18 PRINCIPLES OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

lating the buoyant moment as the sum of products of coefficient of expansion of steel may influence the vol-
buoyancy from each medium, multiplied by the dis- ume of displacement of a steel vessel slightly up to
tance to the centroid of each volume. any waterline if the temperature of the steel differs
It is important to use the correct density of the water significantly from the standard.
in making displacement calculations. There is about a 2.4 Displacement vs. Weight Estimate. When pre-
21/2 percent difference between the density of fresh paring the design for a proposed ship, a careful esti-
water, as in the Great Lakes, and the salt water of mate of its total weight and position of its center of
the oceans. The water in some rivers and harbors and gravity should be made, as discussed in Chapter II,
off the mouth of estuaries is usually brackish, and its Section 2. The total weight thus estimated may be
density may vary considerably with the tides. When compared later with the total displacement obtained
draft readings are taken to determine displacement, from draft readings after the ship is afloat. If differ-
samples of the water should be taken at the same time ences occur, as is usually the case, the error is assumed
in order to determine its density. to be in the weight estimate. A check of the accuracy
In principle, since the density of water changes of the weight estimate for the vessel in its partially
slightly with temperature, a correction should be made completed condition is usually first obtainable imme-
to account for any differences from an agreed upon diately after launching. As previously noted, these
temperature standard. Furthermore, the temperature "weights" may be given in mass units.

Section 3
Coefficients of Form
3.1 General. In comparing ships' hull forms, dis necessarily at amidships), or according to another stan-
placements and dimensions, a number of coefficients dard. Most merchant ships have vertical sides amid-
are used in naval architecture. These coefficients are ships, with upper waterlines parallel to the centerline,
useful in power estimates and in expressing the full thereby removing possible ambiguity in B.
ness of a ship's overall form and those of the body Values of CB at design displacement may vary from
plan sections and waterlines. Table 2 lists coefficients about 0.36 for a fine high-speed vessel to about 0.92
and particulars for a number of typical vessels, which for a slow and full Great Lakes bulk carrier.
will be found helpful in understanding the significance (b) Midship Coefficient, CM. The midship section
of the coefficients defined below. coefficient, CM, sometimes called simply midship coef-
Section 3 and Table 2 define and discuss the Block ficient, at any draft is the ratio of the immersed area
Coefficient, Midship Coefficient, Waterplane Coefficient of the midship station to that of a rectangle of breadth
Vertical Prismatic Coefficient, and Volumetric Coeffi- equal to molded breadth and depth equal to the molded
cient. Table 2 also gives the general geometrical char- draft amidships.
acteristics of 19 types of ships, ranging from a large, Thus,
high-speed passenger liner capable of 33 knots sus-
tained sea speed to a naval dock ship 171 m (555 ft)
in length.
3.2 Definitions and Uses of Coefficients, (a) Block
Coefficient, CB. This is defined as the ratio of the Values of CM may range from about 0.75 to 0.995
volume of displacement of the molded form up to for normal ships, while for vessels of extreme form
any waterline to the volume of a rectangular prism with a slack bilge and a hollow garboard area (im-
with length, breadth and depth equal to the length, mediately outboard of the keel) amidships, CM might
breadth and mean draft of the ship, at that waterline. be as low as 0.62. In some cases vessels have been
Thus,

where L is length, B is breadth and T is mean molded

draft to the prevailing waterline. Practice varies re-
garding L and B. Some authorities take L as LBP,
some as LWL, and some as an effective length, as
discussed in Section 1.2. B may be taken as the molded
breadth at the design waterline and at amidships, the
maximum molded breadth at a selected waterline (not Fig. 12 Sectional area curves for different prismatic coefficients
 SHIP GEOMETRY 19

built with bulges or blisters below the design water- substituted for the vessel's length and area of midship
line. Assuming B is taken at the prevailing waterline, section. The vertical prismatic coefficient of fineness
then CM may be greater than unity on such vessels. is designated as CVP and written as follows:
(c) Prismatic Coefficient, CP. The prismatic coef
ficient, sometimes called longitudinal prismatic coef
ficient, or simply longitudinal coefficient, gives the ratio
between the volume of displacement V and a prism
whose length equals the length of the ship and whose (f) Volumetric Coefficient, Cv. This coefficient (or
cross section equals the midship section area. fatness ratio) is defined as the volume of displacement
Thus divided by the cube of one tenth of the vessel's length,
or

