
is important that the recipient reads it. This is why the
communication. The Schramm Communication Model
sender of a message has to make sure that the
offers a classic approach to and explanation of
information he is providing is useful, relevant, and
communication. It can be used to determine how
accurate.
communication between two people works when they
In order to ensure that the recipient can properly
‘re exchanging information, ideas, or attitudes.
read the message, it has to be encoded. This means it is
The cyclical communication model is based on the
necessary for the recipient to know the sender. The
theory and belief that communication is a two-way
success of the attempt at communication will depend on
street. This means there’s at least a sender and a
the ability to bring across the information in a simple
recipient. The model contains at least one other element
but clear way. The way in which the message is
as well; the message itself. Usually, communication
encoded is influenced by cultural aspects, perceptions,
takes places along the traditional path with a wasteful
knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and skills.
recipient and sender. The recipient and sender can also
be one and the same. This is called intra-personal  Recipient (Decoder)
communication. The former is called interpersonal The recipient of a message is the person or group to
communication. Where several other models and whom the message has been sent. Whether the recipient
theories about communication are linear in nature, the is able to decode the message depends on a number of
Schramm Communication Model is circular. This factors. For instance, how much does the individual
means at least two parties are required to send and know about the topic of the message, but also how open
receive a message. Both the sender and the recipient are they for a message and do they trust the source. The
have to encode and decode the message to interpret the interpretations of the recipient are influenced by
message correctly. cultural aspects, perceptions, knowledge, attitudes,
Wilbur Schramm published the circular experiences, and skills as well.
communication model in 1954, several years after Decoding a message is a psychological process.
Lasswell‘s communication model was published. After the message has been received, the stimulus is
Schramm wrote and spoke about the communication immediately sent to the brain for interpretation. This is
where the message is given meaning, if at all. This wrote that all living beings on planet earth have the
processing phase is also called decoding. ability to communicate. Communication takes place
Communication is successful when the recipient through different means, such as physical changes,
correctly interprets the message from the source. language, breathing, movements, sounds, or by
 Message changing color.
In the studies of rhetoric and communication, a In this law of communication, Scudder emphasized
message is defined as information. This information is that communication was an essential survival tool for
communicated through words or other characters and creatures, as well as enabling them to share information
symbols. A message, either verbal or non-verbal, is the about their presence and conditions. According to the
content of the communication process and plays an universal law of communication, communication is
important role in the Schramm Communication Model. used to express biological needs as well as feelings,
A message may contain verbal content, such as thoughts, and other kinds of information that are
speech, sign language, emails, WhatsApp messages, or necessary to bring across the condition of a living
phone calls. A message can also consist of non-verbal creature.
content, such as behavior, gestures, body language, eye As in the Schramm Communication Model encoding
contact, physical contact, timing, and even artifacts. and decoding also happens in the universal law of
communication. In this law the recipient does the
 Feedback and Organizations decoding. The universal law of communication also
Although it‘s not clearly indicated in the Schramm states that the communication process can be
Communication Model, recipients play an important interrupted in a number of ways. The reason for this is
role throughout the communication process. They are barriers. Barriers can alter the meaning of a message
not only supposed to absorb the message, but they also and lead to the recipient interpreting it incorrectly.
receive the message and respond to it. The reply from VII. TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF
the recipient to the sender ‘s message is called COMMUNICATION
feedback. Feedback can be both verbal and non-verbal.
Sometimes it’s a verbal response, sometimes it‘s just a Transactional model of communication is the
sigh or a nod. Feedback is often expressed in writing, an exchange of messages between sender and receiver
email for instance. where each take turns to send or receive messages.
Feedback is therefore a way to measure how the
audience has received the message. This enables the
sender to improve the effectiveness of the way
messages are composed and sent. If the audience
doesn’t understand the message, the source of the
message can refine it based on the feedback.
It’s essential for effective communication in an open
communication environment to offer the opportunity to
provide feedback. A manager in a business environment
should therefore create an atmosphere that stimulates
feedback. Questions such as “Do you get it?” and
“What do you think?” should be asked a lot more
regularly. Moreover, organizations can gather feedback
from employees in countless ways; surveys, open-door
policy, newsletters, memos, and meetings.
 Universal Law of Communication
One of the first people who came up with a
communication theory was Aristotle. A number of
thinkers followed in his footsteps, including Lasswell,
Berlo, and Shannon & Weaver. There is one universal
law of communication that applies to all these theories,
and it was written by S.F. Scudder in 1980. Scudder
 Here, both sender and receiver are known as Cultural systems, social systems and relational
communicators and their role reverses each time in the situations are the most overpowering elements of the
communication process as both processes of sending communication in transactional model, while physical
and receiving occurs at the same time. and psychological context has considerable effect on
The communicators can be humans or machines but the communication, enhancing or undermining it.
humans are taken as communicators in this article to
analyze general communication between humans. The Social Context
model is mostly used for interpersonal communication Social context in communication refers to the norms,
and is also called circular model of communication. values, laws and other restrictions of a society to
Transactional model is the process of continuous communicate within a specific limit. It also includes
change and transformation where every component is rules that bind people ‘s ability to communicate.
