Human Resource Development

Author

Dr. S. Riasudeen,
Asst. Professor,
Dept. of Management
studies, Pondicherry
University, Puducherry.

Edited by

Prof. P. Palanichamy,
Professor,
Dept. of Commerce,
Pondicherry University
Puducherry.

© All Rights Reserved

For Private Circulation Only

ISBN No. 978-93-81932-00-1

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT LESSON TITLE PAGE NO.

1.1 Human Resource Development 3

1.2 Human Resource Development Functions 14

I
1.3 Employee Behavior and Influences 25

1.4 Learning and HRD 44

2.1 Frame Work of HRD 67

2.2 Designing Effective HRD Programs 94

II
2.3 HRD Interventions And Creating HRD Program 108

2.4 Implementing HRD Programs 117

3.1 Evaluating the HRD Programme 143

III 3.2 Assessing the Impact of HRD Programs 164

3.3 Career Management and Development 183

4.1 Employee Counselling and Wellness Services 223

IV
4.2 Employee Wellness and Health Program 237

5.1 Work Force Reduction, Realignment and Retention 253

V 5.2 HR Performance and Benchmarking 266

5.3 Diversity of Workforce 283

 Notes

Human Resource Development

Objectives

➢ To understand the evolution and functions of HRD

➢ To identify the content, process and the outcomes of HRD
applications
➢ To evaluate and understand diversity issues and their impact on
organizations

Unit - I

Human Resource Development – Evolution of HRD - Relationship

with HRM - Human Resource Development Functions - Roles and
Competencies of HRD Professionals - Challenges to Organization and
HRD professionals
– Employee Behaviour – External and Internal Influence – Motivation as
Internal Influence – Learning and HRD – Learning Strategies and Styles

Unit - II

Frame work of Human Resource Development - HRD Processes -

Assessing HRD Needs - HRD Model - Designing Effective HRD Program
- HRD Interventions- Creating HRD Programs - Implementing HRD
programs
- Training Methods - Self Paced/Computer Based/ Company Sponsored
Training - On-the-Job and Off-the-Job - Brain Storming - Case Studies -
Role Plays - Simulations - T-Groups - Transactional Analysis.

Unit - III

Evaluating HRD programs - Models and Frame Work of Evaluation

- Assessing the Impact of HRD Programs - Human Resource Development
Applications - Fundamental Concepts of Socialization - Realistic Job
Review
- Career Management and Development.

1
Notes
Unit - IV

Management Development - Employee counseling and wellness

services – Counseling as an HRD Activity - Counseling Programs - Issues
in Employee Counseling - Employee Wellness and Health Promotion
Programs
- Organizational Strategies Based on Human Resources.

Unit - V

Work Force Reduction, Realignment and Retention - HR Performance

and Bench Marking - Impact of Globalization on HRD- Diversity of Work
Force - HRD programs for diverse employees - Expatriate & Repatriate
support and development.

References

Srinivas Kandula, STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMNET,

PHI Learning, 2001
Uday Kumar Haldar, HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, Oxford
University Press, 2009
Werner & Desimone, HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, Cengage
Learning, 2006
William E. Blank, HANDBOOK FOR DEVELOPING COMPETENCY
BASED TRAINING PROGRAMMES, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1982.

2
 Notes

UNIT - I

Unit Structure

Lesson 1.1 Human Resource Development

Lesson 1.2 Human Resource Development Functions
Lesson 1.3 Employee Behavior and Influences
Lesson 1.4 Learning and HRD

Lesson 1.1 - Human Resource Development

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson, you may be able to

➢ Define HRD
➢ Understand the Evolution of HRD
➢ Enunciate the Outcomes of HRD
➢ Identify the Relationship Between HRD and HRM

Introduction

Human Resource Development is a system of developing in a

continuous and planned way the competencies of individual employees,
dyadic groups (supervisor and subordinate), teams and the total
organisation to achieve the organisations goals. It maximize the
congruence between the individual and the organisational goals of
employees an develops an organisational culture in which superior-
subordinate relationships, teamwork and collaboration among various units
become strong and contribute to the professional well-being, motivation
and pride of employees.

3
Notes
Definition of HRD

Nadler (1970) defined HRD as a series of organized activities

conducted within a specified period of time and designed to produce
behavioral change. In a revised definition Nadler (1984) defined HRD
as organized learning experience in a definite time period to increase the
possibility of job performance and growth

Human resource development can be defined as a set of

systematic and planned activities designed by an organisation to provide
its members with the opportunities to learn necessary skills to meet
current and future job demands. Learning is at the core of all HRD
efforts. HRD activities should begin when an employee joins an
organisation and continue throughout his or her career, regardless of
whether that employee is an executive or a worker on an assembly line,
HRD programs must respond to job changes and integrate the long-
term plans and strategies of the organisation to ensure the efficient and
effective use of resources.

Important characteristics of HRD

➢ HRD is a system and HRD develops the competencies at all levels.

➢ HRD is continuous and planned development effort.
➢ The ultimate object of HRD is to contribute to the professional
well-being, motivation and pride of the employees.

Indicators of HRD at the organisational level

➢ HRD instruments/sub-systems/mechanisms, (e.g., HRD

departments, appraisal systems, job-rotation, training, and
development etc.)
➢ HRD processes, (e.g., role clarity, trust, openness, pro-action,
collaboration, etc.)
➢ HRD outcomes (E.g. more competent people, work, etc.)
➢ Organisational outcomes (improved performance, profits,
diversification, image productivity, etc.)

4
 Notes
HRD Outcomes

➢ People in the organisation become more competent because on the

one hand they become better aware of the skills required for job
performance and on the other hand there is greater clarity of norms
and standards.
➢ People understand their roles better because through increased
communication they become aware of the expectation which
other members of their role set have from them.
➢ People become more committed to their jobs because now there
is greater objectivity in the administration of rewards. They
come forward with better and more creative ideas.
➢ People develop greater trust and respect for each other. They become
more open and authentic in their behavior. Thus new values are
generated.
➢ There is greater collaboration and teamwork which produces
synergy effects.
➢ The people find themselves better equipped with problem-solving
capabilities. They become more prone to risk taking and proactive
in their orientation. There is greater readiness on their part to
accept changes.
➢ Lot of useful and objective data on employees are generated which
facilitates better human resource planning.
➢ The top management becomes more sensitive to employees
problems and human processes due to increased openness in
communication.

The Evolution of Human Resource Development

Although the term human resource development has been in

common use since the 1980s, the concept has in vogue longer than that.
To understand its modern definition, it is helpful to briefly recount the
history of this field.

Early Apprenticeship Training Programs

The origin of HRD can be traced to apprenticeship training programs

in the eighteenth century. During this time, small shops operated by skilled
artisan produced virtually all household goods, such as furniture,

5
Notes
clothing, and shoes. To meet a growing demand for their products, the
craft shop owners had to employ additional workers. Without vocational
or technical schools the shopkeepers had to educate them and train their
own workers. For little or no wages, these trainees, or apprentices, learned
the craft of their master, usually working in the shop for several years until
they became proficient in their trade. Not limited to the skilled trades,
the apprenticeship model was also followed in the training of physicians,
educators, and attorneys. Even as late as the 1920s, a person apprenticing
in a law office could practice law after passing a state-supervised exam.

Apprentices who mastered all the necessary skills were considered

“yeomen,” and could leave their master and establish their own craft
shops; however, most remained with their masters because they could not
afford to buy the tools and equipments needed to start their own craft
shops. To address a growing number of yeomen, master craftsmen formed
a network of private “franchises so they could regulate such things as
product quality, wages, hours, and apprentice testing procedures. These
craft guilds grew to become powerful political and social forces within
their communities, making it even more difficult for yeomen to
establish independent craft shops. By forming separate guilds called
“yeomanry,” the yeomen counterbalanced the powerful craft guilds and
created a collective voice in negotiating for higher wages and better
working conditions. Yeomanries were the forerunners of modern labor
unions.

Early Vocational Education Programs

In 1809, a man named DeWitt Clinton founded the first recognized

privately funded vocational school, also referred to as a manual school,
in New York City. The purpose of the manual school was to provide
occupational training to unskilled young people who were unemployed
or had criminal records. Manual schools grew in popularity, particularly
in the Midwestern states, because they were a public solution to a social
problem: what to do with “misdirected” youths. Regardless of their intent,
these early forms of occupational training established a prototype for
vocational education.

In 1917, United states Congress passed the Smith-Hughes Act,

which recognized the value of vocational education by granting funds
(initially $7 million annually) targeted for state programs in agricultural

6
 Notes
trades, home economics, industry, and teacher training. Today, vocational
instruction is an important part of each state’s public education system.
In fact, given the current concerns about a “skills gap” (especially for
technical skills), vocational education has become even more relevant.

Early Factory Schools

With the advent of the Industrial Revolution during the late 1800s,
machines began to replace the hand tools of the artisans. “Scientific
management” principles recognized the significant role of machines in
better and more efficient production systems. Specifically, semiskilled
workers using machines could produce more than the skilled workers in
small craft shops. This marked the beginning of factories as we know them
today.

Factories made it possible to increase production by using

machines and unskilled workers, but they also created a significant
demand for the engineers, machinists, and skilled mechanics needed to
design, build, and repair the machines. Fueled by the rapid increase in the
number of factories, the demand for skilled workers soon outstripped the
supply of vocational school graduates. To meet this demand, factories
created mechanical and machinist training programs, which were referred
to as “factory schools.” The first documented factory school was located at
Hoe and Company, a New York manufacturer of printing press in 1872.
This was soon followed by Westinghouse in 1888, General Electric and
Baldwin Locomotive in 1901, International Harvester in 1907, and then
Ford, Western Electric, Goodyear, and National Cash Register. Factory
school programs differed from early apprenticeship programs in that
they tended to be shorter in duration and had a narrow their focus on
the skills needed to do a particular job.

Early Training Programs For Semiskilled And Unskilled Workers

Although both apprenticeship programs and factory schools

provided training for skilled workers, very few companies during this
time offered training programs for unskilled or semiskilled workers.
This changed after two significant historical events. The first was the
introduction of the Model T by Henry Ford in 1913. The Model T was the
first car to be produced on a large scale using an assembly line, in
which

7
Notes
production required only the raining of semiskilled workers to perform
several tasks.

The new assembly lines cut production costs significantly and

Ford lowered its prices, making the Model T affordable to a much larger
segment of the public. With the increased demand for the Model T, Ford
had to design more assembly lines, and this provided more training
opportunities. Most of the other automobile manufacturers who entered
the market used assembly line processes, resulting in a proliferation of
semiskilled training programs.

Another significant historical event was the outbreak of World

War I. To meet the huge demand for military equipment, many factories
that produced non - military goods also had to retool their machinery
and retrain their workers, including the semi skilled. For instance, the
U.S. Shipping Board was responsible for coordinating the training of
shipbuilders to build warships. To facilitate the training process, Charles
Allen, director of training, instituted a four-step instructional method
referred to as “show, tell, do, check” for all the training programs offered
by the Shipping Board. This technique was later named as job
instruction training (JIT) and is still in use for training many workers on
the job.

The Human Relations Movement

One of the undesirable by-products of the factory system was

the frequent abuse of unskilled workers, including children, who were
often subjected to unhealthy working conditions, long hours, and low
pay. The appalling conditions spurred a national anti-factory campaign.
Led by Mary Parker Follett and Lillian Gilbreth, the campaign gave rise
to the “human relations” movement advocating more humane working
conditions. Among other things, the human relations movement provided
a more complex and realistic understanding of workers as people instead
of merely “cogs” in the wheel of a machine.

The human relations movement highlighted the importance of

human behavior on the job. This was also addressed by Chester Barnard,
the president of New Jersey Bell Telephone, in his influential 1938 book
the functions of the Executive. Barnard described the organisation as a
social structure integrating traditional management and behavioral science
applications.

8
 Notes
The movement continued up to 1940s, with World War II as
a backdrop. Abraham Maslow published his theory on human needs,
stating that people can be motivated by both economic and noneconomic
incentives. He proposed that human needs are arranged in terms of lesser
to greater potency (strength), and distinguished between lower order
(basic survival) and higher order (psychological) needs. Theories like
Maslow’s serve to reinforce the notion that the varied needs and desires of
workers can become important sources of motivation in the workplace.

The Establishment of the Training Profession

With the outbreak of World War II, the industrial sector was
once again asked to retool its factories to support the war effort. As was
with World War I, this initiative led to the establishment of new training
programs within larger organisations and unions. The federal government
established the Training With in Industry (TWI) Service to coordinate
training programs across defense-related industries. TWI also trained
company instructors to teach their programs at each plant. By the end
of the war, the TWI had trained over 23,000 instructors, awarding over 2
million certificates to supervisors from 16,000 plants, unions, and
services. Many defense-related companies established their own training
departments with the instructors trained by TWI. These departments
designed, organized, and coordinated training across the organisations. In
1942, the American Society for Training Directors (ASTD) was formed to
establish some standards within this emerging profession. At the time, the
requirements for full membership in ASTD included a college or
university degree plus two years of experience in training or a related
field, or five years of experience in training. A person working in a
training function or attending college was qualified for associate
membership.

Emergence of Human Resource Development

During the 1960s and 1970s, the professional trainers realized

that their role extended beyond the training in classrooms. The move
toward employee involvement in many organisations required trainers
to coach and counsel employees. Training and development (T&D)
competencies therefore expanded to include interpersonal skills such as
coaching, group process facilitation, and problem solving. This
additional emphasis on employee development inspired the ASTD to
rename itself as the American Society for Training and Development
(ASTD).

9
Notes
The 1980s saw even greater changes affecting the T&D field. At
several ASTD national conferences held in the late 1970s and early 1980s,
discussions centered on this rapidly expanding profession. As a result,
ASTD approved the term human resource development to encompass
this growth and change. Books by individuals such as Leonard and Zeace
Nadler appeared in late 1980s and early 1990s, and these helped to clarify
and define the HRD field. Further, in the 1990s and up to today, efforts
have been made to strengthen the strategic role of HRD, that is, how HRD
links to and supports the goals and objectives of the organisation.

There was also an emphasis within ASTD (and elsewhere) on

performance improvement as the particular goal of most training and HRD
efforts, and on viewing organisations as high performance work systems.
In 2004, ASTD had approximately 70,000 members in over 100 countries,
and remained the leading professional organisation for HRD professionals.
Recent emphasis on HRD (and within ASTD) will be discussed more in
the following sections. First it would be helpful to discuss the relationship
between human resource management and HRD.

Relationship between HRM and HRD

In some organisations, training is a stand-alone function or

department. In most organisations, however, training or human resource
development is part of a larger human resource management system.
Human resource management (HRM) can be defined as the effective
selection and utilization of employees to best achieve the goals and
strategies of the organisation, as well as the goals and needs of employees.
An important point of emphasis is that the responsibility of the HRM
is (or, at least, should be) shared by human resource specialists and line
management. Some organisations have a centralized HRM department
with highly specialized staff, but in other organisations, the HRM function
is decentralized and conducted throughout the organisation.

HRM can be divided into primary and secondary functions.

Primary functions are directly involved with obtaining, maintaining, and
developing employees. Secondary functions either provide support for
general management activities or are involved in determining or
changing the structure of the organisations. These functions are detailed
below.

10
 Notes
Primary HRM Functions

➢ Human resource planning activities are used to predict how

changes in management strategy will affect future human
resource needs. These activities are critically important with the
rapid changes in external market demands. HR planners must
continually chart the course of the organisation and its plans,
programs, and actions.

➢ Equal employment opportunity activities are intended to satisfy

both the legal and moral responsibilities of the organisations
through the prevention of discriminatory policies, procedures, and
practices. This includes decisions affecting hiring, training,
appraising, and compensating the employees.

➢ Staffing (recruitment and selection) activities are designed for the

timely identification of potential applicants for current and future
openings and for assessing and evaluating applicants in order to
make appropriate selection and placement decisions.

➢ Compensation and benefits administration is responsible for

establishing and maintaining an equitable internal wage structure, a
competitive benefits package, as well as incentives tied to
individual, team, or organisational performance.

➢ Employee (labor) relations activities include developing a

communication system through which employees can address
their problems and grievances. In a unionized organisation, labor
relations will include the development of working relations with
each labor union, as well as contract negotiations and
administration.

➢ Health, safety, and security activities seek to promote a safe and

healthy work environment. This can include actions such as safety
training, employee assistance programs, and health and welfare
programs.

➢ Human resource development activities are intended to ensure that

organisational members have the skills or competencies to meet
current and future job demands.

11
Notes
Secondary HRM Functions

Other functions that may be shared by HRM units include the following:

➢ Organisation/job design activities are concerned with

interdepartmental relations and the organisation and definition
of jobs.
➢ Performance management and performance appraisal system are
used for establishing and maintaining accountability throughout
the organisation.
➢ Research and information systems (including Human Resource
Information Systems) are necessary to make enlightened human
resource decisions.

Thus, the relationship between the HRM and HRD can be explained as:

➢ HRM is the large system in an organisation. HRD is a sub

system of the large system and HRD activities cannot be
performed in isolation
➢ HRM function is largely maintenance oriented and a function of
management. HRD is an ongoing process and it is development
oriented, aiming to enhance both personal and professional
growth
➢ HRM believes that an increase in the business results would lead
to increase in the performance or productivity. But HRD believes
that the improvement in the performance would be the result of the
continuous increase in its activities.
➢ HRM is more result oriented, whereas HRD is more process
oriented
➢ HRM focuses more on the improvement in performance and on
improvement in the capabilities of employees productivity
➢ HRM aims at creating a successful business result for the
organisation and HRD aims at creating learning organisation for
improving organisational capabilities and thereby successful
business results.

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 Notes
Summary

Human Resource Development is a system of developing in a

continuous and planned way the competencies of individual employees,
dyadic groups (supervisor and subordinate), teams and the total
organisation to achieve organisational goals. Human resource development
can be defined as a set of systematic and planned activities designed by
an organisation to provide its members with the opportunities to learn
necessary skills to meet current and future job demands. The evolution of
human resource development includes apprenticeship training programs,
vocational education programs, and factory schools, training programs for
semiskilled and unskilled workers, human relations movement. In most
organisations, however, training or human resource development is part
of a larger human resource management department.

****

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Notes

Lesson 1.2 - Human Resource Development Functions

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson, you may be able to

➢ Understand the Functions of HRD

➢ Enunciate Roles of HRD Professionals
➢ Enumerate the Competencies of HRD Professionals
➢ Identify the Challenges of HRD

Introduction

Human resource development can be a stand-alone function, or

it can be one of the primary functions within the HRM department. An
ASTD sponsored study by Pat McLagan sought to identify the HRD
roles and competencies needed for an effective HRD function. This ASTD
study documented a shift from the more traditional training and
development topics to a function that included career development and
organisation development topics to a function that included career
development and organisation development issues as well. The study
depicted the relationship between HRM and HRD functions as a “human
resource wheel.”

Functions of HRD

The original HR wheel from McLagan identified three primary HRD

functions: (1) training and development, (2) organisation development,
and (3) career development. These functions are discussed in greater
detail.