In essence, it is the dimensionless equivalent of dis-

placement-length ratio frequently
The term longitudinal coefficient was originated and
used by Adm. D. W. Taylor (1943) for the reason that used in
this coefficient is a measure of the longitudinal distri- the past, where is shipdisplacement in long tons in
bution of a ship's buoyancy. If two ships with equal salt water, and L is ship length in feet. These coeffi-
length and displacement have different prismatic coef- cients express the displacement of a vessel in terms
ficients, the one with the smaller value of CP will have of its length. Ships with low volumetric coefficients
the larger midship sectional area (B • T • CM) and might be said to be "thin", while those with a high
hence a larger concentration of the volume of displace- coefficient are "fat." Values of the volumetric coeffi-
ment amidships. This is clearly shown by Fig. 12, which cient range from about 1.0 for light, long ships like
compares the sectional area curves for two different destroyers, to 15 for short heavy ships like trawlers.
vessels. The ship with the smaller CP is also charac- (g) Ratios of Dimensions. The three principal di
terized by a protruding bulbous bow, which causes the mensions of the underwater body are sometimes re
swelling in the sectional area curve right at the bow, ferred to in ratio form. These are noted below, with
and its extension forward of Station 0. approximate ranges for each:
Prismatic coefficient is a frequently used parameter
in studies of speed and power (Chapter V). Usual range Ratio of length to breadth = L/B Approx. range
of values is from about 0.50 to about 0.90. A vessel 3.5 to 10.
with a low value of CP (or CB) is said to have a fine Ratio of length to draft =L/T Approx. range
hull form, while one with a high value of CP has a full 10 to 30.
hull form. Ratio of breadth to draft = B/T Approx. range
(d) Waterplane Coefficient, CWP. The waterplane 1.8 to 5.
coefficient is defined as the ratio between the area of
the waterplane AWP and the area of a circumscribing
rectangle. Thus, In view of the confusion which can arise when dif-
ferent definitions of dimensions—especially length—
are used by different designers in forming the above
coefficients and ratios, it is suggested that length be-
tween perpendiculars—on single-screw ships—and
molded breadth at the design waterline and at amid-
As with the other coefficients, the length and breadth ships be used in forming these ratios. The length on
are not always taken in a standard way. The coefficient the DWL is preferred for twin-screw ships (see Section
may be evaluated at any draft. The values of CWP at 1.2). The definitions adopted should always be speci-
the DWL range from about 0.65 to 0.95, depending fied.
upon type of ship, speed, and other factors. 3.3 Geometrical Modification to Lines. It fre-
(e) Vertical Prismatic Coefficient, CVP. This coef quently happens during the design of a ship that un-
ficient is the ratio of the volume of a vessel's displace expected requirements which were not foreseen
ment to the volume of a cylindrical solid with a depth necessitate a change in dimensions without changing
equal to the vessel's molded mean draft and with a the coefficients of form. Examples are an increase in
uniform horizontal cross section equal to the area of breadth to provide greater stability, a decrease in de-
the vessel's waterplane at that draft. This ratio is anal sign draft to allow entering a port with restricted
ogous to the prismatic or longitudinal coefficient, ex water depth, or an increase in length to reduce wave-
cept that the draft and area of waterplane have been making resistance. If this should happen after prelim-
inary lines are faired, it seemingly requires that a
Table 2—Geometrical Characteristics of Typical Ships
20
PRINCIPLES OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
 SHIP GEOMETRY 21