changing such as the people, their environments and the Society shapes the way a person communicates. Some
medium used. Due to this, it assumes the of the examples are: greeting people when meeting,
communicators to be independent and act any way they thanking, apologizing, etc.
want. People can also learn communication from trial-and-
Since both sender and receiver are necessary to keep error method, and its consequences ranges from social
the communication alive in transactional model, the exclusion to embarrassment. This model also adds that
communicators are also interdependent to each other. it‘s not just social reality that help people in the
For example, transactional communication is not communication process but communication also shapes
possible if the receiver is not listening to sender. self and social reality in return. Communication is not
The transactional model is the most general model only for exchanging messages but also to create and
of communication. Everyday talk and interactions are establish relationship helping people in the formation of
also a form of transactional model communication. It is a community.
more efficient for communicators with similar
environment and individual aspects. For instance, Cultural Context
communication between people who know each other is Cultural context is the lifestyle and identity of a
more efficient as they share same social system. person. Caste, class, race, ethnicity, gender, etc. are the
In transactional model, efficiency and reliability of contexts which promotes communication. If two people
communicated message also depends on the medium are from the same cultural group, they will have better
used. For example, the same message might not be communication with each other.
perceived by a person the same way when it is sent Cultural identities are made by communication. It
through a phone and when it is provided face to face. It changes the communication pattern of a person.
is because of possible loss of message on a phone call Marginalization of cultural groups oppress their
or absence of gestures. communication with the other parts of the society.
People become unsure of themselves when they
Factors Affecting Transactional Model communicate with intercultural groups. Some people
There are many factors directly or indirectly also take it as unacceptable.
affecting the communication process in transaction People have a closed mindset about the other groups
model. These can be environmental noise or of people they communicate with displaying the trait of
communication barriers. Environmental Noises can be Ethnocentrism. Experiences, attitudes, moods, cultural
Physical noise, physiological noise or psychological beliefs, social up-bringing, mindset, their sense of
noise. reality and many other factors affect the responses and
Transactional model relates communication to social the message exchange.
reality of an individual or a group of people in social,
cultural and relational contexts. Their responses cannot Relational Context
be predicted because they all have different Relational context of communication relates to
backgrounds and mental conditions. Communication relationship history and manners.
pattern depends on various factors such as physical, A person talks with an old friend differently than a
cultural, environmental, social, psychological, stranger. Manners take the role of communication when
emotional, etc. it is with strangers. Manners come from pre-established
norms and values, and are more scripted making (SOURCE: businesstopia. (2018, February 15).
interaction difficult. Type of relationship and the roles Transactional Model of Communication. Retrieved
of people create differences in the way people June 5, 2020, from
communicate. Communication always occurs on the https://www.businesstopia.net/communication/transa
common systems of both the parties. ctional-model-
communication#:%7E:text=Transactional
Criticisms of Transactional Model %20model%20of%20communication%20is,to
%20send%20or%20receive%20messages.&text=
• Without verbal response, the sender cannot be
The%20model%20is%20mostly%20used,called
sure that the receiver got the message as
%20circular%20model%20of%20communication.)
intended. Feedback is an important component
in the communication process, especially in
interpersonal communication as it gives a space KEY TAKEAWAYS
to clarify misunderstandings. 1. Communication as process involves key
• The transactional model gives the opportunity components for it to be successful. These key
for a lot of noise because the communication is components are: (a) Speaker/ Sender; (b) Message;
simultaneous. For example, when many people (c) Channel/ Medium; (d) Listener/ Receiver; (e)
are talking at the same time in a meeting, the Feedback; (f) Noise, and; (g) Context/ Situation
objective of the meeting will not be fulfilled.
2. Communication Models show how different
situations vary the kind of communication that we
Differences Between Transactional and
use. Among these models is Aristotle‘s linear
Other Communication Models
model that explains the type of communication that
TRANSACTIONA OTHER happens in public speaking. Some also explains the
L MODEL MODELS role of feedback, and noise or barriers to
communication and more.
Used for Intrapersonal,
Used for interpersonal
interpersonal, group or 3. Additional reference for communication
communication
mass communications. barriers: Watch this Youtube video about
communication barriers: Communication Coach
Senders and Receivers are Alex Lyon. (2018, January 15). Communication
Senders and receivers
known as Communicators, Barriers [Video file]. In YouTube. Retrieved from
are different people
they interchange their roles https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jsl468Hwr4o

Role of context and

environment are not
Includes the role of context mentioned in other
and environment models

Not necessarily
Includes noise and have the concept of
communication barriers as noise
factors

Ignores non-
Talks about non-verbal
verbal
communication
communication
Sub-topic 3: Principles of Communication
Feedback comes
later in interaction PRINCIPLES ABOUT THE NATURE OF
Simultaneous feedback model and is not COMMUNICATION
included in linear Communication follows a set of rule or guidelines to
model ensure its effectiveness. The following principles if
assimilated will facilitate communication and render it and objectives of the organization and not in conflict
effective. with them. If the messages and communications are in
FOLLOWING PRINCIPLES OF conflict with the policies and programs then there will
COMMUNICATION MAKE IT MORE be confusion in the minds of subordinates and they may
