ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

(Department of Science Education)

ASSIGNMENT No. 2
(Units 5-9)

Course: Lab Organization, Management &

Safety Methods (8629)

Submitted to: Mr. Muhammad Hisham

Submitted by: Engr. Sadia Mushtaq

Roll#: CA654332

Reg #: 20pri03840

Smester: Autumn, 2020

Group: Science

Date : 15 April, 2021

Semester: Autumn, 2020
Total Marks: 100
Pass Marks: 50
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Question # 01

Write the ways how aims and objectives for laboratories are generated?
ANSWER

OBJECTIVES FOR LABORATORIES

The lab-work addressed here is the one that implies working with real objects. In order to define the
role of laboratory work in the teaching of physics it may be useful to adopt two perspectives. The first
one looks at it from the viewpoint of the Physics discipline, an experimental science. The second
perspective considers the laboratory work as a didactical tool for the understanding of the discipline as
far as its structure, laws, models, concepts are concerned. From the mere meaning of these two
viewpoints it follows that the discussion of the epistemological aspect in which experiments are related
to phenomena, models and theories, should precede the discussion of the didactical aspect. Firstly our
view of the role of laboratory work in Physics is presented, then we discuss its didactical role.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1. To promote higher studies and research on pure and applied sciences in Pakistan and to
disseminate scientific knowledge;
2. To formulate standards of scientific effort and achievement in Pakistan and to recognize
outstanding contributions to the advancement of science;
3. To publish and assist in the publication of Scientific Proceedings, Journals, Transactions,
Monographs, Books and other scientific literature;

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4. To establish and maintain association and relations between Pakistani scientists and the
international groups, meetings and unions of scientists, and between Pakistani scientific activities
and the activities of scientists in other countries;
5. To award grants, scholarships, fellowships, prizes and medals for scientific research;

6. To undertake such scientific work of national or international importance as the Academy may be
called upon to perform by the Government;–to have the advisory and consultative status with the
Ministries and Divisions of Government dealing with scientific and technical matters, and to
represent internationally the scientific work of Pakistan;
7. To secure and administer funds, endowments and other grants for the promotion and development
of scientific research or projects of a scientific nature, and for the attainment of the aims and
objectives of the Academy;
8. To correlate and assist in correlating the efforts of other scientific bodies;

9. To do all other lawful things that the Academy may consider conducive to, or necessary for, the
attainment of its aims and objects.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The committee carried out its charge through an iterative process of gathering information, deliberating
on it, identifying gaps and questions, gathering further information to fill these gaps, and holding
further discussions. In the search for relevant information, the committee held three public fact-finding
meetings, reviewed published reports and unpublished research, searched the Internet, and
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commissioned experts to prepare and present papers. At a fourth, private meeting, the committee
intensely analyzed and discussed its findings and conclusions over the course of three days. Although
the committee considered information from a variety of sources, its final report gives most weight to
research published in peer-reviewed journals and books.

At an early stage in its deliberations, the committee chose to focus primarily on “the role of high school
laboratories in promoting the teaching and learning of science for all students.” The committee soon
became frustrated by the limited research evidence on the role of laboratories in learning. To address
one of many problems in the research evidence—a lack of agreement about what constitutes a
laboratory and about the purposes of laboratory education—the committee commissioned a paper to
analyze the alternative definitions and goals of laboratories.

The committee developed a concept map outlining the main themes of the study and organized the
three fact-finding meetings to gather information on each of these themes. For example, reflecting the
committee’s focus on student learning (“how students learn science”on the concept map), all three fact-
finding meetings included researchers who had developed innovative approaches to high school science
laboratories. We also commissioned two experts to present papers reviewing available research on the
role of laboratories in students’ learning of science.
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At the fact-finding meetings, some researchers presented evidence of student learning following
exposure to sequences of instruction that included laboratory experiences; others provided data on how
various technologies

REFERENCES

1. Karim, F. (Ed.). (2017). LABORATORY ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT AND SAFETY

METHODS (First ed., Vol. First). Islamabad, Pakistan: Allama Iqbal Open University.
2. Facebook.com/hamsijutt. (2021, March 06). Aiou solved Assignments 2 code 8629 Autumn &
SPRING 2020. Retrieved April 02, 2021, from https://pcbeducation.com/aiou-solved-
assignments-code-8629-2/

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QUESTION # 02
What is mastery learning? Judge the role of mastery learning for achieving laboratory goals.
ANSWER

MASTERY LEARNING

Students are expected to demonstrate, through testing procedures, a high level of mastery of the
specified course work. The students decide the appropriate time to take the unit test, and then can reset
the test at a later date if the prescribed master level is not achieved.