Training and Development (T&D)

Training and development (T&D) focus on changing or improving

the knowledge, skills and attitudes of individuals. Training typically
involves

14
 Notes
providing employees the knowledge and skills needed to do a particular
task or job, though attitude change may also be attempted. Developmental
activities, in contrast, have a longer-term focus on preparing for future
work responsibilities, by also increasing the capacities of employees to
perform their current jobs.

T&D activities begin when a new employee enters into the

organisation, usually in the form of induction training i.e. employee
orientation and skills training. Employee orientation is the process by
which new employees learn important organisational values and norms,
establish working relationships, and learn as to how to function within
their jobs. The HRD staff and the hiring supervisor generally share the
responsibility for designing the orientation process, conducting general
orientation sessions, and begin the initial skills training. Skills and
technical training programs then narrow down in scope to teach the new
employee a particular skill or area of knowledge.

Once the new employees have become proficient in their

jobs, HRD activities should focus more on developmental activities-
specifically, coaching and counseling. In the coaching process, individuals
are encouraged to accept responsibility for their actions, to address
any work-related problems, and to achieve and sustain superior levels
of performance. Coaching involves treating employees as partners in
achieving both personal and organisational goals. Counseling techniques
are used to help employees deal with personal problems that may interfere
with the achievement of these goals. Counseling programs may address
such issues as substance abuse, stress management, smoking cessation, or
fitness, nutrition and weight control.

HRD professionals are also responsible for coordinating

management training and development programs to ensure that managers
and supervisors have the knowledge and skills necessary to be effective
in their positions. These programs may include supervisory training, job
rotation, seminars, or college and university courses.

Organisation Development

Organisation development (OD) is defined as the process of

enhancing the effectiveness of an organisational capabilities and the

15
Notes
well-being of its members through planned interventions that apply
behavioral science concepts. OD emphasizes both macro and micro level
organisational changes; macro changes are intended to ultimately
improve the effectiveness of the organisation, whereas micro changes
are directed at individuals, small groups, and teams. For example, many
organisations have sought to improve organisational capabilities by
introducing employee involvement programs that require fundamental
changes in work expectations, reward systems, and reporting procedures.

The role of the HRD professionals involved in an OD intervention

is to function as a change agent. Facilitating change often requires
consulting with and advising line managers on strategies that can be used
to effect desired change. The HRD professional may also become directly
involved in carrying out the intervention strategy, such as facilitating a
meeting of the employees responsible for planning and implementing the
actual change process.

Career Development

Career development is “an ongoing process by which individual’s

progress through a series of stages, each of which is characterized by a
relatively unique set of issues, themes, and tasks.” Career developments
involve two distinct processes: career planning and career management.
Career planning involves activities performed by an individual, often
with the assistance of counselors and others, to assess his or her skills and
abilities in order to establish a realistic career plan. Career management
involves taking the necessary steps to achieve that plan, and generally
focuses more on what the organisation can do for foster employee career
development. There is a strong relationship between career development
and T&D activities. Career plans can be implemented, at least in part,
through an organisation’s training programs.

Role & Competencies of HRD Professionals

A HRD professional must perform a wide variety of functional

roles. A functional role is a specific set of tasks and expected outputs for
a particular job, for example, classroom trainer or instructional designer.
To carry out these various roles, HRD professionals need to possess many
different skills or competencies. In their “Mapping the Future” study,

16
 Notes
Bernthal et al. described three areas of “foundational” competencies
needed by all HRD professionals (see Figure). Foundational competencies
are described in three areas: personal, interpersonal, and business/
management. HRD professionals then make use of these foundational
competencies as they develop particular areas of expertise. These areas of
expertise are shown in the middle of the pyramid. Finally, the top of the
pyramid shows four key roles for HRD professionals: learning strategist,
business partner, project manager, and professional specialist.

Competency Model
Adopted from Werner & DeSimone (2007). Human Resource Development, 4e.
Thomson South-Western.

17
Notes
The learning strategist is involved in the high-level decision
making concerning how HRD initiatives will support the goals and
strategies of the organization.

The business partner works together with managers and others in

determining how the HRD initiative will be implemented and evaluated.
The project manager is involved in the day-to-day planning, funding,
and monitoring of HRD initiatives, whereas the professional specialist
adds his or her expertise in particular areas, for example, designing,
developing, delivering, and evaluating the HRD initiative. HRD managers
and executives are most likely to be involved with the learning strategist
and business partner roles. Next, we will briefly discuss the roles played
by two types of HRD professionals: the HRD executive/manager and the
HRD practitioner.

The HRD Executive/Manager

The HRD executive/manager has primary responsibility for all

HRD activities. This person must integrate the HRD programs with the
goals and strategies of the organization, and normally assumes a
leadership role in the executive development program, if exists. If the
organization has both the HRM and a HRD executive, the HRD executive
must work closely with the HRM executive as well. The HRD executive
often serves as an adviser to the chief executive officer and other
executives. The outputs of this role include long-range plans and
strategies, policies, and budget allocation schedules. One of the important
tasks of the HRD executive is to promote the value of HRD as a means for
ensuring that organizational members have the competencies to meet
current and future job demands.

If senior managers do not understand the value of HRD, it will

be difficult for the HRD executive to get their commitment to HRD efforts
and to justify the expenditure of funds during tough times. Historically,
during the times of financial difficulties, HRD programs have been the
major target of cost-cutting efforts. Unless the HRD executive
establishes a clear relationship between HRD expenditures and
organizational effectiveness (including profits), HRD programs will not
receive the support they need. But how does an HRD executive who
wants to offer a program on stress management, for example, compete
with a line manager who wants to purchase a new piece of equipment?
The answer is the executive must

18
 Notes
demonstrate the benefits the organization may receive by offering such a
program. Evaluation data are vital to the HRD executive when presenting
a case.

The role of the HRD executive has become more important and
visible as organizations make the necessary transition to a global
economy. The immediate challenge to HRD executives is to redefine a
new role for HRD during this period of change. According to Jack
Bowsher, former director of education for IBM, when HRD executives
“delve deeply into reengineering, quality improvement, and strategic
planning, they grasp the link between workforce learning and
performance on the one hand, and company performance and profitability
on the other.” The HRD executive is in an excellent position to establish
the credibility of HRD programs and processes as tools for managing in
today’s challenging business environment.

Other HRD Roles and Outputs for HRD Professionals

As organizations have adjusted to environmental challenges, the

roles played by HRD professionals have changed as well. According to
McLagan, HRD professionals perform at least nine distinct roles. These
roles as given below are more likely to correspond to the job titles or job
descriptions for professional positions in HRD.

The HR strategic advisor consults strategic decision makers on

HRD issues that directly affect the articulation of organization strategies
and performance goals. Outputs include HR strategic plans and strategic
planning education and training programs.

The HR systems designer and developer assist HR management

in the design and development of HR systems that affect organization
performance. Out puts include HR program designs, intervention
strategies, and implementation of HR programs.

The organization change agent advises management in the design

and implementation of change strategies used in transforming
organizations. The outputs include more efficient work teams, quality
management, intervention strategies, implementation, and change
reports.

19
Notes
The organization design consultant advises management on work
systems design and the efficient use of human resources. Outputs include
intervention strategies, alternative work designs, and implementation.

The learning program specialist (or instructional designer) identifies

needs of the learner, develops and designs appropriate learning programs,
and prepares materials and other learning aids. Outputs include program
objectives, lesson plans, and intervention strategies.

The instructor/facilitator presents materials and leads and

facilitates structured learning experiences. Outputs include the selection
of appropriate instructional methods and techniques and the actual HRD
program itself.

The individual development and career counselor assists individual

employees in assessing their competencies and goals in order to develop
a realistic career plan. Outputs include individual assessment sessions,
workshop facilitation, and career guidance.

The performance consultant (or coach) advises line management

on appropriate interventions designed to improve individual and group
performance. Outputs include intervention strategies, coaching design,
and implementation.

The researcher assesses HRD practices and programs using

appropriate statistical technique to determine their overall effectiveness
and communicates the results to the organization. Outputs include
research designs, research findings and recommendations, and reports.

Challenges to Organization and HRD Professionals

Organizations confront with many challenges as a new organisation

culture crop up. The recent ASTD-sponsored study (mentioned earlier)
presented eight emerging workplace trends that impact HRD. These trends
are given in Box 2.1 Along the same lines, Michael Hitt and his colleagues
have identified increasing globalization and the technological revolution
(in particular, the Internet) as two primary areas that enforce new
environment. They suggest a number of actions that organizations have
to address to the uncertainty and turbulence in the external environment.

20
 Notes
These actions include developing employee skills, effectively using
new technology, developing new organizational structures, and
building cultures that foster learning and innovation. These obviously
have a great deal to do with human resource development. We will add
to and build upon their list to present five challenges currently facing the
field of HRD. These challenges include (1) increasing workforce
diversity, (2) competing in a global economy, (3) eliminating the skills
gap, (4) meeting the need for lifelong individual learning, and (5)
facilitating organizational learning.

Increasing Workforce Diversity

The workforce has become increasingly diversified, and this trend

will continue. This includes along racial, ethnic, and gender lines, as well
as increasing percentage of the workforce over 55 of age.

Effectively managing diversity has been identified as one of five

distinguishing features of organizations that make it into Fortune
magazine’s list of “100 Best Companies.” Diversity issues have several
implications for HRD professionals. First, organizations need to address
racial, ethnic, and other types of diversity that may persist, as well as
cultural and language diversities.

Second, with the increasing numbers of women in the

workforce, organizations should continue to provide developmental
opportunities that will prepare women for advancement into the senior
ranks and provide safeguards against sexual harassment. Third, the
aging of the workforce highlights the importance of creating HRD
programs that recognize and address the learning-related needs of both
younger and older workers.

1. Drastic times, drastic measures: Uncertain economic conditions

force organizations to reconsider how can they grow and be
profitable.
2. Blurred lines –life or work? New organizational structures are
changing the nature of work for employees and HRD professionals.
3. Small and shrinking world: Global communication technology is
changing the way people connect and communicate. The globe has
become a small place.
4. New faces, new expectations: Diversity in the workplace continues
to rise.
21
Notes
5. Work is nimble, work be quick: The accelerated pace of change
requires more adaptable employees and nimbler organizations.
6. Security alert! Concerns about security and the ability of the
governments to provide protection have increased individual
anxiety levels worldwide.
7. Life and work in the e-lane: Technology, especially the Internet, is
transforming the way people work and live.
8. A higher ethical bar: Ethical lapses at the highest levels in large
organizations have shaken employees’ loyalty, trust, and sense of
security.

Competing in a Global Economy

As companies compete in a global economy, many are introducing

new technologies that require more educated and trained work force.
Thus, successful organizations must hire employees with the knowledge to
compete in an increasingly sophisticated market. Competing in the global
economy requires more than educating and training workers to meet new
challenges. In addition to retraining the workforce, successful companies
will institute quality improvement processes and introduce change efforts
(for example, high involvement programs). The workforce must learn
to be culturally sensitive to communicate and conduct business among
different cultures and in other countries. Developing managers to be
global leaders has been identified as a major challenge for organizations in
this decade. Additionally, employers are learning and implementing new
ways of managing their employees.

Eliminating the Skills Gap

As discussed, for companies to compete in a global economy, they

must hire educated workers. The skills gap poses serious consequences
for companies. Obviously, the business community has a vested interest
in educational reform. There are some encouraging signs like, the Los
Angeles public school system offering a guarantee to employers, stating
that if any high school graduate is found to be deficient in basic skills,
such as computation and writing, the school system will retain the
graduate at no cost to the employer.

22
 Notes
Other industrialized nations have made systematic changes to
bridge the skills gap. For example, Japan and Germany, two of the
United States’ biggest competitors, have educational systems that do a
better job of teaching students, the basic skills needed by most employers.
Among other things, Germany emphasizes vocational education and
school-to-work transition programs, so that school-age children can
begin apprenticeship programs as part of their formal education.

The Need for Lifelong Learning

Given the rapid changes that organizations faces, it is clear that

employees must continue the learning process throughout their career
to meet these challenges. This need for lifelong learning will require
organizations to make an ongoing investment in HRD. Lifelong learning
can mean different things to different employees. For example, for
semiskilled workers, it may involve more rudimentary skills training to
help them to build their competencies. To professional employees, this
learning may mean taking advantage of continuing education
opportunities. This is particularly important for certified professionals
who are required to complete a certain number of continuing education
courses to maintain their certification. To managers, lifelong learning
may include attending management seminars that address new
management approaches.

The challenge to HRD professionals is to provide a full range of

learning opportunities for all kinds of employees. One way that
organizations are meeting this challenge is by establishing multimedia
learning centers (sometimes on the organization’s intranet). These centers
offer a variety of instructional technologies that can be matched to each
trainee’s unique learning needs. Individual assessments can determine
deficiencies or gaps in employees’ performance capabilities, while also
pointing out their preferred learning styles. For instance, self-motivated
employees found to be deficient in arithmetic may be trained in an
interactive video program allowing them to set their own pace. A
multimedia learning center could also provide teleconferencing facilities
for technical and professional employees to participate in a seminar that
is being conducted thousands of miles away. What is clear, however, is
that whether they use multimedia or other training approaches,
organizations must find a way to provide lifelong learning opportunities to
all of their employees.

23
Notes
Facilitating Organizational Learning

Organization development scholars such as Chris Argyris,

Richard Beckhard, and Peter Senge, author of the book The Fifth
Discipline, have recognized that if organizations are going to make
fundamental changes, they must be able to learn, adapt, and change. A
survey of HRD executives stated that 94 percent of the respondents felt
that it is important for an organization to become a learning
organization.

Although such principles emphasize the organizational level,

they also have implications at the group and individual levels. One
challenge for HRD professionals is to facilitate the transition of
traditional training programs to emphasis on learning principles and
tactics, on how learning relates to performance, and more importantly, on
the relationship between learning and fundamental change. To do this,
HRD professionals must develop a solid understanding of learning
theory and be able to devise learning tools that enhance individual
development.

Summary

HRD functions are training and development, organization

development and career development. A HRD professional must perform
a wide variety of functions. A functional role is a specific set of tasks and
expected outputs for a particular job. To carry out these various roles,
HRD professionals need to possess many different skills or competencies.
Roles are more likely to correspond to the job titles or job descriptions
for professional positions in HRD. Increasing globalization and the
technological revolution are identified as two primary factors that make
for a new competitive advantage.

****

24
 Notes

Lesson 1.3 - Employee Behavior and Influences

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson, you may be able to

➢ Understand The Model Of Employee Behaviour

➢ Delineate The Internal Influence Of Employee Behaviour
➢ Enumerate The Factors Influencing Employee Behaviour
➢ Introduction
➢ Model Of Employee Behavior
➢ Motivation: An Internal Influence
➢ Other Internal Factors That Influence Employee Behavior
➢ Summary
➢ Review Questions
➢ Suggested Readings

Introduction

The overarching goal of Human Development interventions

is to assist employees and organizations in attaining their goals. HRD
professionals can help employees meet their personal goals by providing
programs and interventions that promote individual development, for
example, career development activities, mentoring, and formal training
and educational opportunities. With reference to the organizational goals,
the ultimate objective of most is to improve organizational performance.
HRD efforts are certainly not the only contributors to organizational
performance; however, they are increasingly recognized as a critical
component of organizational success. Further, a major focus of most
HRD interventions is an effort to change employee behavior. That is,
providing the employees with the skills and behavior they need to perform
successfully should lead to the greatest accomplishment of both employee
and organizational goals. Thus, the field of HRD has a strong focus on
employee behavior.

25
 Model of Employee Behavior

The model of employee behavior is shown in Figure which

presents the key factors affecting employee behavior and their
corresponding two main
relationships. It includes categories: (1) external forces- found
in the external environment (outside the organization), as well as in the
work environment (inside the organization), including leadership,
aspects of the organization, coworkers, and the outcomes of performance
and (2) internal forces- that is, those within the employee, including
motivation, attitudes, and KSAs (knowledge, skills and
Theabilities).
model assumes
that external and internal forces interact to produce a given behavior,
and that employee behavior has a direct relationship to the personal and
organizational outcomes that are obtained.
Factors in the external
environment
Economic Technologic Labor market Laws and Labor unions
conditions al regulations
changes conditions

Supervision
 Leadership
 Performanc
e
Expectation
s
Organization Organization
Organization Employee
 Task  Personal
 Reward  Motivation
performanc  Organizational
structure  Attitudes e
s  Knowledge  Organization
 Culture , skill, al citizenship
 Job design ability behaviour

Coworkers
 Norms
 Group
dynamic
s
 Teamwork
 Control
over
outcomes

Model of employee behavior

Adopted from Werner & DeSimone (2007). Human Resource Development, 4e.
Thomson South-Western.

The model is relatively simple for clarity and relevance to HRD.

Our goal is not to cover all possible causes for employee behavior, but
to
26
 Notes
include only those most critical to designing, delivering, and using
HRD programs.

External Influences on Employee Behavior

Factors in the External Environment

Influences from outside the organization, that is, the external

environment, clearly influence employee behavior. Factors from the
external environment include the general state of the economy the
various governmental laws, regulations, and regulatory agencies; what
other organizations or competitors are doing; plus the many global
and technological issues. Even organizations with strong internal work
environments and high levels of employee behaviors can be negatively
impacted by external factors such as a downturn in the economy or
a
sudden technological change.
External forces often lead organizations
to reduce their workforce. Downsizing refers to actions on the part of
organizations to reduce the overall size of their workforce, generally to
reduce costs.

Factors in the Work Environment

In addition to factors in the external environment, there are also

factors within the organization that influence employee behavior. There
are four sets operating within the work environment that affect employee
behavior: They are outcomes, the supervisor, characteristics of the
organization itself, and coworkers. Table 3.1 presents a list of these forces
and some of the issues found in each.

Outcomes: It occur as a result of a given employee behavior.

Outcomes can be personal or organizational in nature. Personal
outcomes are those that have value to the individual, such as pay,
recognition, and emotions. Organizational outcomes are things valued by
the organizations, such as teamwork, productivity, and product quality.
These outcomes are what the organization would ultimately hope to
achieve by the collective efforts of all organizational members. The
word value
should in this
not imply thosecontext
outcomes that are always positive or desirable.

Behavior can also result in outcomes out of the employees fear or dislike.
Embarrassment, disciplinary actions, transfers, loss of pay or privileges,
and ostracism are all possible unpleasant outcomes of employee

27
Notes

behavior.

28
Notes

From the Work Environment

Factor Issues
Outcomes Types
Effect on motivation
Leadership
Supervision Performance Expectations

Organization Reward structure

Organizational culture
Job design

Coworkers Norms
Group dynamics
Teamwork
Control of outcomes

Influences on employee behaviour

Supervision and Leadership:

The immediate supervisor plays an important role in the employee’s

work life, delegating tasks and responsibilities, setting expectations,
evaluating performance, and providing (or failing to provide) feedback,
rewards, and discipline. Even with the shift toward greater use of teams,
including more self-directed work teams, supervisors continue to play a
critical role in the success of most organizations. Although the influences
supervisors have on subordinates are numerous and sometimes complex,
two factors deserve comments: i.e. self-fulfilling prophecy and leadership.