EFFECTIVE: not implement them properly. Such a situation will be
1. Principle of Clarity: detrimental to the interests of the organization.
The idea or message to be communicated should be
clearly spelt out. It should be worded in such a way that
the receiver understands the same thing which the 6. Principle of Timeliness:
sender wants to convey. There should be no ambiguity This principle states that communication should be
in the message. It should be kept in mind that the words done at proper time so that it helps in implementing
do not speak themselves but the speaker gives them the plans. Any delay in communication may not serve any
meaning. A clear message will evoke the same response purpose rather decisions become of historical
from the other party. It is also essential that the receiver importance only.
is conversant with the language, inherent assumptions, 7. Principle of Adequacy:
and the mechanics of communication. The information communicated should be adequate
2. Principle of Attention: and complete in all respects. Inadequate information
In order to make communication effective, the may delay action and create confusion. Inadequate
receiver ‘s attention should be drawn towards message. information also affects efficiency of the receiver; so
People are different in behavior, attention, emotions etc. adequate information is essential for taking proper
so they may respond differently to the message. decisions and making action plans.
Subordinates should act similarly as per the contents of Source: (―7 Principles of Communication –
the message. The acts of a superior also draw the Explained!,‖ 2015)
attention of subordinates and they may follow what they
observe. For example, if a superior is very punctual in PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION (acc. to
coming to the office, then subordinates will also Bernales, Balon and Biligan, 2018):
develop such habits. It is said that “actions speak louder 1. Communication is an interaction situation
than words.” wherein the participants are affected by each one‘s
3. Principle of Feedback: behavior:
The principle of feedback is very important to make Every message is simultaneously a stimulus to new
the communication effective. There should be feedback behavior and a response to prior behavior of the
information from the recipient to know whether he has receiver. No message should be isolated from what has
understood the message in the same sense in which the occurred before between the communicants if we really
sender has meant it. want to understand the message. It should be
4. Principle of Informality: understood in the totality of the situation.
Formal communication is generally used for 2. One does communicate:
transmitting messages and other information. We do communicate even when we are ignoring the
Sometimes formal communication may not achieve the message of another or maintaining complete silence. An
desired results, informal communication may prove easy way to understand this would be to think what you
effective in such situations. Management should use would do if someone, you did not want to interact with,
informal communication for assessing the reaction of passed a smile to you. Even by ignoring him, you
employees towards various policies. Senior would still be communicating, ―I do not want to relate
management may informally convey certain decisions to you‖. Silence, posture and all non-verbal behaviors
to the employees for getting their feedback. So, this are the ways we communicate even when we wish to
principle states that informal communication is as deny doing so.
important as formal communication. 3. The message received is not necessarily the
5. Principle of Consistency: message sent:
This principle states that communication should We usually relate to others as if there was only one
always be consistent with the policies, plans, programs reality the way we perceive the world. We all live as
separate individuals with different experiences and general: people are not mind readers. Another way to
different views of “reality”. How we interpret verbal put this is: people judge you by your behavior, not your
and non-verbal messages may be quite different from intent.
the meaning intended by the speaker (communicator). 2. Interpersonal communication is
Even when several people are viewing the same irreversible
behavior, each interprets it differently. While talking or You can't really take back something once it has
writing we are describing only those experiences that been said. The effect must inevitably remain. Despite
occur inside us and they may not be the same for others the instructions from a judge to a jury to "disregard that
because every person, because of his different last statement the witness made," the lawyer knows that
background, is unique. it can't help but make an impression on the jury. A
4. Communication occurs simultaneously at more Russian proverb says, "Once a word goes out of your
than one level: mouth, you can never swallow it again."
We communicate on the level of the literal content 3. Interpersonal communication is
of the information being conveyed as well as on the complicated
relationship level. In other words, we do not convey No form of communication is simple. Because of
information to the receiver verbally only. By the the number of variables involved, even simple requests
context, in which the communication occurs, and by are extremely complex. Theorists note that whenever
various verbal and non-verbal cues, we are also telling we communicate there are really at least six "people"
the other person how we see our relationship with him, involved: 1) who you think you are; 2) who you think
how we see ourselves, and how he should interpret our the other person is; 30 who you think the other person
messages. thinks you are; 4) who the other person thinks /she is; 5)
This second level of communication is called who the other person thinks you are; and 6) who the
“meta-communication” and refers to any other person thinks you think s/he is.
communication about communication or any verbal or We don't actually swap ideas; we swap symbols
non-verbal cues about the literal content of the message that stand for ideas. This also complicates
sent. For example, I may say to another person, ―I‘m communication. Words (symbols) do not have inherent
very happy with you‖, and be serious indicating that I meaning; we simply use them in certain ways, and no
do not mean what I say. I may also verbally meta- two people use the same word exactly alike. Osmo Wiio
communicate by adding, ―I was only joking‖, which gives us some communication maxims similar to
tells the receiver how he should interpret my original Murphy's law (Osmo Wiio, Wiio's Laws--and Some
statement. Others (Espoo, Finland: Welin-Goos, 1978):
The context in which communication occurs is • If communication can fail, it will.
another important component of meta-communication. • If a message can be understood in different
If I slap my wife while travelling in the bus, I would be ways, it will be understood in just that way which
telling the world something quite different than if I does the most harm.
were to do the same thing in my own house. • There is always somebody who knows better
than you what you meant by your message.