ROLE OF MASTERY LEARNING FOR ACHIEVING LABORATORY GOALS

Detailed objectives are usually written for each laboratory exercises, and this is beneficial since they
provide a clear specification of what the student is expected to achieve on completion of the work. One
problem with published behavioral objectives/mastery learning combination for uniquely laboratory
based activities, such as manual skills, are often omitted. Hence it is difficult to judge to what extent
these ideas are carried through a laboratory teaching. A lot of time is required to achieve mastery, and if
this aspect of PSI is to be retrained then only a few of all the techniques encountered in, say, a typical
first-year course can be dealt with at this level of competence. However, it is possible to provide the

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practice in a variety of contexts, so that although each exercise may have a different purpose, the
correct use of a technique may be a common requirement.

One characteristic of laboratory courses using PSI which has become evident is that there may be a
minimum core of practical’s to be carried out with additional optional exercises. Students who
satisfactorily carry out the basic requirements are awarded the minimum passing grade, so that
completing the optional exercises becomes the method for awarding higher grades (Valeriote 1976;
Cassen and Forrester 1973; Patterson and Prescott 1980).
EXAMPLE
Patterson and Prescott (1980) described a first year physics laboratory which had some aspects of PSI.
The students worked in pairs at their own pace until they decided that the experiment was complete.
Their notebooks were checked and their records discussed with the instructor. In some cases the
instructor had the opportunity to ask further questions if necessary, test understanding. If the work was
deficient in any of the set aims, then the student was sent back to redo part or all of the experiment. The
experiment ended and the next one commenced only when students and instructor agreed that the work
was substantially complete. The final grade was determined by the score achieved for all the completed
experiments. Thus the able students, who could proceed at a greater rate, achieved high score, whilst
the weaker students tended to proceed at a slower rate and thus achieve lower scores. In this study,
assessment in the laboratory did appear to be measuring kills that were different from those measured
by examinations on lecture material. Another example, of the application of PSI in a physics course is
given by Brown et al (1977).

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CONCLUSION
This section has described strategies which may provide opportunities for the pursuit of various
educational aims in laboratory teaching. Controlled exercises can be used effectively to train students in
basic skills and techniques, and the Personalized System of Instruction, which combines behavioral
objectives with mastery learning, is a particularly powerful strategy for meeting the same aims. The
curriculum needs to be balanced, however, by the inclusion of appropriate experimental investigations
and research projects that will provide graduates with the requisite skills needed to meet the range of
professional demands.
The laboratory provides many opportunities for students to talks and writes about science. With a little
though and planning, and not too much extra effort on the part of students, its activities can be the
basis for building communication skills, a matter which is discussed in Dunn, Boud and Hegarty
(in preparation).
5 KEY ELEMENTS OF MASTERY LEARNING AT SCALE
In addition to continued implementation of the enablers described above, five key elements need to be
present for mastery learning to occur at scale:
1. Specific, clear, demonstrable learning objectives. We must be clear what we want students to
know and be able to do when learning has successfully occurred. Traditional high-level
standards do not enable mastery learning; greater precision is essential.
2. Clear mastery thresholds for each learning objective. Students and educators need to know
exactly what mastery means and how we know when the student is ready to move on to the next
learning objective. Historically we have been mushy in our thinking about this topic; we must
be clear. This applies to all learning objectives–the simple objectives that require computation
and memorization as well as the very advanced objectives that require complex collaborative
synthesis and application. All objectives must have clear mastery thresholds!
3. Clear processes for students to demonstrate mastery. The processes must be fully scalable:
for every student and every learning objective. This also works to ensure equitable access for all
learners.
4. Clear processes for teachers to assess mastery. These processes must also be fully scalable so
it is feasible for teachers to assess mastery for every student and every learning objective
(remembering that some students may need multiple attempts to demonstrate mastery

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depending on their level of readiness and the potential variety of assessment options available).