Research on self-fulfilling prophecy, or the Pygmalion effect, has

shown how the expectations a supervisor establishes can influence a
subordinate’s behavior. Self-fulfilling prophecy states that expectations
of performance can become reality because people strive to behave
consistently with their perceptions of reality. If supervisors (or trainers)
expect good performance, their behavior may aid and encourage their
subordinates (or trainees) to raise their own self-expectations, increase
their efforts, and ultimately perform well. The opposite would happen if
supervisors or trainers expected poor performance.

28
 Notes
The supervisor’s approach to leadership can influence employee
performance as well. Leadership is the use of non coercive influence on
the followers to direct and coordinate the activities of a group toward
accomplishing a goal. There are almost as many definitions of leadership
and theories as there are leadership researchers. Two examples serve to
demonstrate the effect a supervisor’s leadership may have on employee
behavior.

First, Robert House argued in his path-goal theory that a leader’s

role is to identify goals and clarify the paths employees may have to take
to reach these goals.

Second, George Graen’s Leader-Member-Exchange (or LMX)

model of leadership (earlier called the vertical-dyad linkage approach)
observes that supervisors tend to develop different quality relationships with
different subordinates.

The organization:

The organization itself can influence employee behavior through

its reward system, culture, and job design. Reward structure focuses on

➢ The types of rewards an organization uses (monetary rewards

and non monetary rewards);
➢ How the rewards are distributed (e.g., equally to all, relative to
each individual’s contribution, or on the basis of need); and
➢ The criteria for reward distribution (results, behavior, or
nonperformance issues, such as seniority or tenure).

Further, rewards include not only tangible things, such as

financial bonuses and plaques, but also intangible things, such as
recognition and acceptance. Reward systems should ideally provide the
outcomes desired by members of the organization. Similar to our
previous discussion of “outcomes,” motivation theories can serve as
the foundation for organizational reward systems as well.

An organization’s culture can also have a strong effect on

individual behavior. Organizational culture is a set of values, beliefs,
patterns of behavior that are shared by organization members norms, and
and that

29
Notes
guide their behavior. Individuals who understand an organization’s
culture are better able to accurately interpret ways in new or unfamiliar
situations. Organizations that have a strong culture try to perpetuate
that culture by selecting individuals who already share the culture (as
Southwest Airlines does in its efforts to recruit people who have “fun,”
team-oriented attitude) and by socializing new members so that they
accept these norms and values.

Job design is the development and alteration of the components of a

job (such as the tasks one performs, and the scope of one’s responsibilities)
to improve productivity and the quality of the employee’s work life.
According to Hackman and Greg Oldham, when jobs contain factors
that satisfy employees’ personal growth needs or provide elements that
generate feelings of responsibility, meaningfulness, and knowledge of
results, employees will be more satisfied and more productive.

Job design has received considerable attention and research

support. The implication of job design for HRD is twofold. First, the
way an organization chooses to construct its job can affect an
employee’s behavior and attitudes. Second, to improve an employee’s
performance and attitudes, the focus can be on altering the job rather
than the employee.

Coworkers and Teams

Coworkers, and especially team members, can exert a strong

influence on an employee’s behavior in at least three ways. First,
coworkers’ control some of the outcomes valued by an employee, and
may use those outcomes to influence the employee’s behavior. For
example, if an employee behaves in a way coworkers’ value, they may
reward or reinforce that behavior by offering friendship and
recognition.

Similarly, coworkers may choose to react to behavior they

disapprove of by withholding desired outcomes or punishing the employee
through insults, ostracism, or threats. This is especially true in team
situations, where members hold each other accountable for behaviors and
performance, and where access to rewards is based on team performance.

Second, norms, or informal rules for appropriate behavior

established within work groups, can serve as guidelines for appropriate

30
 Notes
behavior, if employees choose to comply. Norms send a clear message
about what behavior is expected and may lead employees to behave in
ways that differ from typical patterns.

Third, because HRD programs are often administered to groups

of employees and employees must perform newly learned behaviors in
group settings, HRD professionals need to understand the effect of group
dynamics on behavior. Group dynamics influence the way an employee
may behave when interacting in a group.

Dynamics such as groupthink and social loafing show that the

performance of individuals within groups can differ from their behavior.
Groupthink occurs when group members are primarily concerned
with unanimity, making poor decisions by failing to realistically assess
alternatives. Social loafing is the tendency of the group members to reduce
their effort as the size of the group increases.

The implication of dynamics, such as social loafing and

groupthink is that, consideration must be given to how employees will
behave when they are in group settings. Care should be taken when
designing and implementing HRD programs to ensure that group
dynamics do not undermine the learning process.

Teamwork both amplifies the importance of coworkers’ influence

on individual behavior and brings other dynamics to the forefront.
Two teamwork issues are trust and cohesiveness. Trust has to do with
expectations that another person (or group of people) will act benevolently
toward you. There is a certain vulnerability or riskiness to trust, in that the
other party may not fulfill your expectations.

Yet, research has demonstrated strong links between interpersonal

trust and employee performance (including citizenship behaviors),
problem solving, and cooperation. Cohesiveness is the members’ sense of
togetherness and willingness to remain as part of the group. Given team
members’ level of interdependence, they must trust one another and feel a
sense of cohesiveness if the team is to work together and be successful.

31
Notes
Motivation: an Internal Influence

Motivation is one of the most basic elements of human behavior.

Motivational theories attempt to explain how the effort is generated and
channeled. Terry Mitchell synthesized many definitions of work motivation
as “the psychological processes that cause the arousal, direction, and
persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.”

This definition makes several important points. First, work

motivation pertains to the causes of voluntary behavior performed in
the workplace. Even in situations where employees feel they do not have
a choice, their behavior reflects their consideration of the perceived
consequences of their actions.

Second, motivation focuses on several processes affecting behavior:

➢ Energizing- The generation or mobilization of effort

➢ Direction- Applying effort to one behavior over another
➢ Persistence- Continuing to perform a behavior.

Third, motivation at work is usually seen as an individual

phenomenon, because all people have unique needs, desires, attitudes,
and goals. Most motivational theories recognize these differences, and
often include components that describe how they affect the motivational
process.

Understanding motivation is critical to HRD. The success of

many HRD programs and processes depends in part on as to whether the
individual is motivated to participate, learn, and use what is learned to
improve performance. A person choosing to attend a training class, but
failing to use the skills learned may be rooted in motivation.

Programs designed with an eye on motivation can explicitly address

these issues. In addition, motivation theories are useful in diagnosing the
causes of performance problems and often serve as the basis for designing
or choosing HRD programs to remedy those problems.

Theories of work motivation are abound. Although some theories

share common processes and constructs, there is no single, inclusive, and
widely accepted explanation of work motivation.

32
 Notes
In general, approaches to explaining motivation can be grouped
into the three categories as displayed in Table need-based, cognitive, and
non cognitive.

Approach Theories

Need based
Underlying needs, such as the needs Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory,
for safety or power, drive motivation ERG- Alderfer’s Existence,
Relatedness, and Growth Theory,
Herzberg’s two factor theory
Cognitive process
Motivation is a process controlled Expectancy Theory, Goal-setting
by consious thoughts, beliefs, and Theory, Social learning Theroy,
judgements Equity Theory
Noncognitive
Motivation is explained as an Reinforcement Theroy
interaction between behaviour and
external events without appealing
to internal thoughts or needs
Approaches for explaining motivation

Need-Based Theories of Motivation

Several motivational theories are rooted in the concept of needs.

Needs are deficiency states or imbalances, either physiological or
psychological, that energize and direct behavior. Henry Murray proposed
that humans experience a large number of needs, such as aggression,
affiliation, autonomy, and achievement.

Although needs are internal states, they can be influenced by

forces in the environment. Needs are said to drive behavior through the
combination of need activation and need satisfaction, a process depicted
in Figure. The need becomes activated when a person lacks something
necessary for maintaining his/her psychological or physiological
equilibrium.

The activated need is felt as tension. The tension may be a

recognizable feeling such as loneliness, or it may be more general, such as
anxiety. As the tension is unpleasant, the person, the person will look for
ways to reduce the tension by eliminating the deficiency that is causing it.

33
 Process Example

Layoff announced;
Need is activated
Need for security is
activated

Tension is created
Tension expressed in
fear and worry
Search for ways to
reduce tension
Improve
performance?
Politics?
Perform behaviors
Job search?
to reduce tension
Performance improvement
leads management to
remove employee’s name
Tension from layoff list
eliminated or No
significantly
Fear and worry
Yes significantly
reduced

Need satisfied; Need

no longer drives Need for security
behavior satisfied
The need activation and need satisfaction process

That person will continue to perform different behaviors until

one is found effectively reduces the tension and, thus, satisfies that need.
Only activated needs can be motivational, because only an activated need
produces the tension the person is motivated to eliminate. Once the need
is satisfied, the tension is released and the need is no longer felt.

Two widely cited need-based theories of motivation are: Maslow’s

need hierarchy theory and Alderfer’s ERG (existence, relatedness, and
growth) theory, suggest that needs are arranged in a hierarchy. They
propose that needs emerge in a part pattern, in which certain groups of
needs (those important to physical survival) emerge first and the moment
it is satisfied other needs (psychological and social needs like affiliation
and esteem) arises and affect behavior. Once the currently activated needs
are satisfied, the next group of needs are felt and thus will drive
behavior.

34
 Notes
Maslow’s need hierarchy lists five categories or levels: physiological, safety
and security, love, status and esteem, and self-actualization. Alderfer’s
ERG theory reduces Maslow’s hierarchy to three levels of needs: existence,
relatedness, and growth. More important, ERG theory proposes that if a
person becomes frustrated trying to satisfy the currently activated needs, this
frustration will cause previously satisfied needs to be activated and drive
behavior.

Another widely discussed need-based theory is Herzberg’s two-

factor theory. Herzberg claimed that people have two sets of basic needs,
one focusing on survival and another focusing on personal growth. He
argued that factors in the workplace that satisfy survival needs, or hygiene
factors cannot provide job satisfaction-they only prevent dissatisfaction.
Alternatively, motivating factors, which satisfy the growth needs, can
create feelings of job satisfaction, but their absence will not necessarily
lead to dissatisfaction. Following the two-factor theory, workers can be
motivated by ensuring that hygiene factors are present, thereby preventing
dissatisfaction, and then adding motivating factors to create job satisfaction.
This strategy is referred to as job enrichment.

Cognitive Process Theories of Motivation

Only a few would deny that our conscious thoughts play a role
in our behavior. A second group of motivation theories, called cognitive
process theories, recognizes this and argues that “motivation is based on a
person’s thoughts and beliefs” (or cognitions). These theories are sometimes
referred to as process theories because they attempt to explain the
sequence of thoughts and decisions that energize, direct, and control
behavior.

Cognitive motivation theories have direct relevance to HRD.

Most HRD programs include attempts to change employee behavior by
influencing their thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. Learning, which lies at
the heart of HRD, is often seen as a cognitive process.

Expectancy theory: Expectancy theory, first proposed by Victor

Wroom, assumes that “motivation is a conscious choice process”.
According to this theory, people choose to put their effort into activities
that they believe they can perform and that will produce desired outcomes.
Expectancy theory states that decisions about which activities to engage
in

35
Notes
are based on the combination of three sets of beliefs: expectancy, valance
and instrumentality.

Expectancy beliefs represent the individual’s judgment about

whether applying (or increasing) effort to a task will result in its successful
accomplishment. People with high expectancy believe that increased effort
will lead to better performance, but people with low expectancy do not
believe that their efforts, will affect their performance. Other things being
equal, people should engage in tasks for which they have high expectancy.

The second belief is the valance. Valence refers to the value a

person places on a particular outcome. Valence judgments range from
highly valued outcomes, through outcomes the person doesn’t care for.
Thirdly the Instrumentality is a judgment about the connection the
individual perceives between the task performance and possible
outcomes.

Expectancy theory states that employees will make these three

sets of judgments when deciding which behaviors and tasks to engage in.
specifically, the theory predicts that employees will choose to put effort
into behaviors they

➢ The preference for a particular outcome

➢ The belief that the particular act will lead to the desired out and
also the belief that those acts have always led to that outcome.

Viewing employee behavior from an expectancy theory

perspective, supervisors and HRD professionals can design and market
programs in ways to ensure that employees make the appropriate
judgments and as a result will be motivated to learn, and apply what
they have learned on the job. Some ways to do this include offering
incentives such as holding HRD programs in attractive locations, offering
paid time to attend the programs, designing a program that is interesting
and enjoyable, providing proof that the program is effective and making
success in the program is a prerequisite for promotion and other desirable
outcomes.

Goal-setting theory: A second cognitive theory of motivation is goal-

setting theory. Goal-setting theory states that performance goals play
a key role in motivation. The theory proposes that goals can mobilize
employee effort, direct their attention, increase their persistence, and

36
 Notes
affect the strategies they will use to accomplish a task. Goals influence
the individual’s intentions, which are defined as the “cognitive
representation of goals to which the person is committed.” This
commitment will continue to direct employee behavior until the goal is
achieved, or until a decision is made to change or reject the goal.

Goal setting is probably the best-supported theory of work

motivation, and one of the best-supported theories in management.
Researches show that goals that are specific, difficult, and accepted by
employees will lead to higher levels of performance than easy, vague
goals. This research also demonstrates that the presence of feedback
enhances the effectiveness of goal setting.

According to goal-setting theory, an employee who establishes

career goals is more likely to advance in his or her career, especially if the
goals are specific, challenges, and accompanied by regular feedback on
progress toward the goals. Career development programs should ensure
that employees set such goals and help employees and the organization
establish mechanisms for regular feedback.

Social learning theory: Albert Bandura developed a third cognitive

theory of motivation, which is social learning theory. Bandura
proposes that outcome and self-efficacy expectations affect individual
performance (Figure). An outcome expectation (similar to instrumentality
in expectancy theory) is a person’s belief that performing a given
behavior will lead to a given outcome.

Self-efficacy can be defined as “people’s judgments of their

capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain
designated types of performance. It is concerned not with the skills one
has but with judgments of what one can do with whatever skills one
possesses.” A shorthand way of looking at self-efficacy is that it is a
person’s judgment of the likelihood that he or she can successfully
perform a particular task or activity. Self-efficacy beliefs are malleable
and can be influenced by one’s accomplishments, observations of others,
verbal persuasion, and physiological states.

37
 The major prediction of the social learning theory is that a person’s self-
efficacy expectations will determine

1. Whether a behavior will be performed,

2. How much effort will be spent, and
3. How long the person will continue to perform the behavior.
Bandura argues that people who have high self-efficacy for a
particular task will focus their attention on the challenges of the situation
and use greater effort in mastering them, thus increasing the chances of
successful task performance.
Analysis of task
Performance
history Modelling
Persuasion Self- Behavioral Performance
Physiological/ Attribution of performance efficacy outcomes
emotional state history

Assessment of constraints Feedback

A model of the relationship between self-efficacy and performance

Adopted from Werner & DeSimone (2007). Human Resource Development, 4e. Thomson
South-Western.

Conversely, people who have low self-efficacy for a particular task

will focus their thoughts on obstacles and shortcomings, and as a result,
reduce their chances of successful task performance. Clearly, self-efficacy
has direct relevance for success in HRD. If employees have low-efficacy
expectations, it is unlikely that they will not put forth the same effort as
persons with high self-efficacy. Therefore, trainers and supervisors should
behave in ways that increase the trainees’ judgments of their self-efficacy.

Social learning theory also proposes that most behavior is learned

by observing others, a process called modeling. Research suggests that
through observing the behaviors and its consequences in others,
individuals can learn new behaviors and make decisions about whether to
perform a particular behavior themselves. Modeling has also been applied
to HRD

38
 Notes
with great success in a training approach known a behavior modeling.
In behavior modeling training, the trainee is told the components of the
behavior to be learned and shown a film or videotape in which an actor
(the model) demonstrates how to perform the behavior. Then the trainee
practices the behavior with feedback from others and finally receives
social reinforcement for performing the behavior.

Equity theory: A fourth cognitive theory of motivation, called equity

theory, suggests that motivation is strongly influenced by the desire to
be treated fairly. As a theory of work motivation, it is based on three
assumptions:

1. People develop beliefs about what is fair for them to receive in

exchange for the contributions that they make to the organization.
2. People determine fairness by comparing their relevant returns
and contributions to those of others.
3. People who believe they have been treated unfairly (called
inequity) will experience tension, and they will be motivated to
find ways to reduce it.

Equity theory predicts that employees who believe they are being treated
fairly (a judgment called equity) will be motivated to continue their
performance and behavior patterns. There are at least five ways in which
individuals reduce their feelings inequity whenever they have such feelings

1. Cognitively distorting views of contributions or rewards

2. Influencing the perceived rival to change his or her contributions
or rewards (e.g., convincing the person to be less productive)
3. Changing one’s own contributions or rewards (either working
harder or contributing less)
4. Comparing oneself to a different person.
5. Leaving the situation (requesting for a transfer or quitting)

Reinforcement Theory: A Non Cognitive Theory of Motivation

Reinforcement theory is rooted in behavioralism, which attempts

to explain behavior without referring to unobservable internal forces
such

39
Notes
a needs or thoughts. Behaviouralists seek to explain behavior by focusing
only on things that can be directly observed. In short, reinforcement theory
states that behavior is a function of its consequences. This is based on the
law of effect, which states that behavior that is followed by a pleasurable
consequence will occur more frequently (a process called reinforcement),
and behaviors that is followed by an aversive consequence will occur less
frequently. According to reinforcement theory, a manager or trainer can
control an employee’s behavior by controlling the consequences that follow
the employee’s behavior.

Reinforcement theory can be applied using a set of techniques

known as behavior modification. Behavior modification suggests four
choices for controlling an employee’s behavior:

1. Positive reinforcement refers to increasing the frequency of a

behavior by following the behavior with a pleasurable
consequence.
2. Negative reinforcement increases the frequency of a behavior by
removing something aversive after the behavior is performed.
3. Extinction seeks to decrease the frequency of a behavior by
removing the consequence that is reinforcing it.
4. Punishment seeks to decrease the frequency of a behavior by
introducing an aversive consequence immediately after the
behavior.

In addition to the type of consequences that follows a behavior,

the way that consequences are paired with behaviors, called a schedule of
reinforcement, is an important part of how behavior modification can be
effectively applied.

Reinforcement theory has received strong support in a large body

of research and has helped increase the understanding of work-related
behavior. Reinforcement theory has also had a strong influence on HRD.
Methods of instruction, such as programmed instruction and some
approaches to computer-based training, draw heavily from reinforcement
theory. Trainers and managers can also motivate employees to learn and
use what they have learned back on the job by using behavior modification
techniques.