FOUR BASIC PRINCIPLES OF • The more communication there is, the more
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION difficult it is for communication to succeed.
1. Interpersonal communication is These tongue-in-cheek maxims are not real
inescapable principles; they simply humorously remind us of the
We can't not communicate. The very attempt not to difficulty of accurate communication. (See also a
communicate communicates something. Through not commentary of Wiio's laws by Jukka Korpela.)
only words, but through tone of voice and through 4. Interpersonal communication is contextual
gesture, posture, facial expression, etc., we constantly In other words, communication does not happen in
communicate to those around us. Through these isolation. There is:
channels, we constantly receive communication from • Psychological context, which is who you are and
others. Even when you sleep, you communicate. what you bring to the interaction. Your needs,
Remember a basic principle of communication in desires, values, personality, etc., all form the
 psychological context. ("You" here refers to both Sub-topic 3: Ethics of Communication
participants in the interaction.)
• Relational context, which concerns your reactions ETHICS AND COMMUNICATION
to the other person--the "mix." Ethics is defined as a set of rules or guidelines;
• Situational context deals with the psycho-social these are theories as to which is right or wrong. In
"where" you are communicating. An interaction communication, ethics is considerable important because
that takes place in a classroom will be very it would likely guide everyone to effective
different from one that takes place in a bar. communication. Theses ethical principles are universal
• Environmental context deals with the physical in the sense that all people should consider these things
"where" you are communicating. Furniture, because of their vitality in the communication process
location, noise level, temperature, season, time of and effectiveness.
day, all are examples of factors in the Communication ethics emphasizes that morals
environmental context. influence the behavior of an individual, group, or
• Cultural context includes all the learned behaviors organization thereby affecting their communication. For
and rules that affect the interaction. If you come instance, given the unethical communication practice of
a certain company of concealing the non-remittance of
from a culture (foreign or within your own
deducted premiums from employees‗ salaries to the SSS
country) where it is considered rude to make long,
or the Social Security System (or GSIS or Government
direct eye contact, you will out of politeness avoid
Service Insurance System in the case of government
eye contact. If the other person comes from a
offices), the company’s accountability to its employees
culture where long, direct eye contact signals
is undoubtedly affected. Compare this situation with that
trustworthiness, then we have in the cultural of an organization that observes ethical practice and
context a basis for misunderstanding. remits the employees ‘monthly contributions to the SSS
(Source: King, D. (n.d.). Four Principles of or GSIS regularly. It is important to note that one’s
Interpersonal Communication. Retrieved June 5, 2020, behavior should be regulated by honesty, decency,
from (http://www.pstcc.edu/facstaff/dking/interpr.htm) truthfulness, sincerity, and moral uprightness.

KEY TAKEAWAYS ETHICS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Principles are considerations in the Communication ethics is the notion that an
communication process. individual's or group's behavior are governed by their
2. These principles ensure effective morals which in turn affects communication. Generally
communication. speaking, communication ethics deals with the moral
3. There are several principles that govern good present in any form of human communication. This
communication. includes interpersonal communication, mass mediated
Seven (7) of them are the Principle of Clarity, communication, and digital communication.
Attention, Feedback, Informality, Consistency, The questions that need to be asked are the
Timeliness, and Adequacy. following:
Interpersonal Communication (IC) is also 1. What do ethics have to do with
ruled by four principles. These state that IC is (1) communication?
inescapable, (2) irreversible, (3) complicated, and 2. How can ethics (the consideration of
(4) contextual right and wrong) help us in crafting our
communications?
3. Is it possible to be an effective
communicator and yet not an ethical
communicator?

―Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people

communicate. Ethical communication is fundamental to
responsible thinking, decision making, and the
development of relationships and communities within
and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media. your opinions, beliefs, values, and conclusions,
Moreover, ethical communication enhances human assuming everyone shares them.
worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, 7. Manage your own personal boundaries:
responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and share only what you are comfortable sharing.
others." 8. Respect the personal boundaries of
– from the National Communication Association credo others.