5. A system to effectively organize and display the data about mastery-based student learning

progress. The data must be immediately and easily available to students, teachers, principals,
and parents.
REFERENCES

1. Karim, F. (Ed.). (2017). LABORATORY ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT AND SAFETY

METHODS (First ed., Vol. First). Islamabad, Pakistan: Allama Iqbal Open University.
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2. Author, G., & Here, P. (2020, July 13). What is mastery learning? Retrieved April 02, 2021,
from https://www.gettingsmart.com/2019/08/what-is-mastery-learning/
3. https://web.phys.ksu.edu/icpe/publications/teach2/sassi_vicentini.pdf

QUESTION # 03
Give a detailed description of principles of sequencing.
ANSWER

PRINCIPLES FOR SEQUENCING

Once the broad strategy is accepted, it is necessary to examine the content of the course and its aims
and objectives to see the ways in which it can be sequenced to achieve the desired ends, keeping in
mind the general goals and values which are being pursued.
Traditionally, one or other of the following rule for sequencing has been used (Davies 1981, attributing
them to Herbert Spencer):
 Proceed from the known to the unknown
 Proceed from simple to complex
 Proceed from the concrete to the abstract
 Proceed from the particular to the general
 Proceed from observations to reasoning
 Proceed from the whole to the parts and back again to the whole

Each of these different rules possesses a compelling simplicity and they have been cited in teaching
methods textbooks for very many years. However, more recent studies enable us to go beyond this
formulation and take into account the needs of the discipline, the needs of the learner and the needs of
the context for which the student is prepared. Posner and Strike (1976) undertook a detailed analysis of
principles for sequencing content and identified the categories which we outline in the following pages.
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We have used their framework and have illustrated it where possible with examples from basic
laboratory courses in various subjects.

1. WORLD-RELATED SEQUENCES

Through world-related sequences content can be made to correspond to the order of events normally
encountered in the world.

Such sequences will be based upon empirically verifiable relationships between phenomena and might
involve:
 Special relationships e.g teaching the elements of electric circuit by consideration of the component
parts prior to assembly.

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 Relationships in time e.g introducing experiments in historical sequence, such as examining

Milliken’s oil drop experiment before that to determine e/m for the electron.
 Physical attributes e.g in astronomy, the observation of bright objects before those of lesser
magnitude.

2. CONCEPT-RELATED SEQUENCES
Concepts-related sequences reflect the relationships between concepts, and make teaching units
consistent with the ways in which the ideas of a subject relate to one another.

Concept maps are means of portraying such relationships. Concepts can be sequenced in the following
different ways, with respect to:
 Class relations, such as their common properties e.g teaching about mammals as a class before
teaching about individual species.
3. Inquiry-related Sequence
Inquiry-related sequences derive from the nature of the process of generating, discovering, or verifying
knowledge.

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These reflect the nature of one or other of the following two things:
 The logic of inquiry e.g a laboratory course structured around Popper’s ideas of scientific method as
a series of conjectures and refutations, or one based on the idea of discovery as a matter of
generalizing over numerous instances.
 The methodology of a given area e.g introducing the practice of conducting literature surveys before
the design of an experimental activity, or the use of order of magnitude calculations before
measurements.

4. UTILIZATION-RELATED SEQUENCES
Utilization-related sequences involve the organization of units around career, personal or social goals.
They would be based upon the ways in which students will use the content after it has learned.

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Units can be sequenced to reflect one or other of two things:

 Procedures for solving problems or fulfilling responsibilities e.g teaching the use of
spectrophotometers as analytical tools rather than as means of probing electronic structure.
 The extent to which a particular element of the course will be subsequently used e.g teaching
how to change a circuit board before teachi9ng how to change a resistor or teaching standard
colony culture counting techniques before the use of electronic panicle counters.

REFERENCES

1. Karim, F. (Ed.). (2017). LABORATORY ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT AND

SAFETY METHODS (First ed., Vol. First). Islamabad, Pakistan: Allama Iqbal Open
University.
2. https://web.phys.ksu.edu/icpe/publications/teach2/sassi_vicentini.pdf

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QUESTION # 04
Develop evaluative feedback sheet for following practicals:
PART A
i. Study the effect of the length of simple pendulum on its time period and hence find “g”
by calculation.