40
 Notes
Other Internal Factors that Influence Employee Behavior

Internal factors, in addition to motivation, that influence employee

behavior include attitudes and knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs). Each
of these factors is discussed as follows:

Attitudes

Attitudes add to our understanding of employee behavior by

showing another way that thoughts can influence behavior. Many HRD
interventions, including training evaluation, management development,
and organizational development, either focus on modifying employee
attitudes or use attitudes as a central component. For example, one
common way HRD programs are evaluated is by means of assessing
employee attitudes toward the program and its content.

What is an attitude? An attitude “represents a person’s general

feeling of favorableness or un-favorableness toward some stimulus object.”
Attitudes are always held with respect to a particular object-whether the
object is a person, place, event, or idea- and indicate one’s feelings or
affect toward that object. Attitudes also tend to be stable over time and are
difficult to change.

Of particular interest to HRD is the relationship between attitudes

and behavior. Although common sense tells that attitudes often cause
behavior, the reality is more complex i.e. whether the attitudes directly
affect our behavior, without any other intervening factors, or behavior is
consistent with those attitudes. Unfortunately, this is not always the case.
Attitudes can be used to predict behavior, but the predictions are at best only
moderately accurate. Researchers attempting to prove a direct relationship
between attitudes and behavior have experienced considerable
frustration.

Research conducted over the past thirty years suggests that the
relationship between attitudes and behavior is not simple or direct. One
widely discussed model that explains this relationship is the behavioral
intentions model. This model states that it is the combination of
attitudes with perceived social pressure to behave in a given way (called
subjective norms) that influences an individual’s intentions. These
intentions, in turn, more directly influence behavior. When attitudes
and subjective

41
Notes
norms conflict with each other the stronger of the two plays the
dominant role in determining what the individual’s intentions will be.
According to the behavioral intentions model, then, attitudes appear to
affect behavior only to the extent that they influence one’s intentions.

Relying solely on measuring attitudes to determine whether

employees will apply what they have learned in a HRD program will likely
produce only moderately accurate results. The behavioral intentions model
suggests that it may be more useful to measure trainee’s intentions to use
what they have learned, because intentions incorporate attitudes and more
directly influence behavior. Although this is no substitute for assessing
an actual change in job behavior, the behavioral intentions model implies
that intentions, rather than attitudes alone, may be a better indicator of
program effectiveness.

Attitudes are an important factor in HRD programs. Ray Noe

proposed that two types of attitudes, reaction to skills assessment feedback
and career/job attitudes can have a direct effect on the motivation to learn.
An empirical test of the model suggested that these factors do in influence
motivation and learning in a training program.

Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities (KSA)

The final internal factor is the employee’s knowledge, skills, and

abilities (KSAs). It is clear that KSAs have a significant impact on
employee performance. All other things being equal, if employees lack the
KSAs to perform a task, they may not perform well. Almost all HRD
programs focus on improving or renewing the KSAs of employees.

Despite the ubiquitous nature of KSAs, these factors can be difficult

to define with precision. Definitions differ according to the person
defining them. Edwin Fleishman, a leading researcher of human abilities,
defines abilities as general capacities related to the performance of a set
of tasks. Abilities developed over time through the interaction of heredity
and experience, and are long-lasting. Skills are similar to abilities, but
differ in that they combine abilities with capabilities that are developed
as a result of training and experience. Skills are often categorized as
psychomotor activities, whereas abilities tend to be more cognitive, and
skills are typically measured in terms of the ease and precision evident in
the performance of some task.

42
 Notes
Finally, knowledge is defined as an understanding of factors or
principles related to a particular subject. Researchers have developed
taxonomies to describe the abilities needed to perform particular tasks.
Taxonomies help HRD professionals to select and assign employees for
training, choose appropriate learning strategies for individuals with different
skill levels, and specify training needs and content when designing training
programs. It should be clear from the preceding discussion that motivation,
attitudes, and ability are critical to explaining employee behavior and to
understand and applying for HRD. It is the combination of these
influences with the external influences that affect employee behavior.

Summary

HRD professionals can help employees meet their personal

goals by providing programs and interventions that promote individual
development. Model of employee behavior includes two main categories:
external forces and internal forces. External environment influences
employee behavior. The immediate supervisor plays an important role
in the employee’s work life, delegating tasks and responsibilities, setting
expectations, evaluating performance, and providing feedback, rewards,
and discipline. Motivation is one of the most basic elements of human
behavior. Internal factors, in addition to motivation, that influence
employee behavior include attitudes and knowledge, skills, and abilities.

****

43
Notes

Lesson 1.4 - Learning and HRD

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson, you may be able to

➢ Define Learning
➢ Understand the Basic Principles of Learning
➢ Understand the Training Design
➢ Enunciate Individual Differences in the Learning Process
➢ Identify Learning Strategies and Styles

Learning and Instruction

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior,

cognition, or affect that occurs as a result of one’s interaction with the
environment. Several aspects of this definition are important. First, the focus
of learning is change, either by acquiring something new (skill in
conducting meetings) or modifying something that already exists. Second,
the change must be comparatively long lasting before we can say learning
has really occurred. Third, the focus of learning can include behavior,
cognitions, affect, or any combination of the three. Learning outcomes can
be skill based (climbing a utility pole), cognitive (procedures for applying
for a research grant), or effective (becoming more safety conscious). Finally,
learning results from an individual’s interaction with the environment.
Learning does not include behavior changes attributable to physical
maturation or a temporary condition (such as fatigue or drugs).

The Basic Learning Principles

The cornerstone of learning theory is the concept of association.

Association is the process by which two cognitions become paired together,
so that thinking about one evokes thoughts about the other. There are

44
 Notes
three principles that influence the learning of associations. They are:

1. Contiguity Objects that are experienced together tend to become

associated with each other. For example, learning vocabulary in a
foreign language usually involves pairing a new word with an
object or picture of an object.
2. The Law of Effect The law of effect states that a behavior followed
by a pleasurable consequence is likely to be repeated. For example,
when a superior compliments a police officer who values
recognition for the way he or she has handled a difficult arrest, the
officer associates the compliment with the arrest method and he/she
is likely using that method to make difficult arrests in the future.
3. Practice Repeating the events in an association will increase the
strength of the association. For example, the more times someone
rappels down a cliff or a wall, the more adept he or she becomes
at rappelling. But practice alone is not enough to guarantee a
strong association. The effect of practice is strengthened with
reinforcement, such as receiving a pleasurable consequence.

Limits of Learning Principles in Improving Training Design

Unfortunately, when it comes to improving training design, these

general principles are not as helpful as one might expect. Many of the
researches that demonstrated these principles were conducted in tightly
controlled laboratory settings using artificial tasks, which limit the
applicability of the findings to many “real-world” training settings.

Robert Gagne convincingly demonstrated the limited benefit of

learning principles to increase training effectiveness in landmark
article “Military Training and Principles of Learning.” Gagne showed that
practice and reinforcement failed to improve performance of three
representative military tasks: gunnery (a motor skill), turning on a radar
set (a procedural task), and diagnosing malfunctions in complex
electronic equipment (troubleshooting). Instead of relying on the
prevailing learning principles, Gagne argued that training could be
improved by using three principles:

1. Task Analysis Any task can be analyzed into a set of distinct

component tasks.

45
Notes
2. Component Task Achievement Each component task must be fully
achieved before the entire task performed correctly.
3. Task Sequencing The learning situation should be arranged so
that each of the component tasks is learned in the appropriate
order before the total task is attempted.

Maximising Learning

Definition of learning makes it clear that people acquire and

develop skills, knowledge, and change behavior as a result of an
interaction between forces within the learner and in the environment.

Trainee characteristics

A learner or trainee’s personal characteristics will influence how

he or she learns new tasks and new information. There are three such
characteristics and they are trainability, personality, and attitudes. We
discuss these three primary areas as we emphasize ways to maximize
learning, namely trainee characteristics, training design, and the transfer
of training.

Trainability focuses on the trainee’s readiness to learn and

combines the trainee’s level of ability and motivation with his or her
perceptions of the work environment. A simple formula to convey this
is:

Trainability= f (motivation x Ability x perceptions of the Work

Environment)

This formula illustrates that a trainee must have both the

motivation and the ability to learn; if either of this is lacking, learning
will not occur. The equation also shows that a very high level of one
cannot completely overcome a very low level of the other. In addition, if
employees perceive little support in the work environment for learning
new knowledge or skills, they will be less likely to learn and use them.
Thus, it is important to note that trainability is not just a function of the
individual trainee, but also of the work environment in which the
learner will be asked to use what was presented in the HRD
intervention.

46
 Notes
Trainability is extremely important in HRD. Placing employees
in the programs in which they are not motivated to attend or are not
prepared to do well will waste the time and resources. Trainees with less
ability take longer time to learn, which can increase the length of the
training period and the expenses involved in conducting training
programmes. In fact, it is possible that such trainees may never learn to
the levels desired by the organization.

Over the past several years, researchers have studied the notion
pertaining motivation. The findings of recent research show that:

➢ The way trainees perceive training affects the levels of learning,

perceptions of efficacy, anxiety, and perceptions of fairness.
➢ The way in which individuals view their own ability (as a fixed
entity or an acquirable skill) affects anxiety level, efficacy
perceptions and the learning of declarative (factual) knowledge.
➢ Experiencing negative events on the job prior to training can
increase trainees’ motivation to learn and their performance in
training.
➢ A number of other factors have been found to increase the
individuals’ motivation to participate in and learn from training.
Factors identified include involvement in decisions about
training, perceptions that participation in training will lead to
benefits (e.g., increased job performance and career advancement
opportunities), and perceptions of support, or lack of obstacles
to use what has been learned in the work environment.
➢ Characteristics of the organization (e.g., policies and guidelines
regarding training participation) have been linked to participation
in developmental activities.

These findings are useful and suggest ways in which

organizations can increase the motivation to participate in and learn from
HRD interventions.

Trainability testing is one approach that can be used to ensure

that trainees have both the motivation and relevant ability to learn. This
approach focuses on measuring the motivation and relevant abilities of
candidates for training and selecting the candidates for training only those
who show a sufficient level of trainability.

47
Notes
Another approach for trainee testing is to allow candidates to
complete part of the training program and use their performance on that
section as a predictor of how well they will perform during the remainder
of training.

Personality and attitudes: Although not explicitly mentioned in

the definition of trainability, a trainee’s personality and attitudes can also
have an effect on learning. Ray Not suggested that an employee’s attitudes
toward career exploration and job involvement impact learning and its
applications to the job. Other researches have shown that job involvement,
expectations for training, and trainee confidence are all related to success
in training.

Personality is the stable set of personal characteristics that

account for consistent patterns of behavior. Personality traits that are
related to employee learning include locus of control, the need for
achievement, activity, independence, and sociability. Murray Barrick and
Michael Mount reported the results of a meta-analysis showing that two
personality dimensions-extraversion and openness to experience-are valid
predictions of success in training. Joseph Martocchio and Jane Webster
found that an individual’s level of cognitive playfulness (which is in part
the spontaneity, imagination, and exploratory approach a person brings to
task performance and learning) affects learning, mood, and satisfaction
with training. They also found that individuals with low levels of
cognitive playfulness were affected more by positive feedback than
individuals with higher levels of cognitive playfulness.

To summarize, assessing employee’s relevant abilities, motivation,

and personality prior to HRD programs can be important in maximizing
the chances that learning will occur. This approach to maximizing learning
fits with Glaser’s notion that knowing the initial state of the learner is an
important part of effective training.

Training Design

Training design involves adapting the learning environment to

maximize learning. Training design issues include (1) the conditions of
practice that influence learning and (2) the factors that impact retention
of what is learned.

48
 Notes
Conditions of practice: At least six issues have been studied that
relate to practice and learning. They include (a) active practice, (b) massed
versus spaced practice sessions, (c) whole versus part learning, (d) over-
learning, (e) knowledge of results, and (f) task sequencing.

Active practice suggests that learners should be given an

opportunity to repeatedly perform the task or use the knowledge learned.

Massed versus spaced practice sessions concern whether to

conduct the training in one session or to divide it into segments separated
by some period of time. In general, information and skills can be learned
either way, but spaced practice sessions with a reasonable rest period
between them lead to better performance and longer retention of what
is learned than a massed practice session. For difficult, complex tasks,
an initial massed session followed by spaced practice sessions has led to
improved performance.

Whole versus part learning concerns the size of the unit to be

learned, that is, should trainees practice an entire task (or study certain
material as a whole), or should the task or material be learned in separate
parts or chunks? Gagne suggested that procedural material (material
organized into series of steps) should be analyzed and divided into
subunits, with the trainees mastering each subunit before performing the
entire procedure.

The answer to which method is most effective appears to depend

on the nature of the task to be learned. When the subtasks are relatively
easy to perform and are well organized, the whole value method is
superior. Otherwise, the part methods have seen to be more effective.

Over-learning is defined as practice beyond the point at which the

material or task is mastered.

The rationale for over-learning is three fold. First, over-learning

may improve performance in a variety of different situations. By developing
stronger associations between the parts of a task or unit of knowledge, it
is less likely that situational changes will interfere with learning. Second,
over-learning provides additional practice in using the skill or knowledge
when there is little opportunity for doing so in the job setting. Third, over-

49
Notes
learning should make what is learned more “automatic,” thereby improving
performance in stressful or emergency situations.

Research indicates that over-learning, in fact, increases the

retention of what is learned. Quite obviously, its major drawback is that
over-learning can increase the time and expense of training.

Knowledge of results, or feedback, provides objective information

regarding the adequacy of one’s performance, and it can come from
observers, the performer, or the task itself. A sizable body of research suggests
that feedback enhances learning and retention. Trainers and educators
generally agree that feedback improves learning. Researchers suggest
that feedback is both informational- when it helps the learners to
determine that they have performed something correctly, and
motivational- when it is valued by the learner or indicates valued
outcomes. The effectiveness of feedback also seems to depend on how it
is provided, especially in regard to timing and specificity. To ensure that
the learner clearly understands the relationship between the feedback
and the behavior, it should be provided as soon as possible after the
behavior occurs. Further, the attributions the individuals make about
feedback can affect efficacy beliefs, with feedback attributed to factors
within the trainee’s control increasing perceptions of efficacy.

Finally, task sequencing suggests that tasks and knowledge can be

learned more effectively if what is to be learned is divided into subtasks
that are arranged and taught in an appropriate sequence. Gagne and
colleagues provide guidelines for how task sequencing can help in learning
intellectual skills, motor skills, and attitudes.

To summarize, research on the various conditions of practice offers

some practical guidelines for designing more effective HRD interventions.
In general, over-learning, feedback, and practice sessions spaced over all
tend to increase learning.

Retention of learning

The goal of training goes beyond ensuring that the trainee learns the
task or material being presented. It is usually important that newly learned
material is retained. Three additional issues that influence retention

50
 Notes
are the meaningfulness of material, the degree of original learning, and
interference.

The meaningfulness of material is the extent to which it is rich

in associations for the individual learner. For example, a new way of
soldering circuits might be quite significant to an electronics enthusiast,
yet absolutely the meaningless to a professional athlete or a hair stylist.

To put it simply, the more the meaningful factual material is, the
easier it is to learn and remember. Thus, training should be designed to be
more meaningful to employees to encourage learning retention. Overviews
of topics at the beginning of training sessions can help trainees understand
the course content as a whole. Using examples and terminology familiar
to trainees and mnemonic devices (such as creating a word out of the first
letters of items in a list) also increase meaningfulness by providing more
associations.

The degree of original learning also influences learning retention.

The more effectively the information is initially learned, the more likely
it will be retained. Though this is not surprising, it does reinforce the
research on over-learning, massed versus spaced practice, and whole
versus part learning as ways to ensure initial learning.

Interference can also affect the extent to which learning is retained.

Interference can be of two types. First, material or skills learned before the
training session can inhibit recall of the newly learned material. Second,
information learned after a training session may also interfere with
retention. For example, a fighter trained to operate the power ladder on
the city’s older fire trucks may have difficulty in retaining that knowledge
if a different sequence of steps are to be learned for the same operation on
a newer fire truck.

Both types of inferences are similar in that the learner is required

to make different responses to the same situation. The more responses
one learns, the greater is the chances for inference in learning to occur.

Transfer of training is a recurring theme in HRD literature. A main

goal of HRD is to ensure that employees perform their jobs effectively. In
addition to learning and retaining new material, employees must also use

51
Notes
it on the job to improve performance. The transfer of training to the job
situation is critically important to the success of HRD efforts.

Transfer can take different forms. Positive transfer occurs when job
performance is improved as a result of training. Zero transfer occurs when
there is no change in job performance as a result of training. Negative
transfer occurs when job performance is worse as a result of training.
Negative transfer may be unlikely, but the detrimental effect inference
can have on learning and performance. Tennis players, for example may
find that their tennis shots become less accurate after learning how to play
racquetball.

Another distinction that should be made is between “near transfer”

and “far transfer.” Near transfer has to do with the ability to directly apply
on the job what has been learned in training, with little adjustment or
modification, whereas far transfer has to do with expanding upon or using
what was learned in training in new or creative ways. It obviously depends
upon the context whether an organization is more concerned with near
transfer, far transfer, or both, though in most cases, far transfer is the best
indicator that training has been successful.

Individual Differences in the Learning Process

As discussed earlier, trainee characteristics play a role in the

learning, retention, and transfer of skills and factual material. The three
additional factors that account for differences in individual learning
processes are different rates of trainee progress, interactions between
attributes and treatment, and the training of adults and older workers.

Rate Of Progress

People learn at different rates. Some people progress more quickly

than others, and individual learners may even progress at different rates
during the same training program. For example, a new employee learning
how to operate a punch press may show little progress at first, making
many mistakes, and then suddenly master the procedure and quickly
progress to competence.

52
 A useful way to show rates of learning is by drawing learning
curves. A learning curve is plotted on a graph with learning proficiency
indicated vertically on the y-axis and elapsed time indicated horizontally
on the x-axis. Five types of learning curves are shown in Figure.

Types of learning curves

Adopted from Werner & DeSimone (2007). Human Resource Development, 4e. Thomson
South-Western.

The learning curve for Trainee 1 shows a fast rate of learning,

taking little time to achieve high performance. The curve for Trainee 2
shows a slower rate of learning, with training ending at a lower level of
final performance than for Trainee 1. Trainee 3 reaches a moderate level
of performance quickly but then makes little further progress despite
continued practice. This contrasts to the progress of Trainee 4, who learns
slowly at first but steadily improves to a high level of performance.
Finally, the S-shaped learning curve for Trainee 5 shows rapid progress at
first,

53
Notes
followed by a period of little progress during the middle of training, and
then rapid progress in the latter part of training.

Learning curves can provide useful feedback to both trainers

and trainee. For instance, if a trainer notices a plateau (the flat part of
a curve indicating no progress is being made), a different approach,
encouragement, or some other intervention may be needed for the
trainee to improve. When implementing a new HRD program, plotting
learning curves can be used as a baseline for communicating
expectations of progress to future trainees and trainers, and as aids in
scheduling and planning future sessions.

Attribute-Treatment Interaction (ATI)

Interest in the effect of trainee intelligence on learning has led

some researchers to hypothesize that the effectiveness of training
methods may be influenced by various trainee characteristics. Stated
simply, some methods of training may be better suited to certain types of
people. Thus, research on attribute-treatment interactions (ATI) has
sought to develop training systems that can be adapted to differences
between individual learners.