9. Avoid interrupting and side
Bernales, Balon and Biligan (2018) took the conversations.
classic example of a charismatic, but immoral leader in 10. Make sure that everyone has time to
explaining the concept of ethics in communication. He speak, that all members have relatively equal ―air
understands how to persuade his followers with dazzling time‖ if they want it.
rhetoric that appeals to their emotions. Is he an ethical
communicator? ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Completeness
Communication ethics concerns not only the
The message must be complete and geared to the receiver’s
individual, but is of great concern to businesses, perception of the world. The message must be based on facts
corporations, and professional entities. A business with and a complex message needs additional information and / or
unethical communication practices is not effective as one explanation. A good subdivision of subjects will clarify the
with ethical communication practices. For example, a message as a result of which there will be a complete
business with unethical communication practices may overview of what is said.
withhold evidence that it is harming the environment or
breaking a law through a lack of transparence; while a Concreteness
business with ethical practices will immediately press a Concrete business communication is also about a clear
release to the affected parties. In this example, message. This is often supported by factual material such as
transparency makes the business more effective because research data and figures. The words used as well as the
it notifies its clients, prospective or established, sentence structure can be interpreted univocally. Nothing is
providers/ suppliers, or other affiliates of the potential left to the imagination.
environmental hazard or law violation. In other words, in
this example transparency will encourage trust and good
faith, that the effective business will not conceal what is Courtesy
in the interest of its audience. (Bernales, Balon and In addition to considering the feelings and points of view
Biligan, 2018). of the target group, it is also important to approach the
Johnson (as cited in Bernales, Balon and audience in a friendly and courteous manner. Use of
Biligan, 2018) developed ten basics of Ethical terms that show respect for the receiver contribute
Communication using principles learned in Straight Talk towards effective communication. The same goes for the
and Nonviolent Communication as wells as best manner in which you address someone. Not everyone
practices for small group work in general: will be charmed if you use a familiar form of address
1. Seek to ―elicit the best‖ in and use of a formal address could come across as too
communications and interactions with other group distant. By using the word ‗they‗ a larger audience is
members. immediately addressed.
2. Listen when others speak.
3. Speak non-judgmentally. Correctness
4. Speak from your own experience and A correct use of language has the preference. In written
perspective, expressing your own thoughts, needs, business communication, grammatical errors must be
and feelings. avoided and stylistic lapses or a wrong use of verbs are
5. Seek to understand others (rather than to not sufficient either in verbal communication. A correct
be ―right‖ or ―more ethical than thou‖). use of language increases trustworthiness and the
6. Avoid speaking for others, for example receiver will feel that they are taken seriously.
by characterizing what others have said without
checking your understanding, or by universalizing Clarity
Clear or plain language is characterized by explicitness, Globalization, roughly defined as the global
short sentences and concrete words. Fuzzy language is integration of economies and societies, an affect many
absolutely forbidden, as are formal language and cliché aspects of young peoples’ lives. Youth have an
expressions. By avoiding parentheses and keeping to the ambiguous relationship with the globalizing world, both
point, the receiver will get a clear picture of the content economically and culturally. On the one hand, they are
of the message. Briefly-worded information emphasizes most flexible and perhaps best able to adapt to and make
the essence of the message. Coherence means the use of new opportunities offered. They are the best
connection of ideas at the idea level, and cohesion means educated generation on new information technologies;
the connection of ideas at the sentence level. they benefit from economic growth; many travels around
the world for work, studies, exchange projects and
Consideration vacation; and telephone and the Internet enable them to
Communicating with the target group (Consideration). In stay in touch with friends and relatives abroad. On the
order to communicate well, it is important to relate to the other hand, many youth, especially in developing
target group and be involved. By taking the audience countries, have been left out of the digitalization and
into account, the message can be geared towards them. modernization process and lack the economic power to
Factors that play a role in this are for example: benefit from the opportunities globalization offers. Four
professional knowledge, level of education, age and effects of globalization on the lives of young people are
interests. discussed below in more detail; the distribution of
employment opportunities, migration, youth culture and
Conciseness consumerism, and global citizenship and activism.
A message is clear when the storyline is consistent and when Globalization can be a powerful force for
this does not contain any inconsistencies. When facts are poverty reduction. Many countries have seen
mentioned, it is important that there is consistent, supporting improvements in their welfare and educational systems
information. Systematically implementing a certain statement as a consequence of globalization. Unfortunately, about
or notation also contributes to clear business communication. 2 billion people live in countries that do not benefit from
When statements are varied, they will confuse the receiver.
globalization, mainly in parts of sub-Saharan Africa,
Observing a code of ethics is essential as it determines the
Western Asia, and the former Soviet Union.b These
kind of behavior that is proper and desirable over one that is
displeasing and offensive. A code of ethics sets the standards countries have seen a declining economic growth rate,
to be observed by a person or a company that will create a loss of jobs, low incomes, and poor education and health
good reputation or a positive image not only for an individual provision. The income gap is widening not only
but also for the organization. It will, therefore, pave the way between, but also within countries.