ANSWER
In Figure we see that a simple pendulum has a small-diameter bob and a string that has a very small
mass but is strong enough not to stretch appreciably. The linear displacement from equilibrium is s, the
length of the arc. Also shown are the forces on the bob, which result in a net force of −mg sinθ toward
the equilibrium position—that is, a restoring force.

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Pendulums are in common usage. Some have crucial uses, such as in clocks; some are for fun, such as a
child’s swing; and some are just there, such as the sinker on a fishing line. For small displacements, a
pendulum is a simple harmonic oscillator. A simple pendulum is defined to have an object that has a
small mass, also known as the pendulum bob, which is suspended from a light wire or string, such as
shown in Figure. Exploring the simple pendulum a bit further, we can discover the conditions under
which it performs simple harmonic motion, and we can derive an interesting expression for its period.

We begin by defining the displacement to be the arc length s. We see from Figure 1 that the net force
on the bob is tangent to the arc and equals −mg sinθ. (The weight mg has components mg cosθ along
the string and mg sinθ tangent to the arc.) Tension in the string exactly cancels the
component mg cosθ parallel to the string. This leaves a net restoring force back toward the equilibrium
position at θ = 0.
Now, if we can show that the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement, then we have
a simple harmonic oscillator. In trying to determine if we have a simple harmonic oscillator, we should
note that for small angles (less than about 15º), sinθ ≈ θ (sinθ and θ differ by about 1% or less at
smaller angles). Thus, for angles less than about 15º, the restoring force F is
F ≈ −mgθ.

The displacement s is directly proportional to θ. When θ is expressed in radians, the arc length in a
circle is related to its radius (L in this instance) by s = Lθ, so that
θ=sLθ=sL.
For small angles, then, the expression for the restoring force is:
F≈−mgLsF≈−mgLs.
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This expression is of the form: 

F = −kx, 
where the force constant is given by 
k=mgLk=mgL 
and the displacement is given by
 x = s.
For angles less than about 15º, the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement, and the
simple pendulum is a simple harmonic oscillator.
Using this equation, we can find the period of a pendulum for amplitudes less than about 15º. For the
simple pendulum:
T=2π√mk=2π√mmgLT=2πmk=2πmmgLThus, T=2π√LgT=2πLg 
for the period of a simple pendulum.
This result is interesting because of its simplicity. The only things that affect the period of a simple
pendulum are its length and the acceleration due to gravity. The period is completely independent of
other factors, such as mass. As with simple harmonic oscillators, the period T for a pendulum is nearly
independent of amplitude, especially if θ is less than about 15º. Even simple pendulum clocks can be
finely adjusted and accurate.

Note the dependence of T on g. If the length of a pendulum is precisely known, it can actually be used
to measure the acceleration due to gravity. Consider Example 1.
EXAMPLE 1. MEASURING ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY: THE PERIOD OF A
PENDULUM
What is the acceleration due to gravity in a region where a simple pendulum having a length 75.000 cm
has a period of 1.7357 s?

Strategy

We are asked to find g given the period T and the length L of a pendulum. We can

solve T=2π√LgT=2πLg for g, assuming only that the angle of deflection is less than 15º.

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Solution

Square T=2π√LgT=2πLg and solve for g:

g=4π2LT2g=4π2LT2.
Substitute known values into the new equation:

g=4π20.750000 m(1.7357 s)2g=4π20.750000 m(1.7357 s)2.
Calculate to find g:
g = 9.8281 m/s2.

Discussion

This method for determining g can be very accurate. This is why length and period are given to five
digits in this example. For the precision of the approximation sinθ  ≈ θ to be better than the precision of
the pendulum length and period, the maximum displacement angle should be kept below about 0.5º.

REFERENCE

1. OpenStax. (n.d.). Physics. Retrieved April 02, 2021, from

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/16-4-the-simple-pendulum/

PART B

ii. Prepare 100 cm3 of 0.01M oxalic acid solution from the given 0.1 M Solution.