Two variables that have received considerable attention in ATI

research are cognitive ability and motivation. The expectancy theory of
motivation suggests that when motivation is low, both high-low-ability
individuals will perform at low levels, but when motivation is high,
differences in performance can be expected between high-and low-ability
individuals. To date, researches have found little conclusive evidence of
an interaction between motivation and ability. Jeff Terborg stated that the
mixed evidence regarding the existence of a motivation-ability ATI may
be due to differences in complexity of the tasks studied. Terborg suggested
that tasks of moderate difficulty would be the place where ATIs would
most likely occur.

An illustration of a well-developed ATI theory is the cognitive

resource allocation theory proposed by Ruth Kanfer and Philip Ackerman.
Their theory uses an information processing perspective to explain the
existence of a cognitive ability-motivation ATI for both skill acquisition and
task performance of moderately difficult tasks.

54
 Notes
Cognitive resource allocation theory is based on several propositions,
which are explained below:

1. The attentional demands made by a task will determine the

contribution of both ability and motivation to task performance.
2. The attentional demands required to acquire a skill change during
the skill acquisition process. Skill acquisition occurs in three
phases: declarative knowledge (forming a mental representation of
the task), knowledge compilation (integration of cognitive and
motor processes needed to perform a task), and procedural
knowledge (knowledge how to perform cognitive processes and
being able to perform the task “automatically,” with little attention).
Attentional demands are highest during the declarative
knowledge phase, but are reduced significantly during knowledge
compilation and proceduralization.
3. Cognitive ability is related to the amount of attentional resources an
individual has: the higher the level of cognitive ability (e.g.,
general intelligence), the more attentional resources the individual
has. For example, research shows that intelligence predicts
performance is best during the declarative knowledge phase (when
attentional demands are high) and predicts performance are less
during the procedural knowledge phase (when attentional demands
are low).
4. Motivational processes places a limit on the amount of cognitive
resources available (e.g., attention) that an individual will apply to a
task (e.g., the more the motivation, the more attention the
individual will apply to the task). In addition, motivational
processes that determine how the individual have allocated
cognitive resources (e.g., self-regulation, goal setting) require
cognitive resources themselves, thereby using resources that could
be used to learn or perform the task. Therefore, to the extent that
motivational processes use cognitive resources that can be taken
from the resources needed to perform the task, Task performance
will be hindered rather than facilitated by the motivational attempt.

Cognitive resource allocation theory predicts that:

1. Individuals with higher levels of cognitive ability will perform than

those with lower levels of cognitive ability during the
declarative

55
Notes
knowledge phase (because they have more attentional resources
with them), but that the differential will decrease as the knowledge
becomes procedural (because attentional demands are reduced
during this phase).
2. Motivational efforts will reduce performance during the declarative
knowledge phase (because they use part of the limited attentional
resources available to learn the task), but enhance performance
during the compilation and procedural phases (because attentional
demands of these phases are less, freeing up resources for
motivational process), especially for low-ability individuals.
3. The negative impact of using attentional resources for motivation
during the declarative knowledge phase will have less of an impact
on high-cognitive-ability individuals (because they have a greater
amount of resources to draw upon).

The research conducted to date supports these predictions.

It appears as though ability and self-efficacy are better predictors of
performance in the early stages of skill acquisition, whereas motivation
is a better predictor of performance during later stages. Perhaps the most
direct implication of this research is that motivational efforts may be best
saved until later phases of training for moderately complex tasks when
they are likely to harm performance and more likely to lead to higher
levels of performance.

Learning Strategies and Styles

Another perspective on the learning process and how to

maximize learning examines as to what people do when they learn.
Learning styles and strategies can be important in determining learning
outcomes.

Kolb’s learning styles

David Kolb, a leading theorist on experiential learning, stated that

the learning process is not the same for all people. Because of the complex
nature of the learning process, there are opportunities for individuals’
differences and preferences to emerge. A learning style represents how an
individual choice made during the learning process affects the information
selected and how it is processed. Kolb illustrates the notion of learning
styles by observing how people learn to play pool game:

56
 Notes

Some people just step up and hit the ball without bothering to
look carefully as where their shot went unless it went in the pocket.
Others seem to go through a great deal of analysis and measurement
but seem a bit hesitant on the execution. Thus, there seem to be
distinctive styles or strategies for learning and playing the game.

Differences in learning styles can explain why some individuals

are more comfortable and successful with some training approaches (e.g.,
role playing, lectures, and videotapes) than others. Similarly, learning
style differences among trainers can also contribute to their preferences for
certain training approaches over others. Kolb theorizes that an individual’s
learning style is based on that person’s preferred modes of learning. A
mode of learning is the individual’s orientation toward gathering and
processing information during learning. Kolb proposed four basic modes
of experiential learning:

1. Concrete Experience (CE) An intuitive preference for learning

through direct experience, emphasizing interpersonal relations
and feeling as opposed to thinking. For example, someone using
this mode to learn about job politics would personally use
various political tactics in different group situations to get a
sense of how each one feels, while also gauging others’
responses during each interaction.
2. Abstract Conceptualization (AC) A preference for learning by
thinking about an issue in theoretical terms. For example, a person
using this mode to learn about job politics would analyze political
tactics and their implications, perhaps consulting or constructing a
model that includes abstract representations of the components of
political activities.
3. Reflective Observation (RO) A preference to learn by
watching and examining different points of view to achieve an
understanding. For example, people using the RO mode to learn
about job politics would most likely observe others involved in
political activities and reflect on what they have seen from a
variety of perspectives.
4. Active Experimentation (AE) A preference for learning
something by actually doing it and judging its practical value. For
example, someone using this mode to learn about job politics might

57
Notes
experiment with various political tactics, determining their
effectiveness by the amount of influence they had on other people.

Kolb argues that an individual’s learning style often combines

two modes of learning, such as abstract conceptualization and active
experimentation (thinking and doing). Each learning style emphasizes
some learning abilities and de emphasizes others. Both on his own work
and the work of earlier theorists (including Lewin, Dewey, and Piaget),
Kolb identified four learning styles:

1. Divergent A combination of concrete experience and reflective

observation (feeling and watching), emphasizing imagination, an
awareness of values, and the ability to generate alternative courses
of action.
2. Assimilation A combination of abstract conceptualization and
reflective observation (thinking and watching) that stresses
inductive reasoning, the integration of disparate observations into
an explanation, and the creation of theoretical models.
3. Convergent A combination of abstract conceptualization and
active experimentation (thinking and doing), with a focus on
problem solving, decision making, and the practical application of
ideas.
4. Accommodative A combination of concrete experience and
active experimentation (feeling and doing), this style is usually
demonstrated by accomplishment, expecting plans, and
involvement in new experiences.

Kolb developed a questionnaire called the Learning Style

Inventory (LSI). The LSI, currently marketed by the Hay Group (Hay
Resources Direct), assesses an individual’s orientation toward the four
modes of the learning process (CE, RO, AC, and AE). Scores also reflect
the individual’s tendencies toward abstractness over concreteness and
action over reflection.

Kolb’s theory and LSI can help HRD professionals, supervisors,

and employees identify and appreciate different approaches to learning.
As a result, interventions can be tailored to individual learner preferences
in both traditional HRD programs and in those using computerized
instruction.

58
 Notes
Learning Strategies

Similar to Kolb’s modes of learning, learning strategies

represent the “behavior and thoughts a learner engages in during
learning.” Learning strategies are the techniques the learners use to
rehearse, elaborate, organize, and/or comprehend new material as well
as to influence self- motivation and feelings.

Learning Strategies can be Grouped into Various Categories:

1. Rehearsal strategies (e.g., repeating items in a list; underlining

text in an article; copying notes)
2. Elaboration strategies (e.g., forming a mental image; taking notes,
paraphrasing, or summarizing new material)
3. Organizational strategies (e.g., grouping or ordering information
to be learned; outlining an article; creating a hierarchy of
material)
4. Comprehension monitoring strategies (e.g., self-questioning)
5. Affective strategies (increasing alertness; relaxation; finding ways
to reduce test anxiety)

HRD efforts have applied learning strategies in learning-to-

learning programs, which seek to provide learners with the skills
necessary to learn effectively in any learning situation. Given the
dynamic nature of organizations and the environment, there is now a
greater pressure on individuals to learn throughout their lives.
Learning-to-learn programs are aimed at enhancing the learning process
and making individuals more independent. The programs emphasize
selecting those learning strategies needed to cope effectively with the
nature of the material and the demands of the learning situation. Clearly,
if employees can acquire and become skilled in applying a variety of
learning strategies, they are likely to benefit more from both formal
learning opportunities (such as training programs) as well as informal
ones (such as a problem-solving meeting).

Perceptual Preferences

Just as individuals have preferences for the types of information they

seek out in learning situations and how they processes it, they also have
preferences for the sensory channels they use to acquire information.

59
Notes
For example, someone who asks you for directions may request
that you write the directions out, draw a map, explain them verbally, or
use some combination of these three.

Wayne James and Michael Galbraith proposed seven primary perceptual

preferences:

1. Print (reading and writing)

2. Visual (such as graphs and charts)
3. Aural (auditory, e.g., listening)
4. Interactive (discussing, asking questions)
5. Tactile/ manipulative (hands-on approaches, such as touching)
6. Kinesthetic/ psychomotor (role playing, physical activities)
7. Olfactory (association of ideas with smell or taste)

Perceptual preferences imply that trainers should, if possible, tailor

their material and techniques to match trainee preferences. Training
was provided either by a lecture or by a hands-on, simulation approach.
Trainees with auditory preferences learn substantially more when taught
via lecture, whereas those with kinesthetic preference learn substantially
more when taught via the hands-on approach. The reverse was also true,
when preferences and training method were mismatched, when training
achievement and trainee attitudes were significantly lower. Another
implication of the research on perceptual preference is that it would be
desirable to train learners to increase their learning efficiencies by taking
advantage of multiple perceptual channels.

Gagne and his colleagues state that successful performance on

any given task requires learning in one or more of these categories. The
summary of this work is given in box.

According to Gagne, these five categories are important, first as

human performances, second, because the requirements for their learning
are different despite the pervasiveness of such general conditions as
contiguity and reinforcement, and third because the effects of learning,
the continued learning, appear also to differ from each other. The events
listed in the left-hand column of the Box are the nine steps, or
instructional events, that should be used in instructional design.
Corresponding entries

60
 Notes
in the Box list the actions that should be taken to implement each of these
steps for each of the five categories of learning outcomes. Gagne’s theory
provides a rich source of ideas for HRD professionals looking for ways to
enhance the effectiveness of their training programs. It has been cited as a
“training classic” that helped “to turn the free-form art of instruction into
something more reliable.”

Instructional Event Verbal Information Intellectual Skill

Introduce stimulus change; variations sensory
Gaining Attention
mode (same for all)
Indicate the kind of Provide description and
Informing learner of
verbal question to be example of the expected
objective
answered performance
Stimulate recall of Stimulate recall of
Stimulating recall of
context of organized relevant rules and
prerequisites
information concepts
Presenting the Present information in Present examples of
stimulus material propositional form rules and concepts
Provide verbal cues
Provide verbal links
Providing for proper combining/
to a larger meaningful
learnin sequencing of rules or
context
g guidance concepts

Ask for information Ask learner to apply

Eliciting the
in learner’s own rules or concepts to
performance
words (paraphrase) new examples

Confirm correctness Confirm correctness

Providing feedback of statement of of rule or concept
information application

Learner restates Learner demonstrates

Assessing performance information in application of rules or
paraphrased form concepts

Enhancing retention Provide verbal links Provide spaced reviews

and transfer of to additional areas of including a variety of
information information examples
Type of capability

Adopted from Werner & DeSimone (2007). Human Resource Development, 4e.
Thomson South-Western.

61
Notes
Summary

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in

behavior, cognition, or affect that occurs as a result of one’s interaction
with the environment. Training design involves adapting the learning
environment to maximize learning. Three additional factors that account
for differences in individual learning processes: are, different rates of
trainee progress, interactions between attributes and treatment, and the
training of adults and older workers. Learning styles and strategies can
be important in determining learning outcomes.

Self Assessment Questions

1. Define HRD
2. Discuss the outcomes of HRD
3. Describe the evolution of HRD
4. Distinguish HRM and HRD
5. Discuss the functions of HRD
6. Explain the roles and competencies of HRD professionals
7. Elucidate the challenges of HRD
8. Explain the model of employee behavior
9. Enumerate the factors influencing employee behavior
10. Discuss Motivation as an important factor causing employee
behavior
11. What are the internal factors affecting employee behaviour
12. Explain the basic principles of learning
13. How can the training be designed for learning
14. Enunciate the individual differences in learning
15. Discuss the learning strategies and styles .

62
 Notes

CASE STUDY

An example of a company that appears to have successfully

implemented a change is Ethicon Ltd, a medical device company that
manufactures sutures for medical applications. They had been undergoing
restructuring for some years; at the time, the most recent announcement
was that the research and development function was to move to Germany
and the new focus of the UK site was to be manufacturing.

In managing change, Ehticon set up new in-house systems to refocus

people’s ideas on three main goals:

➢ To improve process cycle times

➢ To decrease costs
➢ To improve quality.

Throughout the change process the company communicated

well with employees and made them aware of the intentions and the
benefits. A number of project managers were put in place to drive
through change. Ethicon also introduced cross-functional teams that
have broken down interdepartmental barriers and encouraged open
forum discussions. They managed to involve the workers in the project
and made them believe that there were gains to be make by changing
the way they worked. This initiated change across the whole company.
They also set in play a system of measurements against objectives in
order to translate them into tangible business benefits. It is believed that
one of the greatest achievements gained from this redesign project was
the true sense of team working. The end result was a measured increase in
productivity levels. The new ways of working were that they would
produce positive results and cost savings to the company to ensure that
Ethicon remained competitive.

Questions

1. How did management at Ehticon ‘get it right’?

2. What particular aspects have encouraged the successful change?

63
Notes

CASE STUDY

Supreme Engineering Limited was engaged in light engineering

manufacturing both customized products as well as standardized products.
It had a workforce of 5000 personnel of different categories. Each major
function was headed by chief manager concerned. The human resource
functions were directly under the control of chief manager-Personnel. The
company has undertaken human resource planning in an integrated way
with a view to provide the right number of employees with the right
talents and skills at the right time to perform activities for achieving
organizational objectives. For this purpose the company used to prepare
human resource plan at the corporate office level.

For manning various positions in engineering the company

adopted the policy to recruit directly at two levels, engineering graduates
as engineer trainees and engineering diploma holders as chief draftsman
/ junior engineers. The engineer trainees used to absorb as assistant
engineers after one year of training .The Company also adopted the
practice of filling half of the positions of assistant engineers from internal
promotes generally form draftsmen / junior engineers while other half was
used to be filled through engineer trainees. Generally a junior engineer
used to promote as assistant engineer after 4-5 years of service. In order
to asses its manpower needs the company used to consider the following
factors:

➢ Corporate growth plan

➢ Actual positions sanctioned in a category
➢ Actual number of persons available
➢ Number of persons to be promoted to and from that category
➢ Employee turnover and retirement
➢ Surplus of employees if any
➢ Any other special consideration
➢ Details of previous recruitment and selection

The personnel department of the company used to compile

the information from its four manufacturing units as well as five zonal
marketing offices. The information about the corporate growth plan
was

64
 Notes
collected directly from the corporate office. The complied information
was analyzed and actual number of vacancies to be filled up by direct
recruitment was worked out.

Thereafter the Recruitment Process was Initiated

An advertisement was inserted for 12 positions of engineer trainees

and applications were called for. The company called the applicants for
interview at its corporate office. One day prior to the interview one of the
outside interviewers paid a courtesy call to the chief manager personnel
.Before that he did not see the relevant papers for the number of recruits.
He called on these papers .On perusal he found that the number vacancies
were overestimated and the actual requirement was much lower. He felt
that if all the 12 positions were filled up it would create discontentment
among the existing staff as they would perceive reduced chances of their
promotion...The assistant personnel manager offered an explanation that
the number of vacancies has been worked out as follows:

➢ Sanctioned posts 40
➢ Actual employed 34
➢ To be promoted upward 6
➢ To be promoted form below 10
➢ Expected turnover 8
➢ Actual requirement 10
➢ 20 % additional 2
➢ To be recruited 12

The chief manager personnel did not feel convinced with the
figures and pointed out that only eight engineers were recruited last year

Questions

1. Elucidate the problem of this case

2. What were the reasons for such a situation in the company?
3. How effective was the human resource planning in the company?
4. What steps chief managers personnel should take in the matter?
Should he cancel the entire recruitment process and go for a fresh

65
 look at the human resource planning or let the process and go as
it is and face the problem of overstaffing later?
5. Suggest measures for improving human resource planning in the
company.

****

66
 Notes

UNIT - II

Unit Structure

Lesson 2.1 Frame Work of HRD

Lesson 2.2 Designing Effective HRD Programs
Lesson 2.3 HRD Interventions and Creating HRD Program
Lesson 2.4 Implementing HRD Programs

Lesson 2.1 - Frame Work of HRD

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson, you may be able to

➢ Understand the Framework of HRD Process

➢ Assess HRD Needs
➢ Enunciate Methods of Strategic/Organizational Analysis

Introduction

HRD programs and interventions can be used to address a wide

range of issues and problems in an organization. They are used to orient
and socialize new employees into the organization, provide skills and
knowledge, and help individuals and groups to become more effective.
To ensure that these goals are achieved, care must be taken when
designing and delivering HRD programs.

67
 Framework for the HRD process

The goal of HRD is to improve an organization’s effectiveness by:

1. Solving current problems (like an increase in customer complaints)

2. Preventing anticipated problems (such as a shortage of skilled
technicians)
3. Including those individuals and units that can benefit most as
participants

In short, HRD is effective if it successfully addresses some

organizational needs through conducting needs assessments.
Designing HRD interventions involves a process, which includes a four-
step sequence: needs assessment, design, implementation, and
evaluation. (Figure)
Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase IV
Assessment Design Implementation Evaluation
Assess
needs

Select
Prioritiz Define evaluatio
e objective n criteria
needs s

Develo
p
lesso Determin
n e
plan evaluatio
n
Develop/acquir
e
materials

Deliver the Conduct

Select HRD evaluation
trainer/leade program or of program
intervention or

Select
methods
Interpret
and results
techniques

Schedule the
program/intention

Training and HRD process model

68
 Notes
Needs Assessment Phase

HRD interventions are used to address some need or “gap” within

the organization. A need can be either a current deficiency, such as poor
employee performance, or a new challenge that demands a change in the
way the organization operates (new legislation or increased competition).
Identifying needs involves examining the organization, its environment,
job tasks, and employee performance. This information can be used to:

➢ Establish priorities for expanding HRD efforts

➢ Define specific training and HRD objectives
➢ Establish evaluation criteria

Design phase

The second phase of the training and HRD process involves

designing the HRD program or intervention. If the intervention
involves some type of training or development program, the following
activities are typically carried out during this phase:

➢ Selecting the specific objectives of the program

➢ Developing the appropriate lesson plan for the program
➢ Developing or acquiring the appropriate materials for the
trainees to use
➢ Determining who will deliver the program
➢ Selecting the most appropriate method or methods to conduct
the program
➢ Scheduling the program

Once the assessment phase is completed, it is important to translate

the issues identified in that phase into clear objectives for HRD programs.
This should also facilitate the development of clear lesson plans
concerning what should be done in the HRD program. Selecting the
proper person to deliver the HRD program is also an important decision,
and it can be difficult, depending on the resources available. If the
organization employs a group of full-time HRD professionals, the choice
will depend largely on the expertise and work schedules of those
professionals. However, if the organization does not have the HRD
staff, it will have to rely upon

69
Notes
other people, including managers, supervisors, coworkers, or outside
consultants. Using such individuals raises a host of issues, including their
willingness, ability, and availability to train, as well as cost issues.