for the attainment of the desired results leading to the success Globalization has substantially changed the job
of an individual or the entire company. Success in decision- market, to which young people, as newcomers, are “most
making will likewise impact the company’s reputation. vulnerable”. New technologies have replaced manual
labour, mainly affecting low skilled jobs in the service
KEY TAKEAWAYS sector. Even in China, which has seen remarkable
1. Ethics is a set of rules and guidelines. economic growth, the rate of unemployment is rising due
2. There are seven (7) ethical to the ongoing transformation from agriculture to the
considerations in communication. These 7 C‘s less employment intensive manufacturing and service
are: completeness, concreteness, courtesy, industries, the reform of state-owned enterprises and the
correctness, clarity, consideration, and reorganization of the public sector. Trade liberalization
conciseness. forces companies to become more flexible and
Our moral and values matter in communication competitive. Many have become increasingly dependent
on lowcost, flexible labour, often employed on an
TOPIC 2: Communication and globalization irregular basis. The outsourcing of sophisticated
“While globalization will make the world smaller and
programming assignments and semi-skilled jobs in call
more accessible, we must continue to appreciate its vibrant
centres to low-wage countries is perhaps the best-known
diversity.” -Jean-Philippe Courtois
example of the global shift of employment opportunities
A. Globalization for young people.
 Migration, both within and between countries, is international arena, it may be argued that the diverse
another aspect of globalization. Young people have landscape of issues, opinions, interests and beliefs
always been a significant group among migrants. As among young people hampers the emergence of a strong
foreign investment often creates job opportunities in the unified voice of young people and of a global youth and
cities of host countries, rural workers move to the cities. student movement.
In 2003, 48 per cent of the world’s population lived in In order to address some of the concerns related
urban areas, and it is projected that over 50 per cent will to migration of youth, young people need to have viable
do so by 2007.c In 2002, there were 175 million alternatives to remain in their countries. This means
international migrants. On the basis of available addressing root causes such as poverty, and by doing so,
immigration data, it is estimated that some 15 percent, or seeking to redress the inequalities between rich and poor
26 million, are youths. Every day thousands of young nations. It also requires that young people are provided,
people illegally try to pursue a life of fortune in a rich through education and skills training, with the
country, often motivated by unrealistic information and knowledge and confidence to become successful
high expectations. A parallel industry of illicit travel participants in the labour markets of their own countries.
agents, job brokers and middlemen has arisen, which Most migration data is not disaggregated by age.
directs the trafficking of these migrants. The past two Data on the outflow and inflow of young nationals
decades have seen a dramatic increase in the trafficking would be a useful supplement to an analysis of the
of girls and young women, who are often lured into global youth employment situation.
prostitution. Young women and girls who are Footnotes:
a. See World Bank, Globalization, Growth and Poverty: Building an
impoverished, uneducated or from indigenous, ethnic Inclusive World Economy (Washington, D.C., and New York,
minority, rural or refugee groups are most vulnerable to World Bank and Oxford University Press, 2002).
b. Ibid.
being trafficked.
c. See United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2003
Globalization has numerous consequences for Revision (United Nations publication, Sales No. 04.XIII.6).
youth cultures. The increase in media streams has d. See estimate based on the average age composition of the 10
largest immigration countries; based on data provided by the
resulted in global consumerism. Through television, United Nations Statistics Division.
music videos and movies, American and European-
produced content is increasingly dominating
entertainment around the world. Young people tend to
adopt and interpret global products in terms of their own WHAT
local cultures and experiences, thereby creating new
hybrid cultural forms whose meanings vary with local GLOBALIZATION IS
and national circumstances. Many youth in developing The UNESCO website defines globalization as a
countries, as well as marginalized youth in the multidimensional process characterized by:
industrialized world, are unable to fulfil their raised • The acceptance of a set of economic rules for the
expectations of material wellbeing. This may result in entire world designed to maximize profits and
alienation and frustration and, potentially, in crime and productivity by universalizing markets and
social strife. production, and to obtain the support of the state
Young people around the world show concern with a view to making the national economy more
about the negative consequences of globalization, such productive and competitive;
as unequal distribution of wealth and environmental • Technological innovation and organizational
degradation. The anti-globalization movement has
change centered on flexibilization and
expanded all over the world and comprises a
adaptability;
heterogeneous group of nongovernmental organizations,
• The expansion of a specific form of social
student groups, political organizations and civil rights
organization based on information as the main
activists. The movement fights for various issues such as
source of productivity and power;
global justice, fair trade, debt relief, and sustainable
development. Remarkable results have been achieved in
• The reduction of the welfare state,
privatization of social services, flexibilization of
the last two decades, including in the recognition of
labor relations and weaker trade unions;
basic universal rights and in the prevention of global
threats. Despite the presence of many active youth in the • De facto transfer to trans-national
organizations of the control of national economic
 policy instruments, such as monetary policy, today’s almost borderless world, intercultural
interest rates and fiscal policy; communication is unavoidable for many businesses.