ANSWER

APPARATUS
Beaker, stirrer, glass rod, pippet, funnel, dropper, volumetric flask and measuring cylinder

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CHEMICALS
 Distilled water
 0.1M oxalic acid solution
 Preparation
FORMULA
Prepare 100 cm3 of 0.01M oxalic acid solution from the given 0.1 M Solution.
Dilution of solution
M1 V1 = M2 V2
Concentration solution diluted solution

CALCULATIONS
Concentrated solution
M1=0.1
V1=?

Diluted solution

M2= 0.01
V2= 100cm^3
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Putting the values in formula

M1 V1 = M2 V2

0.1*v1 = 0.01* 100

V1= (0.01* 100)/0.1

V1 = 10 cm^3

RESULT
100 cm^3 of 0.01 M oxalic acid solution has been prepared by taking 10cm^3 of given 0.1M oxalic
acid and diluting it to 100cm^3 with distilled water.

REFERENCES
1. https://bisep.edu.pk/downloads/ssc/Chemistry%20Grades%20IX-X.pdf

QUESTION #05
Discuss general safety techniques for laboratory.
ANSWER

GENERAL LABORATORY SAFETY AND TECHNIQUES

SYSTEMS CHECKING

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The Head of Department in a school or college has the responsibility to see that the laboratories are safe
for his staff and students. Nothing should be taken for granted in this respect and schools and college
staff should, on a regular and methodical basis, check all laboratory services – gas, power, water,
drainage, and fume extraction, where appropriate. These items should only be checked. Any faults
which are found should then be reported to the appropriate authority for correction.

STAFF AND STUDENTS

Involvement in Safety How should one deal with the all-important problem of involving both staff and
students in considerations of safety? Rules and regulations imposed from above rarely have
the effects on users which occur if the latter have had a hand in deciding policy. Involving
staff is very easy. Not only can staff, through consultation, have a hand in planning a safety
policy for a particular institution, but also this involvement can be ongoing through science
staff meetings, where each your (or each term initially) one item on the agenda could be a
discussion of any serious accidents (or avoidable accidents) which have occurred in the
school or college laboratories. Involving students in a meaningful way is not so easy but one
possible way is to ask students, at the end of their first year of laboratory work to design a
safety poster for use the following year. The whole process can be done as a completion and
the best posters retained and displayed.

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USE OF POSTERS

Published posters, aimed at drawing people’s attention to unsafe practices, are frequently grossly
misused. If you are lucky enough to have a set of such posters, do not make the mistake of exhibiting
them all at once. Instead, show only two or three at any one time change them regularly, and also
change their sitting. It a poster remains fixed in one place too long, students (and staff, for that matter)
soon “look but do not see.

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PUBLICATIONS
Every science department should keep on hand, and in a clearly identified position, a comprehensive
list of current safety publications. A fairly comprehensive list of available material is given in
Appendix C, on pages 57-58. Schools and colleges can draw from that list those items which they feel
are most appropriate to their needs.

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TECHNIQUES AND HABITS

There are certain ways of working in a laboratory, which are used as a matter of course by experienced
staff, and are quite simply, the safest methods of carrying out everyday activities. It will surprise few
people to know that the most serious accidents in laboratories are those that affect the eyes. In the U.K.,
the Department of Education and Science (D.E.S.) has recently taken steps to limit hazards to the eyes
by re-issuing its Safety in Science Laboratories booklet (see Appendix C, page 57). All staff can help
themselves, school technicians, and students by adopting any of the following techniques which may be
new to them.

TRANSFERENCE OF LIQUIDS – I
Many teachers and technicians suffer accidents to their eyes not only because adequate eye (or face)
protection is not used but because staff overlook the fact that liquids being transferred from bulk
containers, such as Winchester Quart bottles, invariably splash. Also in the case of hygroscopic liquids
(such as concentrated sulphuric acid) a small drop left on the lip of a bottle soon absorbs moisture and
runs down the side of the bottle, making it slippery. Whenever staff are transferring liquids from bulk

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containers (something pupils should never be asked to do) eye protection should always be worn and
the neck of the container cleaned carefully afterwards.

REFERENCES

1. Karim, F. (Ed.). (2017). LABORATORY ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT AND

SAFETY METHODS (First ed., Vol. First). Islamabad, Pakistan: Allama Iqbal Open
University.
2. https://web.phys.ksu.edu/icpe/publications/teach2/sassi_vicentini.pdf

Assignment # 01