The design phase also involves selecting and developing the

content of the program. This means choosing the most appropriate
setting for the program (e.g., on the job, in a classroom, online, or some
combination), the techniques used to facilitate learning (such as lecture,
discussion, role play, simulation), and the materials to be used in
delivering the program (such as workbooks, job aids, web-based or
web-enhanced materials, films, videos, Microsoft® PowerPoint®
presentations, etc.). Inherent in these decisions is the issue of whether to
develop the program in-house or purchase it (or parts of it) from an
outside vendor.

Scheduling the program may not be as easy as it appears. Issues

to be resolved include lead time to notify potential participants, program
length and location, covering participants’ regular job duties, and potential
conflicts (such as vacations, busy periods, and facility availability).

The needs assessment may also reveal that training is not the
ideal solution for the issues or problems facing the organization. It may
be that some management practice needs to be changed, or that
changes need to be made in another human resource practice (such as
staffing or compensation). It may also be the case that a different type
of HRD intervention is called for besides training, for example, a
change in the organization of work, or a change in the focus on total
quality or process reengineering. Such HRD interventions would not
require a “lesson plan.” However, other design issues occur with career
management and organizational development interventions.

Implementation phase

The goal of the assessment and design phases is to implement

effective HRD programs or interventions. This means that the program
or intervention must be delivered or implemented, using the most
appropriate means or methods (as determined in the design phase).
Delivering any HRD program generally presents numerous challenges,
such as executing the program as planned; creating an environment that
enhances learning, and resolving problems that may arise (missing
equipment, conflicts between participants, etc.).

70
 Notes
Evaluation phase

Program evaluation is the final phase in the training and HRD

process. This is where the effectiveness of the HRD intervention is
measured. This is an important but often underemphasized activity.
Careful evaluation provides information on participants’ reaction to the
program, how much they learned, whether they use what they have learned
on the job, and whether the program improved the organization’s
effectiveness. HRD professionals are increasingly asked to provide
evidence of the success of their efforts using a variety of “hard” and “soft”
measures, that is, both bottom line impact, as well as employee reaction.
This information allows managers to make better decisions about various
aspects of the HRD effort, such as:

➢ Continuing to use a particular technique or vendor in future

programs
➢ Offering a particular program in the future
➢ Budgeting and resource allocation
➢ Using some other HR or managerial approach (like employee
selection or changing work rules) to solve the problem

It is important that HRD professionals provide evidence that

HRD programs improve individual and organizational effectiveness.
Armed with this information, HRD managers can better compete with
managers from other areas of the organization when discussing the
effectiveness of their actions and competing for organizational resources.

Assessing HRD Needs

HRD interventions should be designed and conducted using a

four- phase approach: needs assessment, design, implementation, and
evaluation (Figure 5.1). The framework laid out in Figure 5.1 is often
described as the instructional systems design (ISD) approach. To
discuss the first phase of this approach, namely needs assessment, and
how various assessment efforts are used to design, implement, and
evaluate HRD programs and activities.

71
Notes
Definition and Purposes of Needs Assessment

Needs assessment is a process by which an organization’s HRD

needs are identified and articulated. It is the starting point of the HRD
and training process. A need assessment can identify:

➢ An organization’s goals and its effectiveness in reaching these goals

➢ Discrepancies or gaps between employees’ skills and the skills
required for effective current job performance
➢ Discrepancies (gaps) between the current skills and the skills
needed to perform the job successfully in the future
➢ The conditions under which the HRD activity will occur

With this information, HRD professionals learn where and what

kind of programs or interventions is needed, who needs to be included
in them, and whether there are currently any roadblocks to their
effectiveness. Criteria can then be established to guide and evaluate
the process. It is obvious, then, the analysis is critical for an effective
HRD effort.

However, despite its importance, many organizations do not

perform a needs analysis as frequently or as thoroughly as they must. If,
the competitive pressures currently facing organizations made it more
difficult than ever to carry out a needs assessment. Needs assessments
are not conducted for a number of reasons, such as:

1. A needs assessment can be a difficult, time-consuming process. A

complete needs analysis involves measuring a variety of factors at
multiple levels of the organization.
2. Action is valued over research. Managers often decide to use their
limited resources to develop, acquire, and deliver HRD programs
rather than to do something they see as a preliminary activity.
3. Incorrect assumptions are made as that a needs assessment is
unnecessary because available already information specifies what
an organization’s needs are. As indicated earlier, factors such as
fads, demands from senior managers, and the temptation to copy
the HRD programs of widely admired organizations or competitors
often lead to such conclusions.

72
 Notes
4. There is a lack of support for needs assessment. This can be caused
by a lack of bottom-line justification, or by the HRD professional’s
inability to sell needs assessment to management. Documenting
the assessment and its benefits, and using analogies from respected
fields (e.g., medical diagnosis, engineering scoping) are two ways
to build support for doing needs assessment.

These factors should be considered when promoting needs assessment.

Although it is possible to improve the organization’s effectiveness
without accurate needs assessment information, the results are by no
means guaranteed. Before discussing different approaches for needs
analysis, it is useful to examine what is meant by the term “need.”

Training or HRD Need

In this context, the concept of need typically refers to a discrepancy

or gap between what an organization expects to happen and what actually
occurs. For example, a discrepancy exists if a shipping supervisor has
been charged to maintain an average turnaround time of twenty-four hours
for shipping customer orders, and it is actually taking his or her
department an average of thirty-six hours. A similar inconsistency is
demonstrated when a police officer is expected to use minimum force to
apprehend suspects, but the department receives documented complaints
that the officer has used excessive force with suspects. These
discrepancies may become the foundation of a training or HRD need.

Identified needs in this sense focus on correcting substandard

performance. In some cases, an HRD intervention such as coaching or
skills training may be necessary to correct the discrepancy. However,
sometimes another HRM strategy (such as improving compensation
or changing staffing practices), or another management action (like
replacing machinery or negotiating new work rules with the union)
may be more appropriate solutions. It is important to stress that not every
need identified can or should be addressed by training or even by other,
broader HRD efforts such as team building or organizational
development.

Robert Brinkerhoff has stated that focusing only on performance

deficiency in needs analyses is too restrictive and proposed other ways of
looking at training needs. These include diagnostic and analytic needs.

73
Notes
Diagnostic needs focus on the factors that lead to effective performance
and prevent performance problems, rather than emphasizing existing
problems. Diagnostic needs are identified by studying the different
factors that may impact performance. The goal is to determine how the
effective performance is obtained. Analytic needs identify new, better
ways to perform tasks. These needs are generally discovered by
intuition, insight, or expert consideration. Compliance needs are those
needs that are mandated by law. This most often deals with mandated
training programs, such as safety training or food handling. It is
important to recognize that some HRD interventions are driven
primarily by legal mandate, as this can affect how the intervention is
perceived, as well as how it is conducted.

This discussion of needs is meant to reinforce the notion that

HRD should be proactive and future oriented. Addressing needs from
an analytic or diagnostic perspective is proactive in its emphasis on
preventing problems and enhancing performance and productivity, a
notion that is consistent with continuous improvement, such as the
recent focus on total quality management and learning organizations.
This focus contrasts with a reactive approach in which performance
discrepancies only (or compliance needs alone) are the basis for
training and HRD. Clearly, organizations are better served if HRD
efforts consider different types of needs, focusing on ways to maintain
effective performance and make it even better, as well as fixing what is
done poorly. Roger Kaufman provides some timely advice concerning
why HRD professionals should “bother with” needs assessment. He
frames these in terms of potentially hazardous shortcuts and why they
should be avoided (Table). A critical concern of Kaufman and others
(such as Dana Gaines Robinson and James Robinson) is that HRD
professionals must always maintain a focus on organizational
performance. Loriann Roberson, Carol Kulik, and Molly Pepper
provide an excellent recent example of how needs assessment can be
used to enhance the effectiveness of diversity in training programs.

Potential Traps Why this should be avoided

Focus only on indi-

This can lead to fixing problems that don’t
vidual performance
impact group or organizational performance
deficiencies

Start with a There is no need for a needs assessment if you

training needs already know that training is the answer !
assessment

74
 Notes

Just send out question- Trainee input can be good, yet such open-
naires asking people ended questioning can encourage suggestions
what they need that are not tied in organizational results.

Opinions need to be linked to performance and

Use soft data only
consequences

Performance data is often collected on what is

Use hard data only easy to measure , missing other critical informa-
tion in the process
Traps to avoid while doing needs assessment

Levels of Needs Analysis

Needs can exist at any of at least three levels, considering the

organization, the job/task, and the individual. To ensure an effective HRD
effort, needs must be measured on each level. As a result, three types of
assessments must be conducted: organizational analysis, task analysis, and
person analysis. Each level of assessment measures different aspects of
the organization (Table). Strategic/organizational analysis reveal where
the organization training is needed and under what conditions it will occur.
Task analysis explains what must be done to perform a job or complete a
process successfully. Person analysis reveals who needs to be trained, and
what kind of training he/she need.

Level What is measured

Where the training is needed and in what

Strategic/Organizational
con- ditions will the training be conducted ?
What must be done to perform the job effec-
Task
tively ?
Who should be trained? What kind of training
Person
do he/she need ?
Levels of needs assessment

Strategic/Organizational Analysis

Needs assessment at the organization level is usually conducted

by performing an organizational analysis. Organizational analysis is a
process used to better understand the characteristics of the organization
to determine where the training and HRD efforts are needed and the
conditions within which they should be conducted. Kavita Gupta has

75
Notes
called to this type of analysis as a strategic analysis. For example, some
years ago, Scott Paper purchased a food service operation that suffered
from low employee morale. An extensive needs assessment process
resulted in the food service division implementing a succession planning
and management development program.

Within four years, the product defects dropped dramatically, on-

time delivery rates increased to 98 percent, and plant capacity was
increased by 35 percent. The point to stress here is that the
organizational analysis they conducted (as part of the overall needs
assessment) provided the impetus for a successful HRD effort, as well as
the content of the actual development program.

Components of a Strategic/Organizational Needs Analysis

This type of analysis requires a broad or “whole system” view of

the organization and what it is trying to accomplish. The organizational
characteristics studied may include goals and objectives, reward systems,
planning systems, delegation and control systems, and communication
systems. According to Irwin Goldstein, an organizational analysis should
identify:

1. Organizational goals
2. Organizational resources
3. Organizational climate
4. Environment constraints

Each of these factors provides important information for planning

and developing HRD programs and is described further in the following
sections.

Organizational Goals

Understanding the organization’s goals and strategy provide a

starting point in identifying the effectiveness of the organization. Areas
where the organization is meeting its goals probably do not require
training efforts, but should be monitored to ensure that opportunities for
improvement and potential problems are identified early. Effective areas
can be used as models, and as a source of ideas for how things can be

76
 Notes
done effectively in other areas. Areas where goals are not being met
should be examined further and targeted for HRD or other appropriate
HR or management efforts.

Organizational Resources

An awareness of the organization’s resources is particularly

useful in establishing HRD needs. Obviously, the amount of money
available is an important determinant of HRD efforts. In addition,
knowledge of resources such as facilities, materials on hand, and the
expertise within the organization also influence how HRD is conducted.
Resource availability can dictate some of the options to be considered
when designing and implementing HRD programs and can influence
the priorities given to HRD needs.

For example, if there are no classroom or conference room facilities

within the organization, the scheduling and location of an HRD
program that require such facilities can become very difficult and
expensive. In this case, it may be necessary to use an off-site location,
such as a conference center or hotel, or to schedule the program in the
company cafeteria after working hours.

Organizational Climate

The climate within the organization is an important factor in

HRD success. If the climate is not conducive to HRD, designing and
implementing the program will be difficult. For example, if managers
and employees do not trust one another, employees may not participate
fully and freely in a training program.

Similarly, if problems exist between senior and middle

management, as has happened in many organizations during
restructuring, middle managers may resist or not fully cooperate in the
training effort, seriously reducing training effectiveness. Researches
show that an organization’s transfer of training climate affects whether
employees use the skills they acquire in HRD programs back on the job.

77
Notes
Environmental Constraints

Environmental constraints include legal, social, political, and

economic issues faced by the organization. Demand for certain types of
HRD programs can be affected by these constraints. Knowledge of legal
issues can ensure that the HRD effort is in compliance and will not itself
be a source of problem.

For example, equal employment opportunity goals should be

considered when determining how people will be assigned to a training
program, especially if the program is a prerequisite for entry into a particular
job. Similarly, economic issues, such as increased competition, can also
have an impact on HRD programs. If an organization decides to reduce staff
as a part of a cost- cutting program, training may be necessary to ensure that
the employees who remain will be able to perform the tasks that were
performed by the workers.

Advantages of Conducting a Strategic/Organizational Analysis

As discussed earlier, organizational analyses reveal where HRD

is needed and the organizational and environmental conditions that
may affect the HRD effort. Knowledge of these issues ensures that all
HRD programs are tied to the organization’s strategy and mission,
which is crucial to its success. Communicating the link between HRD
activities and the organization’s strategic plan to the operating managers
and employees makes the importance of HRD programs clear. This
may also generate support for HRD efforts and increase the motivation of
those being trained.

One way to establish this connection is to link organizational

analysis with the strategic planning process, especially because much of
the same information is obtained in both procedures. The strategic plan
can be a valuable source of information for organizational analysis,
whereas HRD efforts can become a major component of carrying out the
strategic plan.

For example, if an insurance company decides as part of its

strategic plan to expand the services it offers to clients (e.g., pension
management), it is likely that the current employees will require
training in the new service area to ensure successful implementation of
the plan.

78
 Notes
Methods of Strategic/Organizational Analysis

Strategic/organizational analysis methods depend on the particular

organization. A list of data sources is available for determining training
and HRD needs (Table). The list includes the following: human resource
inventories (formerly known as manpower inventories), skills inventories,
organizational climate measures, and efficiency indexes. Some of these
sources, such as efficiency indexes, are continuously monitored by many
organizations as part of the normal control procedures and the data are
readily available.

Ferdinand Tesoro and Jack Tootson of Dell Computers provide

some excellent guidance for using existing organizational measures as
the basis for training and performance improvement efforts. Other
sources, such as organizational climate, may require the administration
of an employee survey. Such surveys can be designed by the
organization or purchased commercially.

Data source Recommended HRD/Training Need Implications

1 Organizational goals and Where HRD or training emphasis can

ob- jectives and should be placed. These provide
normative standards of both direction
and expected impact which can hig-
light deviations from objectives and
performance problems.

2 Human resource (manpower Where HRD training in needed to fill

) inventory gaps caused by retirement, turnover,
age etc. This provides an important
demogrphic database regarding pos-
sible scope for the training needs.

3 Skills inventory Number of employees in each skill

group, knowledge and skills levels,
training time per job, etc. This provies
an estimate of the magnitude of the
specific needs for HRD/training use-
ful in cost-benefit analysis of HRD
projects

79
Notes

4 Organizational climate in- These ” quality of working life”

dexes indica- tors at the organization level
may help focus on problems that
have HRD/ training components.
Labor-Management data- All of these items related to either
strikes, lockouts,etc. work participation orproductivity
are useful both in discrepancy
analy- sis and in helping
management set a value on the
behaviors it wishes im- proved
once HRD or training have been
established as relevant solutions.
Grievances
Turnover
Absenteeism
Suggestions
Productivity
Accidents
Short-term sickness
Observation of employee
be- havior
Attitude surveys Good for locating discrepanices be-
tween organizational expectaions and
perceived results
Customer complaints Valuable feedback; look especially
for patterns and repaet complaints

5 Analysis of efficiency index- Cost accounting concepts may

es repre- sent ratio between actual
performance and desired or standard
performance

Costs of labor
Costs of materials
Quality of product
Equipment utilization
Costs of distribution
Waste
Downtime
Late deleveries
Repairs
6 Changes in system of sub- New or changed equipment may
system pre- sent HRD or training problems

80
 Notes

7 Management requests or One of the most common techniques

Management interrogation of HRD/training needs

8 Exit interviews Often information not otherwise

available can obtained in
these.Prob- lem areas and
supervisory training needs
especially.
9 MBO or Work planning and Provides Performance review,
review systems poten- tial review and long term
business ob- jectives. provides actual
performance data on a recuring
basis so that base- line
measurements may be known and
subsequent improvement or dete-
rioration of performnce can be identi-
fied and analyzed
Sources of data for organization needs analysis

Each of these methods uses job experts (i.e., incumbents or

supervisors) or trained observers to provide and evaluate job information.
To obtain a more complete view of the job, it is desirable to use more than
one method. This, of course, depends upon the nature of the job being
studied and the time and resources available. Methods that involve a range
of organization members (supervisors, managers, and employees), such as
the CIT and task inventory, have the advantage of building commitment
and accountability to the overall HRD effort. This can help facilitate the
progress of the HRD intervention down the line. It is vital that all task
statements are evaluated in terms of their importance for job performance,
the frequency with which the tasks are performed, and how difficult it is to
become proficient at the tasks.

Goldstein provides a list of questions to ask during an organizational

analysis:

1. Are there any unspecified organizational goals that should be

translated into training objectives or criteria?
2. Are the various levels in the organization committed to the
training objectives?
3. Have the various levels or participating units in the organization
been involved with developing the program, starting with the
assessment of the desired end results of training?

81
Notes
4. Are the key individuals in the organization ready to accept
the behavior of the trainees, and also to serve as models of the
appropriate behavior?
5. Will the trainees be rewarded on the job for the appropriate learned
behavior?
6. Is the training used to overcome organizational problems?
7. Is top management willing to commit the necessary resources to
maintain the organization and work flow while individuals are
being trained?

Organizational analysis can be a critical component of an effective

HRD effort. Although it would be optional to conduct a complete
organizational analysis on a regular basis, resource and time limitations
often make this difficult. At the very least, HRD managers and professionals
should continuously monitor the organization’s environment, goals, and
effectiveness by taking advantage of information already collected by the
organization. This responsibility is increasingly expected of all managers
and supervisors (and many employees), as the environment becomes
increasingly more turbulent and the competition become more fierce.