• The dissemination of common cultural values, Since the time of Hall, the field of intercultural
but also the reemergence of nationalism, cultural communication has grown so much that getting a single
conflict and social movements.” Globalization definition might not reflect the richness this field of
has been the buzzword in many academic, study has to offer. And so, here are some insightful
business, and political circles for decades. The definitions from some authors:
concept has both been viewed positively and • Intercultural communication refers to the
negatively. This is expected insofar as communication between people from two different
globalization does have beneficial and harmful cultures (Chen & Starosta, 1998:28).
consequences. However, whether we like it or not, • Intercultural communication refers to the effects
globalization is here to stay. Most countries are on communication behavior, when different
“interconnected and form part of a single, cultures interact together. Hence, one way of
interdependent global economy.” (Connor, viewing intercultural communication is as
2014). And the best way to adapt to it is to communication that unfolds in symbolic
anticipate and prepare for its foreseeable and intercultural spaces (Arasaratnam, 2013:48).
unforeseeable consequences. From these two definitions, we could note at
least two similarities in relation to their definition. First,
THE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION there should be interaction. Second, the interaction
ON COMMUNICATION should be between cultures. An important additional
information provided by the second definition is that
Communication is the lifeblood of any
contact affects communication behavior. And sadly, the
organization and globalization poses new challenges to
consequence is often shock and confusion. In both
communication in any organization. One immediate
verbal and nonverbal communication, the pitfalls are
effect is the increase in intercultural communication.
often miscommunication, misattribution, sending the
Communication in the 21st century is increasingly
wrong information, missing the signal, and getting the
transnational and intercultural. Consequently, effective
wrong context.
global communication proves to be a challenge to many
Given the said pitfalls plus the possibility of
people since cultural diversity increases the possibility of
poor performance or poor team work in the workplace,
miscommunication. Consequently, it is assumed that
many companies now provide intercultural awareness
poor communication leads to poor job performance and
training with the aim of increasing their employees’
a decrease in employee productivity.
intercultural competence. There are those who even
Another important consequence of globalization
suggest that intercultural training be given alongside
is the rise of World Englishes where each country boasts
language classes. Some go as far as talking about an
of its own variety of English. Experts claim that the
intercultural approach to language teaching.
Englishes are different in relation to word use,
pronunciation, accent, and grammar. As such, the IMPROVING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE
challenges to intercultural communication do not only The Australian government website featured an
include problems in slang or idiomatic expressions article on communicating in culturally appropriate ways
which non-native speakers usually find problematic, but which discusses some good pointers on how to improve
also grammatical and pronunciation variations and other intercultural competence. The first one is awareness.
verbal as well as non-verbal facets of language. Knowing that two cultures are more often than not
different rather than similar can help you avoid
intercultural faux pas. The second pointer given is that
individuality trumps culture. It is incorrect to assume
TOPIC 3: LOCAL AND GLOBAL Communication IN that everyone acts according to the dictates of his/her
MULTICULTURAL SETTINGS culture. Everyone can, and in many cases, tends to
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION follow his/her own beliefs and values which by
Smerekar (2015) wrote that the word experience, training, or accident be different from his/her
intercultural communication was first used by Edward home culture’s beliefs and values. Communicating
Hall in 1959 in his book The silent language. And in clearly and checking for understanding are the third and
fourth pointers given which are basic to communicating 4.Speaking makes use of gestures and facial
effectively. expressions while writing uses punctuation marks.
Another important pointer is listening to non- 5.Writing creates a permanent output while
verbal signals. Hall (1959) compared culture to an speaking does not.
iceberg where a bigger part of it is unseen and where the
importance of the unspoken in everyday life is Furthermore, Crystal (2006) differentiates
undervalued and misunderstood. Finally, the website speech and writing in relation to physical form where
reminds us that all cultures are equal. A culture is neither speech uses phonic substance and writing uses graphic
superior nor inferior to another. It is only different. substance. He also differentiates writing from speaking
TOPIC 4: VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND in relation to structure and use where he also describes
WRITTEN LANGUAGE
speech as “time-bound, dynamic, and transient” and
writing as “space-bound, static, permanent” [emphasis
supplied].

THE IMPORTANCE OF
DIFFERENTIATING WRITTEN FROM
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Knowing the difference between written and
verbal communication can help improve your
communication skills. For example, you need to
remember that unlike a written output that can be read
over and over again, effective speaking requires the
effective use of clear pronunciation, pausing, and
emphasis to ensure the listener understands the speech
the first time it is heard since there is a possibility that
the audience cannot ask the speaker to repeat the speech.
For writing, it is acceptable to compress more words in
a sentence whereas in speaking this should definitely be
Reflection Questions:
avoided since long sentences are harder to understand in
Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper for
speeches.
submission.
1. What does the cartoon tell us about written
According to an article written by Gleaner, we
communication?
have six language registers: formal, casual, intimate,
2. What does the cartoon tell us about verbal
private, frozen and consultative. These registers can be
communication?
use depending on the situation and people we encounter.
It is essential to use appropriate varieties and registers of
COMPARING WRITTEN language in certain communication context because in
COMMUNICATION WITH different situations and people call for different registers.