completely new set of lines be drawn and faired. How- Methods have been developed (Rawson & Tupper,
ever, by making systematic changes in the offsets, it 1983) to estimate modifications to the geometrical
may be possible to accomplish the desired transfor- quantities on the basis of partial derivatives. Inasmuch
mation without disturbing the fairness of the lines, as these methods assume infinitesimal changes in the
and without necessitating complete recalculation of the independent variables, L, B, etc., they may lead to
curves of form. inaccuracies in practical use. On the other hand, direct
For example, a simple respacing of body plan sta- calculations to find the transformed quantities are by
tions leads to an elongation or shortening of the lines their nature both exact and correct, and therefore they
at constant breadth and draft, with displacement are recommended.
changing in direct proportion to the station spacing; A traditional and practical way of shifting the LCB
the form coefficients CB, CP, CM, CWP and CVP will not of a new design without changing displacement is
change, and the fairness of lines will be preserved. Of known as the method of swinging stations. Fig. 13
the curves of form, changes will be experienced only shows the sectional area curve of a ship and the cen-
in those quantities which depend upon length and dis- troid of the area under the curve, the latter having
placement, including Cv. Correspondingly, an increase been found from both axes If the centroid
in waterline spacing leads to a proportionate change now be moved forward (or aft) a distance and a
in displacement with no change in CB, CP, CM, CWP and CVP. straight line be drawn through the shifted position and
Those curves of form which are dependent upon original base, it will establish an angle by which all
displacement and draft are the only ones which will points on the curve may be similarly shifted so that
change. Similar conclusions are reached insofar as the desired shift of LCB occurs. Any original body
changes in buttock spacing—that is, changes in half- plan station such as station 3 must then be shifted by
breadth—are concerned. distance This allows one to find the shift of any
The combined effect of two or more of such changes offset (height or halfbreadth) forward or aft directly
is multiplicative. For example, if the length of the from the transformed sectional area curve. Hence, the
vessel were to increase 10 percent by an increase in waterlines and profile views on the lines plan may be
station spacing, the breadth were to increase 5 percent redrawn without refairing being required. From the
by an increase in halfbreadths, and the draft were to redrawn waterlines and profile a new body plan, with
decrease 8 percent by a reduction in waterline spacing, equally spaced stations, may then be constructed.
the resulting volume of displacement would be ob- A somewhat similar transformation can be done to
tained from the initial volume of displacement, by, the separate ends of a sectional area curve with some
parallel middle body if one wishes to change the full-
ness of the design. Let us suppose the forebody of a
given sectional area curve has a prismatic coefficient
of CPF1 , but it is desired to increase this by respacing
A new body plan, waterlines plan and profile could stations to gain more displacement. The new forebody
be drawn directly, in which new longitudinal distances prismatic is to be CPF2. Thus
x2 are obtained from old longitudinal distances x1 by x2 Then it can be shown (Lackenby, 1950) that if x1 is
= 1.1 x1; new halfbreadths y2 are obtained from old the dimensionless distance from the left-hand axis of
halfbreadths y1 by y2 — 1.05 y1; etc. the curve, where x1 lies between 0 and 1.0, the shift
Changes in the more important curves of form, de- forward to give the required new prismatic coeffi-
fined in Section 5, would give, cient of the forebody is obtained from,

Wetted surface, which depends upon girthed dis-

tances, does not vary in a simple manner and would
have to be recomputed for the transformed design.
Fig. 13 Swinging stations method of modifying sectional area curve
22 PRINCIPLES OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

or

(5)
This procedure, which is known as the one-minus-
prismatic rule, is illustrated in Fig. 14 (Lackenby,
1950). Having modified the sectional area curve in the
indicated way, body plan stations must now be shifted
the indicated amount. Thus, the waterlines and profile
views in the entrance may be redrawn, with a new
body plan for the forebody to suit equally spaced sta-
tions. It should be noted, however, that having first Fig. 14 One-Minus-Prismatic method of modifying sectional area curve
transformed the forebody a similar transformation of
the afterbody in general leads to a combined longi- Soding, et al (1977) show an extensive transforma-
tudinal center of buoyancy of the entire ship which tion of an existing containership design to a design of
will differ from that of the basic ship before the widely different particulars following generally the
transformation. methods of Lackenby (1950).

Section 4
Integrating Rules and Methods
4.1 General. For a variety of reasons, it is nec small. Using methods of the calculus, we may derive
essary to be able to calculate areas, centroids, vol expressions for the area of the curvilinear figure and
umes—and other geometrical characteristics—of a for various properties of the area.
ship's form when floating at any prescribed waterline. (a) Areas. Let be the area of the elementary
Areas of the immersed cross sectional area at each rectangle NBPQ. Then and the entire area
body plan station and of each waterplane are of par under the curve, A, is given by the summation of all
ticular interest, not only for their own sake but be such elementary areas, or,
cause—as will be shown later—volumes can be
calculated from areas. Because of the symmetry of
the two sides of most vessels, most of these calcula Putting this in the form of a definite integral between
tions need be performed for only one side of the ship the limits 0 and H,
and then multiplied by 2.
Each of the half transverse sections, or half water- (6)
planes, form a closed curve, such as OABD—GH in
Fig. 15. The area enclosed may be found by integral (b) Moments and Centroids. Let be the
calculus, provided AB—G is a curve whose mathe- first moment of the area of the elementary rectangle
matical equation is known. Inasmuch as most ship NBPQ about axis OY. Then = =
curves are not mathematical curves, it is customary Hence,
to approximate the area by numerical integration. the moment of the entire area under the curve about
An important property of such a closed curve is its axis OY may be written as which may
centroid, which is located at a distance from the axis be expressed as the definite integral,
OY equal to where is the quotient of the first
moment of the area about axis OY divided by the area
itself. If the curve OABD—GH were to represent a (7)
thin lamina of uniform density and of constant thick-
ness, then the centroid would represent the location The distance of the centroid of the area from axis
of its center of mass (generally known as center of OY is given by the quotient of moment about OY
gravity). divided by area or,
4.2 Formulas For Area, Moment, Centroid,
Moment
of Intertia, and Gyradius. In Fig. 15 the area
enclosed (8)
by the x and y-axes and the curve ABDG may be
considered as comprised of many small rectangles such
as NBPQ, of dimensions y and where is very