Task Analysis

Task analysis (sometimes called operation analysis) is a systematic

collection of data about a specific job or group of jobs to determine what
an employee should be taught to achieve optimal performance. Results of
a task analysis typically include the appropriate standards of performance,
how tasks should be performed to meet these standards, and the
knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) that
employees need to possess in order to meet the standards. Table lists a
variety of data sources available for task analysis, including job
descriptions, observing the job, asking questions about the job, and
reviewing literature about the job.

Although there is general agreement about the purpose of task

analysis, there are differing views about how it should be accomplished.
We combine the approaches used by others into the following five-step
process:

82
 Notes

Technique for Obtaining Job

HRD/Training Need Implication
Data

Outlines the job in terms of typical duties

and responsibilities but is not to be meant
1 Job descriptions
all-inclusive. helps define performance
discrepancies

List sepecifed tasks required for each

job. More specific than job descriptions.
Job specigications or task
2 specifications may extend to judgements
analysis
of knowledge, skills, and other attributes
required of job incumbents.

Objectives of the tasks of job and stand-

3 Performance standards ards by which they are judged. this may
include baseline data as well

Most effective way of determining spe-

cific tasks but has serious limitations the
higher the level of the job in that perfor-
4 Perform the job
mance requirements typically have longer
gaps between performance and resulting
outcomes

Observe job-work sam-

5
pling
Possibly useful in comparison analyses of
job structures but far removed from either
Review literature con-
unique aspects of the job structure within
cerning the job
any specific organization or specific per-
formance requirements
6 Research in other indus-
tries
Professional journals
Documents
Government sources
Ph.D. and master’s
theses
Ask questions about
the job
7 of the job holder
of the supervisor
of higher management

83
Notes

Inputs from several viewpoints can

Training committees or
8 often reveal training needs or
conferences
HRD/training desires

Analysis of operating Indications of task interference, environ-

problems mental factors, etc.
Downtime reports

9 Waste
Repairs
Late deliveries

Quality control

How to statements sorted by

10 Card sort
training importance.

Sources of data for task needs analysis

1. Develop an overall job description.

2. Identify the task.
3. Describe what should be done in the task.
4. Describe what is actually done in the task.
5. Describe KSAOs needed to perform the job.
6. Identify areas that can benefit from training.
7. Prioritize areas that can benefit from training.

The Task Analysis Process

STEP1

OVERALL JOB DESCRIPTION

The first step in the process is to develop an overall description of

the job or jobs being analyzed. A job description is a narrative statement
of the major activities involved in performing the job and the conditions
under which these activities are performed. In some organizations, job
descriptions are readily available and are updated regularly, so that they
accurately reflect the job as it is performed. If this is the case, the HRD
professional should obtain and review the description. Without up-to-date
job descriptions, it may be necessary to conduct a job analysis.

84
 Notes
A job analysis is a systematic study of a job to identify its major
components. The job analysis process (described in detail by Gael and
Gatewood and Field) generally involves observing the job being
performed; asking job incumbents and supervisors the questions about the
job, tasks, working conditions, and KSAOs; examining the outcomes of
the job; and reviewing relevant literature about the job. Sometimes, the
task portion of the job analysis is referred to as the job description,
whereas the KSAO portion is called the job specification; however, both
task and KSAO portions are generally included in written job
descriptions.

Even if a current job description is already available, it is valuable

to observe the job as it is performed- a sort of reality test that can give
the HRD professional a clearer idea about the tasks and the conditions
employees face.

STEP 2

TASK IDENTIFICATION

Task identification focuses on the behaviors performed within

the job. In task identification, the following information about the job is
determined and clearly described:

1. The major tasks within the job

2. How each task should be performed(i.e., performance standards)
3. The variability of performance (how the tasks are actually performed
in the day-to-day operations)

Both performance standards and performance variables are critical

to an effective needs analysis. Although the standards describe what
should be done, information about the variability of performance shows
what is done. This allows the HRD professionals to identify discrepancies
that should be remedied and what the trainees should do at the conclusion
of training. Both these are important in developing training objectives.

85
Notes
Five methods for task identification include:

1. Stimulus-response-feedback
2. Time sampling
3. Critical incident technique
4. Job inventories
5. Job-duty-task method

The stimulus-response-feedback method breaks down each task into

three components. The first component is the stimulus, or cue, that lets
an employee to know that it is time to perform a particular behavior. The
second component is the responsive or behavior that the employee is to
perform. The third component is the feedback the employee receives about
how well the behavior was performed. This task identification method
results in a list of the cues, behaviors, and feedbacks that make up each
task involved in the job. It is well suited for jobs with relatively simple
tasks that can be directly observed, whether by a supervisor, the job
incumbent, or a trained analyst.

Time sampling, the second task identification method involves having a

trained observer watch and note the nature and frequency of an employee’s
activities. By observing at random intervals over a period of time, a clearer
picture of the job is understood and recorded.

The critical incident technique (CIT) developed by John Flanagan can

also be used for task identification. The CIT involves having individuals
who are familiar with the job record incidents of particularly effective
and ineffective behavior that they have seen on the job over a period of
time(like one year). This can be done by individuals or in groups. For
each incident, the observer is asked to describe the circumstances and
the specific behaviors involved, and suggest reasons why the behavior
was effective or ineffective. The CIT result is an understanding of what is
considered both good and poor performance.

A job inventory questionnaire is a fourth approach to task identification.

A questionnaire is developed by asking people familiar with the

job to identify all of its tasks. This list is then given to supervisors and
job

86
 Notes
incumbents to evaluate each task in terms of its importance and the time
spent on performing it. This method allows for input from many people
and gives numerical information about each task that can be used to
compute indexes and be analyzed with statistics.Finally, the fifth approach
is the job-duty-task method. In this method, the job is divided into its
subparts, providing a comprehensive list that identifies the job title; each
of its duties (and the tasks and subtasks that make up that duty); and,
finally, the knowledge, skills, abilities, or other characteristics (KSAOs)
required to perform each subtask. An example of the results of a job-duty
task analysis is shown in Box

Job title: HRD Professional Specific duty: Task Analysis

Tasks Subtasks Knowledge and Skills Required
1. List tasks Observe behaviour List four characteristics of behavior
Select verb Classify behavior
Knowledge of action verbs
Record behavior Grammatical skills
State so understood by others
2. List subtasks Observe behavior Record neatly
List all remaining acts
Select verb Classify behavior
State correctly
Record behavior Grammatical skills
Neat and understood by others
3. List knowledge 1. State what must Classify all information
be known
2 . D e t e r m i n e Determine if a skill represents a
complexity of skill series of acts that must be learned
in a sequence

Applying the job-duty-task method of task analysis

STEP 3

IDENTIFY WHAT IT TAKES TO DO THE JOB

Successful task performance requires that employees possess the

KSAOs to perform the task. The HRD professional must specify the KSAOs
because it is these competencies (Table) that employees must develop or
acquire during the training program.

87
Notes
As noted earlier, a thorough job analysis will contain this
information in the job specification section. If this information is not
available or is not current, the HRD professional can determine these
factors by questioning supervisors, job incumbents, and other experts and
by reviewing relevant literature. Clear KSAO statements should be written
and then evaluated with regard to their importance to job performance,
learning difficulty, and the opportunity to acquire them on the job.

Knowledge An understanding of a body of information, usually of

a factual or procedural nature, that makes for successful
performance of a task
Skill An individuals level of proficiency or competency in
per- forming a specific task level of competency is
usually ex- pressed in numurical terms
Ability A more general enduring trait or capability an
individual possesses when he or she firstt begins to
perform a task
e.g. the power to perform a physical or mental function
Other charac- Includes personality , interests, and attitutes
terisctics
Definitions of knowledge, skill, ability, and other characteristics (KSAOS)

Information about the KSAOs required to perform a job is valuable

in determining the focus of an HRD program. Some KSAOs, such as
oral and written communication skills or knowledge of safety
procedures, are necessary for effective performance in many jobs. If this
is the case, it may be possible to develop and conduct an HRD program
that can be offered to employees in wide range of jobs.

STEP 4

IDENTIFY THE AREAS THAT CAN MOST BENEFIT FROM TRAINING

OR HRD

In this step, the focus is on determining which tasks and capabilities

should be included in HRD programs. Both ratings of tasks as well as
ratings of KSAOs should be examined. Task ratings should be studied
concerning their importance, time spent, and the ease of acquisition. KSAO
ratings should be studied for their importance, the difficulty of learning, and
opportunity to acquire them on the job. The tasks and KSAOs receiving

88
 Notes
the highest ratings should be considered as the primary condition for
inclusion in HRD programs.

Care must be taken to balance the concerns raised by these ratings.

For example, a high rating on time spent and ease of learning may indicate
that a particular task should be included in training. However, if that same
task is also rated low in importance to successful job performance, it may
not be worth the time and effort involved in training (or perhaps less
expensive training methods can be used). It is also important to remember
that not all problems are appropriately dealt with through HRD programs.
Other HR or management approaches may be better suited for particular
issues and situations.

STEP 5

PRIORITIZE TRAINING NEEDS

At the end of Step 4; it should be clear which tasks and KSAOs

could benefit from training. These tasks and KSAOs should be
prioritized to determine which ones should be addressed first. Again,
inspection of the ratings provided in Steps 2 and 3 can facilitate the
prioritization process (more will be said about prioritizing training
needs at the end of this chapter).

An Example of a Task Analysis: TEXAS Instruments

A task analysis performed to develop a train-the-trainer program

at Texas Instruments Corporation (TI) provides a good illustration of the
ideas included in our discussion of the task analysis process. The
training staff at TI needed to determine training needs and deliver an
inexpensive program to quickly train expert engineers to instruct new
engineers. Consultants began the process by meeting with branch
managers, department heads, and employees from five TI branches to
determine the following information:

➢ The mission of the department

➢ Perceived training needs
➢ Current and previous efforts in staff development

89
Notes
➢ The roles, responsibility, and team arrangements within the
different branches

This organizational analysis identify the significant issues involved, and

the training team then used this information in persuading top managers
to commit to a five-step approach to task analysis:

1. List typical tasks.

2. Survey staff.
3. Observe the classroom.
4. Conduct structured interviews.
5. Prepare and present a final report.

The list of tasks was developed by examined literature on training

delivery, including company technical reports and the American Society
for Training and Development’s Models for Excellence study. TI managers
reviewed the initial list of tasks, added several tasks, and reworded other
task statements. The list was then organized into five areas of
responsibility and given to employees to review and supplement. This
step ensured that all the professionals had input into defining their jobs
from their perspectives, and it resulted in a 117-item list of tasks that
trainers would typically be expected to perform.

For the staff survey, all members of the department received a

questionnaire listing the tasks and asking them to rate each task
according to (1) its importance to their job and (2) their interest in
receiving more training related to task. Each item was given a mean
rating score on importance and interest. The results were examined to
determine whether differences existed in the five branches. The result
was that no such differences existed.

Classroom observations of experienced and new TI trainers were

conducted to provide additional information on instructional delivery.
Teams of observers viewed instructors for one hour and met with each
instructor to provide feedback. Individuals for each branch participated in
structured interviews to maintain consistency between the survey findings
and the classroom observations. This allowed the training team to gather
more information about each branch and to “validate” the data gathered

90
 Notes
earlier. The interview results were consistent with data from the other
sources.

The final step was the preparation of the final report. This
consisted of examining the results and developing an executive
summary outlining strengths and recommendations for training in each
of the five areas of the task list, along with data for each data collection
method.

The needs analysis was described as a success because it

allowed input and participation at all levels, ensuring cooperation and
comprehensiveness. As a result, the training team was able to identify and
rank training needs based on sound information rather than relying on
intuition alone.

This example reinforces several important points about task analysis:

1. Input from managers, supervisors, and employees can ensure

support for needs analysis and pave the way for support for
training.
2. Multiple methods not only provide unique information but also
enable the analyst to confirm findings and identify and resolve
discrepancies.
3. Ratings of tasks allow for quantitative analysis of which tasks may
benefit from training and which should be addressed.
4. Viewing needs from a broad perspective, rather than focusing
only on performance deficiencies, results in a better
understanding of training needs and build support for training
programs.

Person Analysis

Person analysis is directed at determining the training needs of the

individual employees. The focus is typically on how well each employee is
performing key job tasks, but this process may identify wide range of both
common and unique HRD needs. Someone who can observe the employee’s
performance on a regular basis is in the best position to conduct a person
analysis.

Traditionally, person analysis has involved an employee and

that employee’s immediate supervisor. Depending on the nature of an
91
Notes
individual’s work, that employee’s peers, customers, and subordinates may
also be in a position to provide information that can be used to identify
person-level needs. In fact, an evaluation approach called 360-degree
performance appraisal uses as many of these sources as possible to get a
complete picture of an employee’s performance.

Immediate supervisors play a particularly important role in person

analysis. Not only are they in a position to observe employee performance,
but it is also their responsibility to do so. The access to HRD programs
in many organizations requires the supervisor’s nomination and support.
Many methods of person assessment require an effective supervisor to
implement them properly. The sources for person analysis data include
performance evaluation, direct observation, tests, questionnaires, and
critical incidents as sources of information available for person assessment
(Table). In addition, to the individuals recently hired into an organization,
the information collected as part of the selection process can also be used
to determine any developmental needs that the individual has.

Components of Person Analysis

In whatever manner the data for person analysis is collected, an

effective person analysis should consist of two components: summary
person analysis and diagnostic person analysis. Summary person
analysis involves determining the overall success of individual
employee performance. Diagnostic person analysis tries to discover
the reasons for an employee’s performance. Effective performers may
be the source for ideas on how to improve employee performance,
whereas analysis of ineffective performers can identify what
interventions (HRD or otherwise) are needed to improve performance.

Performance Appraisal in the Person Analysis Process

Performance appraisal can be a valuable tool for collecting

person analysis data. However, although it may be tempting to think that
performance appraisal by itself can be the sole source of person analysis
information, this view is shortsighted. In reality, using performance
appraisal in needs analysis requires a manager to “have access to a variety
of different pieces of information and make a number of complex
decisions.” Multiple source performance appraisals have potential both for
needs

92
 Notes
assessment and as a tool for enhancing individual performance.
Clearly, organizations are using it. We believe that HRD practitioners
should use multiple source performance appraisal information as one
element of person analysis, but that they should do with caution. It is
important to verify any information gathered and to monitor the
research being done on the properties of multisource performance data to
be sure the quality of the information gained is high enough to accurately
identify HRD needs.

Summary

HRD programs and interventions can be used to address a wide

range of issues and problems in an organization. HRD interventions are
used to address some need or “gaps” within the organization. A need can
be either a current deficiency, such as poor employee performance, or a
new challenge that demands a change in the way the organization operate.
HRD interventions should be designed and conducted using a four-phase
approach: needs assessment, design, implementation, and evaluation.
Needs can exist at any of at least three levels, considering the
organization, the job/task, and the individual. Strategic/organizational
analysis methods depend on the particular organization.

****

93
Notes

Lesson 2.2 - Designing Effective HRD Programs

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson, you may be able to

➢ Describe design of a HRD program

➢ Identify the objectives of HRD interventions
➢ Assess HRD programs
➢ Enunciate phases of HRD programs

Introduction

An organization following effective HRD practices would have

completed Phase I of the training and HRD process - needs assessment
and obtained the information along with organisational constraints
and learning theories which are the inputs for designing effective HRD
programs.

We recognize that in some cases the availability of needs

assessment data may be limited. Although HRD practitioners may feel
that it will be difficult to design effective training programs, sometimes
they must improvise and make the best of such suboptimal situations. At
the same time, every effort should be made to persuade the management to
identify the importance of conducting needs analysis and prioritizing HRD
needs, as time and resources allow.

94
 Notes
Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase IV
Assessment Design Implementation Evaluation

Assess
needs

Select
Prioritize Define evaluation
needs objectiv criteria
es

Develop
lesson
Determin
plan e
evaluatio
n design
Develop/acquire
materials

Deliver the Conduct

Select HRD program evaluation of
trainer/leade or program or
r intervention intervention

Select
methods
Interpret results
and
techniques

Schedule the
program/intentio
n

Training and HRD process model

Adopted from Werner & DeSimone (2007). Human Resource De velopment, 4e.
Thomson South-Western.

Designing HRD Program

Armed with needs assessment data, the focus now turns to

an effective HRD program. The key activities involved in designing
HRD program are: designing
an
1. Setting objectives
2. Selecting the trainer or vendor
3. Developing a lesson plan

95
Notes
4. Selecting program methods and techniques
5. Preparing materials
6. Scheduling the program

Figure shows where these activities fit within the training and
HRD process model. It is important to stress at the outset that program
design can be a lengthy process. HRD professionals must simultaneously
accomplish several other critical tasks throughout the design process.
Assuming that an important need for training has been identified, the
manager’ or HRD professional must then translate that need into a set
of objectives. Objectives define what the participants are expected to
learn or do as a result of participating in the HRD program or
intervention. However, some managers and HRD professionals may be
tempted to make a decision as to whether to design the program
internally or purchase the program or its key parts, or to establish a,
contract to consultant to serve as a trainer, buy program materials, and
so on, before establishing objectives. In outside purchases, the
organization typically uses the objectives developed by the vendor
rather than defining its own. However, the chances of success are far
greater if the organization identifies the HRD objectives first, before
deciding whether to design or purchase the program.

Statements of HRD needs are often not detailed enough to be used

as specific program outcomes. Rather, they state the problem at hand, and
ideally, include a diagnosis of the problem’s causes. Objectives, in
contrast, should state the outcome the program is intended to produce,
including the specific performance expected, the conditions under which
it will be performed, and the criteria to be used to judge as to whether the
objective has been achieved or not.

Responsibilities of HRD Professionals

Management professor Ronald Sims stated that training and

development initiatives must emphasize “pivotal” employee competencies.
To do this, HRD professionals must engage in a number of significant
actions, including the following:

1. Identify the kinds and levels of KSAOs that employees need to

attain high levels of performance and to achieve organizational
results.

96
 Notes
2. Develop and maintain organizational - structures, conditions,
and climates that are conducive to learning.
3. Generate and provide the necessary resources to conduct a
program design.
4. Identify and provide access to off-the job as well as on-the-job
learning resources.
5. Provide individual assistance and feedback on various dimensions
of individual performance
6. Serve as role models and mentors to trainees and the
organization in the pursuit of mastery of “pivotal” KSAOs.
7. Develop efficient learning processes that take into account individual
learning styles, abilities, and work and life circumstances.

These types of responsibilities (especially points 2 and 3)

cannot be completed without active support and involvement from top
management. However, with the increasing focus on high performance
from all organizations and employees, HRD professionals must ensure
that every HRD initiative serves to meet the organization’s strategic goals
and objectives. The previous activities must be carried out at the same
time that other design issues are being addressed

Defining the Objectives of the HRD Intervention

Defining the objectives for the training or HRD program is one

of the first things an HRD professional should do - after completing the
needs assessment. Robert Mager defines an objective as a “description
of a performance the HRD managers want learners to be able to exhibit
before they consider them competent. As such, HRD or training program
objectives describe the intent and the desired result of the HRD program.
The results can be achieved in many ways (such as lectures, role play, and
coaching) but this is not specified in the objective. Rather, objectives are
used as the basis for determining which methods should be used to
achieve the specified outcome.