It shows the level of formality and informality of the
VERBAL COMMUNICATION (1) language used. When we use appropriate varieties and
Some differences between written register of language we‘re showing respect, interest,
communication and verbal communication are as comfortableness and professionalism.
follows: However, we have different approach in
1.. Speaking is a social activity while writing is a language register when it comes to face-to-face
solitary activity. conversation and in written mode. We characterized
2.Speaking is universally learned while writing face-to-face conversation as multi-modality because we
needs to be taught. can use different registers and we considered the status,
3.Writing is generally planned while speaking is position or the way of living of the person we‘re
usually unplanned. communicating with in order to know when and where
to use or drop the formality. While in writing a paper we
commonly use the formal register since the construction CHARACTERISTICS OF SPOKEN
of sentences, correction of grammar and appropriate
LANGUAGE
using of words really matter.
VARIATION IN SPEED
LOUDNESS OR QUIETNESS
CHARACTERISTICS OF WRITTEN
GESTURES
LANGUAGE INTONATION
Permanence - means when students write STRESS
something they already set in their mind to be done
RHYTHM
in one session. They don‘t think that they can edit
PITCH RANGE
or revised their written to be better because students
think their written is subject to permanence. In this PAUSING AND PHRASING
case teacher perhaps notice all of students that they
just write everything that comes in their written. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPOKEN
Production time - this part plays a crucial issue AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE (2)
for the agents. In this part, students will think about WRITTEN:
the deadline. The possible case in here is the  Tends to be more complex and intricate than
students will just only focus on the deadline and speech with longer sentences and many subordinate
would resort to not give importance on the content clauses. The punctuation and layout of written text
itself. As the result, their written work will not be also have no spoken equivalent.
maximized and or to be improved. Moreover this is  Usually permanent and written texts cannot
a job for the teachers to push students to think about usually be changed once they have been
the process of learning rather than the result itself. printed/written out
Distance - having a relationship with the  Written text can communicate across time and
audience anticipation. Before students start to write, space for as long as the particular language and
they have to know who will be the audience to read writing system is still understood.
their output.  Writers can make use of punctuation, headings,
Orthography - this part is talk about the layouts, colors and other graphical effects in their
technical of appearance. After writer consider about written texts.
the word, phrase and sentence that they will use  Some grammatical constructions are only used
students also consider about the front, size and also in writing as are some kinds of vocabulary such as
the picture. All appearance has to connect with the some complex chemical and legal terms.
topic and target of the reader. SPOKEN:
Complexity - this is talk about the sentence  Tends to be full or repetitions, incomplete
whether students use simple sentence combine or sentences, corrections and interruptions with the
complex sentence. We as a teacher will know the exception of formal speeches and other scripted fors
students ‘progress of learning. And for the academic of speech such as news reports and scripts for plays
writing, students should provide reference. and films.
Vocabulary - talk about word richness we  Usually transient unless recorded and speakers
(teacher) can see what a new vocabulary that they can correct themselves and change their utterances
already acquired. as they go along.
Formality - this is complex convention for  Speech is usually used for immediate
academic writing (describe, explain, compare, interactions.
criticize, argue, etc). If the writer creates academic  Speech can us timing, tone, volume and tremble
writing it means the product have to formal. to add emotional context.
Because of that the language that they use has to  Some types of vocabulary are used only or
formal and polite. The front or size has to consistent mainly speech. These include slang expressions,
with the guideline that they use (APA style, MLA and tags like y’know, like, etc.
etc).
 c) .Ilocano
THE FIVE MOST COMMON LANGUAGE d) Kapampangan
REGISTER IN WRITING e) .Hiligaynon
 FORMAL LANGUAGE REGISTER
Is appropriate for professional writing and letters to a Spoken Language – is a language produced by
boss or stranger. articulate sounds, an oral language is a produced with
 Cannot instead of can‘t vocal tract. It tends to convey subjective information.
 Have not instead of haven‘t Written Language – is a representation of Spoken or
 Will not instead of won‘t gestural by means of a writing system. It must be taught
EXAMPLE: business letters, announcement, to children.
professional emails, some essay, letters complaint.

 INFORMAL LANGUAGE REGISTER

Is conversational and appropriate when writing to friends
and people you very well.
 They‘ve been fighting all day
 He‘s very busy
 We feel that the target in unrealistic
 I planned many different
EXAMPLE: short notes diaries and journals

 NEUTRAL LANGUAGE REGISTER

Is non-emotional and sticks to facts. It is most
appropriate for technical writing
―Definition of register and varieties of spoken and the
written language‖
 Register
Is a subset of language as defined by purpose and
setting.
Types of Register
A. Frozen - is a language that never
changes.
(Ex. Panatang Makabayan).
B. Formal - Standard English.
(Ex. Speeches or School
Lessons)
C. Consultative - Less formal standard
English
.(Ex. Newscasting)
D. Casual - Language between Friends
(Ex. Vernacular speech)
E. Intimate - language between lovers or
other close family or friends.
 Varieties
A variety also called ―lect‖ is a specific form of
language cluster. This may include Languages, Dialects,
registers, style or other forms of language, as well as
―Standard Variety‖ Varieties of the Philippines
a) Cebuano
b) Waray-waray