As stated, objectives are essential to a successful training or HRD

program. In addition to forming the basis for selecting the program
content and methods, objectives are used by the organization to evaluate

97
Notes
the program’s success, and they also help participants to focus their
own attention and efforts during the program.’ In short, objectives tell us
where the program is going and how it is programmed to achieve the
desired results.

Needs assessment data are useful for defining program objectives

because they identify the deficiencies or challenges to be addressed.
A training program could be designed that would increase the brokers’
sensitivity to and support their clients. The objectives of this program will
be determined by the specific deficiencies, client preferences, concerns,
and other factors identified in the needs assessment.

Mager states that useful objectives include three critical aspects or

qualities, that is, they should describe (1) the performance the learners
(trainees) should be able to do, (2) the conditions under which they must
do it, and (3) the criteria (how well they must do it) used in judging its
success.

The qualities of useful objectives:

Performance An objective always says’what a learner is expected

to be able to do and/or produce to be considered competent; the objective
sometimes describes the product or result of the doing.

Conditions An objective describes the important conditions

(if any) under which the performance is to occur. Example, “Given all
available e’ngineering data regarding a proposed product, trainee will
write a product profile.”

Criteria Wherever possible, an objective identifies the criteria of

acceptable performance by describing how well the learner must perform
in order to be considered acceptable. Example: “The product profile
must describe all the commercial characteristics of the product that are
appropriate for its introduction to the market, including descriptions of at
least three major product uses.”

98
 Notes
Some examples of program objectives include the following:

➢ Given a packing list, the trainee will correctly identify (by circling)
all items on the list that have not been included in the shipment.
➢ Given standard hospital equipment, the trainee will draw 10 cc
of blood from a patient’s arm in not more than two tries (using
any member of the class).
➢ Using the information found on a completed loan application,
identify (in writing) whether a client meets the bank’s criteria for
an acceptable auto loan candidate.
➢ After completion of training, the trainee will accurately identify
and de
➢ scribe all major points in the organization’s antidiscrimination
policy.

Program objectives that lack clear statements concerning

performance, conditions, and criteria are often ambiguous and can cause
those who interpret the objectives differently to feel frustrated and come
into conflict with one another. Two ways to ensure that objectives are clear
are to choose words carefully and have the objectives reviewed by others
(such as managers and potential participants). If a reviewer is confused,
the objectives should be revised.

Writing objectives for behaviors that can be directly observed

by others can be easier than writing objectives for behaviors that are
unobservable (like judging whether a painting is of high quality or
determining whether the use of deadly force is warranted). When
dealing with broad or “unobservable” objectives, it is necessary to specify
observable behaviors that indicate whether an unobservable outcome has
been achieved! Thus, an objective for judging whether a painting is of
high quality can be written as “to be able to judge whether a painting is of
high quality by orally listing the characteristics the painting possesses that
indicate its quality.”

In many cases, simply presenting trainees with objectives for

learning or performance may be enough to elicit the desired behavior.’
That is, sometimes people do not meet performance expectations because
they were never clearly told what the expectations were or how they
were

99
Notes
supposed to meet them. Clear objectives provide this information and
represent the organization’s expectations, which can play a key role in
shaping employee performance.

Writing objectives is a challenging but essential aspect of effective HRD.

Some questions to ask when writing objectives include:

➢ Is your main intent stated (concerning what you want the trainee
to do)?
➢ Have you described all the conditions that will influence trainee
performance?
➢ Have you described how well the trainee must perform for his or
her performance to be considered acceptable?
➢ It is remarkably easy to write objectives for training or educational
courses that contain phrases with little or no meaning (Mager calls
these “gibberish” objectives).

Guidelines for developing useful objectives

➢ An objective is a collection of words, symbols, pictures and/or

diagrams describing what you intend for the trainees to achieve.
➢ An objective will communicate your intent to the degree that
you describe: what the learner will be doing when he/she will
be demonstrating achievement or mastery of the objective, the
important conditions of the doing, and the criteria by which
achievement will be judged.
➢ To prepare a useful objective, continue to modify a draft until these
questions are answered:
What do I want trainees to be able to do?
What are the important conditions or constraints under which I
want them to perform?
How trainees must perform for me to be satisfied?
➢ Write a separate statement for each important outcome or intent;
write as many as you need to communicate your intents.

100
 Notes
The “Make Versus Buy” Decision: Creating or Purchasing HRD
Programs

After a manager or HRD professional has identified the program

objectives, a series of decisions must be made towards the development
and delivery of the program. One of those decisions is whether to design
the program internally or purchase it (or portions of it) from an outside
vendor, or use some combination of the two. Many services are available
through outside vendors or consultants, including:

➢ Assisting with and conducting needs assessment

➢ Guiding internal staff to design or implement a program
➢ Designing a program specifically for the organization
➢ Providing supplemental training materials (exercises, workbooks,
computer software, videos) presenting a previously designed
program
➢ Conducting a train-the-trainer program to improve the
instructional skills of internal content experts

There are many sources of HRD programs, materials, and

advices. Many consulting firms, educational institutions, professional
societies, trade unions, publishing houses, governmental agencies, and
nonprofit community-based organizations offer training programs and
information to interested organizations. The American Society for
Training and Development, as well as T&D magazines, are useful places
to begin a search for external training providers.

Table lists a number of factors that should be considered while

making a purchase decision. For example, a small manufacturer desires
to computerize its billing operation. Given the nature of the training
needed, it is likely that the firm’s management would contract with an
outside vendor because (1) the firm would probably not have the expertise
to design the program in-house, (2) management may not have the time
to design the program, and (3) it is not likely that the firm has an HRD
department or full-time HRD professional. In general, when the number
of people needing the HRD intervention is small, it is more likely that
the project will be outsourced. That is, those needing the intervention
may send its employees outside the organization for the program.
This

10
1
Notes
could come in the form of the organization providing the resources for
professional development or tuition reimbursement.

Other factors that may influence an organization’s decisions

include personal contacts or past experience with an outside vendor,
geographical proximity to the vendor, local economic conditions, and
the presence of government incentives to conduct training. ‘

When an organization lacks specialized KSAOs

Expertise needed to design and implement an HRD
program.
When it is appropriate to hire an outside agency
Timeliness to facilitate the process.

Generally, the larger the number of trainees the

greater will be the likelihood for the organization
Number of to design the program itself. Thus, for just a few
Trainees trainees the HRD department would send them to
an outside training agency.

If the subject matter is sensitive or proprietary the

Subject Matter HRD department would conduct the program in-
house using employees as trainers.

The HRD department always considers cost, but

Cost only in concert with other factors.

The size of the HRD department is important for

assessing the capacity to design, conduct, and/or
Size of HRD implement skills training as opposed to using an
outside agency.

Some other extraneous conditions that would

“X” Factor make it preferable that an outside agency be used
to conduct the skills training.

Factors to consider before purchasing an HRD program

Once an organization decides to purchase a program or part of a

program from an outside source, a vendor must be chosen. One rational
way to do this is to determine the match between the vendor’s product or
capability with the organization’s needs and objectives. The criteria for
these decisions vary among organizations, but in general they include
the following:

102
 Notes
1. Cost: price relative to program content and quality
2. Credentials: including certificates, degrees, and other
documentation of the vendor’s expertise
3. Background: number of years in business and experience in the
particular content area
4. Experience: vendor’s prior clients, success with those clients,
references
5. Philosophy: comparison of the vendor’s philosophy to that of
the organization
6. Delivery method: training methods and techniques used
7. Content: topics included in program or materials
8. Actual product: including appearance, samples, or whether a pilot
program is available
9. Results: expected outcomes
10. Support: especially in terms of implementation and follow-up
11. Request for proposal (RFP): the match between a vendor’s
offer and the requirement spelled out in the organization’s
request for a proposal.

Some of these factors will carry greater weight with particular

managers. For example, some managers want to work only with the “best”
providers, so they may weigh the vendor’s experience and client list more
heavily.

A recent study of outsourcing in the training area provides some

interesting data. Training managers were polled concerning their use of
outside vendors for training and development. They reported spending
about 25 percent of their budgets on outsourced training. The most
frequent topics conducted by vendors were management development
(27 percent), technical training (23 percent), and computer training
(14 percent). Although overall satisfaction with the outsourced
training was fairly high, only 29 percent reported that they had saved
money as a result of outsourcing. Developing trust and maintaining
strong communications with vendors were cited as major factors
leading to the successful outsourcing of training. Gainey and Klaas
state that it is better to outsource rather than to “acquire expertise and
enhance the overall

10
3
Notes
design and delivery of training,” rather than primarily as a means to cut
costs.

Outside training vendors offer organizations a wide choice of

options in designing and developing training and HRD programs. These
programs represent viable options when organizations have a small HRD
function and a small number of trainees and when program content has
no proprietary value. Even large organizations that have well-respected
training functions make regular use of outside vendors for a variety of
HRD programs. When organizations, large or small, elect to go outside
to purchase training services and programs, they should, of course, first
conduct a needs assessment so that they can make an informed decision.

Selecting the Trainer

Once the organization has made a decision to design its own

training program, or has purchased a program that it will run, a trainer
must be selected. Selecting a trainer can be fairly easy when an
organization has a large, multifaceted training staff with the
competencies and subject matter expertise to train in high demand areas.
Training competency involves the knowledge and varied skills needed
to design and implement a training program. Effective trainers must be
able to communicate their knowledge clearly, use various instructional
techniques, have good interpersonal skills, and have the ability to
motivate others to learn.

Train-the-trainer programs

The purpose of train-the-trainer programs is to provide subject

matter experts (SMEs) with the necessary instructional knowledge and
skills to design and implement a training program. Train-the-trainer
programs are available through local professional associations,
colleges, and consultants. These programs range from instruction in a
single training technique (e.g., behavior modeling) to a comprehensive
program on how to design a training program. The latter would present
several training methods and techniques with an emphasis on how each
can be used to maximize learning in different situations. Some training
providers, such as Development Dimensions International (DDI),
conduct train-the- trainer programs in which their client’s employees
become certified by the consulting firm to present their programs to the
organization.

104
 Notes
Some organizations design their own train-the-trainer programs, which
can be desirable when there is a constant demand for skilled or technical
trainers, or when employers want to emphasize a particular training
technique. These programs should focus on many of the issues
including:

1. Developing trainee objectives and lesson plans

2. Selecting and preparing training materials
3. Selecting and using training aids (e.g., Microsoft® PowerPoint®
slides, videos, overhead projectors)
4. Selecting and using different training methods and techniques

When it is not possible to design a train-the-trainer program,

some organizations have developed training manuals that include these
various components of the design and implementation process.
Manuals can be valuable when there are insufficient numbers of SMEs to
warrant a train-the-training program or when the potential trainers are
in different geographical areas. Overall, the selection of the trainer is
an important decision for any HRD effort. Obviously, even a
competently designed program that has the potential to address a
significant organizational need can be a failure if an incompetent,
unmotivated, or disinterested trainer delivers it. An ideal trainer would
be someone with the requisite competencies as a trainer, as well as peer
recognition for his or her subject matter expertise. If the trainer does not
have the necessary subject matter expertise, then it is imperative that
this individual should work together with a subject matter expert in the
design phase, so that an effective matching of training content with
training design and delivery can take place.

Preparing a lesson plan

Program objectives are necessary for pinpointing desired outcomes

of a training or HRD program, but these statements alone are insufficient
for determining the content of the training program, as well as the training
methods, techniques, and materials. To translate program objectives
into an executable training session, the development of a lesson plan is
recommended.

10
5
Notes
A lesson plan is a trainer’s guide for the actual delivery of the
training content. Creating a lesson plan requires the trainer to determine
in advance what is to be covered and how much time to devote to each
part of the session. Gilley and Eggland suggest that a lesson plan should
specify:

➢ Content to be covered
➢ Sequencing of activities
➢ Selection or design of training media
➢ Selection or development of experiential exercises, or both
➢ Timing and planning of each activity
➢ Selection of the method of instruction to be used
➢ Number and type of evaluation items to be used

Some organizations have program designers whose responsibilities

may include defining training objectives and developing lesson plans.
Individuals with educational backgrounds in instructional design
(especially from colleges of education) are often hired for such positions.
The kind of assistance that program designers can provide is particularly
important for subject matter experts who have limited training skills.
Some organizations include a section on lesson planning in their train-
the-trainer programs.

Selecting the trainer and then preparing the lesson plan is a

logical sequence, particularly when the trainer is also the one
preparing the lesson plan. But sometimes the HRD intervention
(including the general lesson plans) is designed before the trainers are
selected. This would be most likely to occur in large organizations.
Even here, though, the trainer should modify or adapt the general
lesson plan to fit each situation in which he or she is asked to present
the HRD program.

Summary

Designing an effective HRD program involves, setting objectives,

selecting the trainer or vendor, developing a lesson plan, selecting
program methods and techniques, preparing materials and scheduling the
program. Defining the objectives for the training or HRD program is one
of the first things a HRD professional should do - after completing the
needs

106
 Notes
assessment. Training competency involves the knowledge and varied skills
needed to design and implement a training program. To translate program
objectives into an executable training session, the development of a lesson
plan is recommended.

****

10
7
Notes

Lesson 2.3 - HRD Interventions and Creating HRD Program

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson, you may be able to

➢ Identify the Training Methods and Media

➢ Evaluate Training Materials
➢ Understand HRD Programs Schedules

Introduction

The designer of the training program needs to understand each

of the methods and the delivery system to determine the best method
for meeting training objectives, given the organizational constraints.
Instructional methods differ in their ability to influence knowledge,
skills and attitudes, so the training designer must be able to evaluate a
method’s strengths and weaknesses to make good decisions about its
use. Although the method’s effectiveness in meeting the learning
objective should be the major criterion for selection, other consideration
are costs, time needed to develop material, and the time allotted for
training session.

Selecting Training Methods and Media

A 2003 survey conducted by Raining magazine revealed that,

contrary to popular belief, classroom programs were still the most
popular instructional method (see Table).

Methods Percent
Instructor-led Classroom Programs 91
Self-Study, Web-based 44
Job-based Performance Support 44
Public Seminars 42
Case Studies 40

108
 Notes

Role Plays 35
Games or Simulations, Non-computer-based 25
Self-Study, Non-computer-based 23
Virtual Classroom, with Instructor 21
Games or Simulations, Computer-based 10
Experiential Programs 6
Virtual Reality Programs 3
Media
Workbooks/Manuals 79
Internet/Intranet/Extranet 63
CD-ROM/DVD/Diskettes 55
Videotapes 52
Teleconferencing 24
Video conferencing 23
Satellite/Broadcast TV 12
Audiocassettes 4

Organizations making frequent use of various training methods and media and
its percentage share

Adopted from Werner & DeSimone (2007). Human Resource Development, 4e. Thomson
South-Western.

The survey indicated that 91 percent of organizations use the

classroom format “always” or “often” to deliver at least some of their
training. There has been considerable recent growth in web-based self-
study programs and work-based performance support programs. More
general public seminars continue to remain popular as well. Data
concerning training media usage are reported in Table. Workbooks and
manuals continue to be widely used, though there has been a
substantial recent increase in the use of the Internet/company intranets
and CD- ROM/DVDs for provide training. The types of training most
frequently offered can be seen in Table

10
9
Notes
Type Percent
Computer Systems/Applications 96

New Hire Orientation 96

Management Development, Nonexecutive 91

Technical Training 90
Communication Skills 89

Sexual Harassment 88
Supervisory Skills 88
Leadership 85
New Equipment Operation 85

Performance Management/Appraisal 85

Team Building 82

Customer Service 81

Product Knowledge 79

Executive Development 78

Safety 77

Computer Programming 76

Personal Growth 76

Managing Change 75

Problem Solving/Decision Making 75

Time Management 74

Train-the-Trainer 74

Diversity/Cultural Awareness 72

Hiring/Interviewing 71

Strategic Planning 69

Customer Education 68

Quality/Process Improvement 65

Public Speaking/Presentation Skills 61

Basic Life/Work Skills 61

Ethics 55

Sales 54

Frequent Types of Training offered and its percentage share

Adopted from Werner & DeSimone (2007). Human Resource Development, 4e. Thomson
South-Western.

110
 Notes
Computer applications, orientation, management development,
technical training, communication skills, and sexual harassment were the
topics most frequently offered.

An ASTD survey revealed that, in 2002, organizations surveyed

reported using instructor-led classroom training for 72 percent of
their training, with 19 percent of training being delivered via learning
technologies such as computer-based training, multimedia, CD-ROMs,
and company intranets. For organizations identified as training
investment leaders, the figures for delivery via classroom versus learning
technologies were 62 percent and 29 percent, respectively.

One way of classifying the training is by the degree of activity

expected or required from the trainees. On one end, the lecture method
and videotapes are generally the least active (or most passive) form of
training. At the other extreme, highly experiential methods such as
outdoor training, role-playing exercises, games, and simulations demand
the greatest amount of activity or action from trainees. Other approaches
such as computer-based instruction or videoconferencing fall somewhere
in between.

Training approaches can also be grouped into two broad

categories: on-the-job methods, which typically occur in the employee’s
normal work setting, and class¬room methods, which typically take
place away from the job (such as in a conference room or lecture hall).
This categorization is not definitive, as some training methods have
multiple applications. Computer-based training (CBT), for example, can
be implemented using a computer at an employee’s desk or worksta¬tion,
in a company classroom, or even at an employee’s home.

With such an array of training methods and media available (as

seen in Table), how does a HRD professional choose as to which approach
is most appropriate for maximum learning? Several factors should be
considered:

1. The objectives of the program This factor is paramount. As

will be clear, some approaches are more appropriate for
achieving particular objectives than others. For example, if the
objective is to improve interpersonal skills, then more active
approaches such

11
1
Notes
as videotaping, role playing, or behavior modeling would be
better choices than the lecture or computer-based training
methods.
2. Time and money available In an ideal world, we would have all
the time and money needed to accomplish our goals.
Unfortunately, in many organizations, managers often ask the
HRD department to design and implement programs quickly,
while spending as little money as possible. Competing needs may
also force HRD professionals to select certain approaches because
of its low cost. For example, when designing a program to train
mechanics to repair a complicated mechanical system, an
interactive, computer- based program may be appropriate, but
because of its cost, the HRD professional may have to accept for a
combination of traditional classes (using lecture, discussion, and
reference books) and on-the- job training.
3. Availability of other resources Some methods require highly
trained trainers and specialized equipment and facilities to be
delivered effectively. Again, trade-offs are likely to be made by
choosing alternative approaches with less cost resources.
4. Trainee characteristics and preferences The issues here are on both
the trainee’s readiness and the diversity of the target population.
Methods such as computer-based training require a fairly high
level of literacy. If literacy or fluency is a problem, either a less
reading- and writing-intensive method (such as videotape) may
be used, or literacy training must be done first. Similarly,
because individuals have different learning styles, some training
methods may be more appropriate than others. For example,
Ronald Sims states that, in designing any program, trainers must
pay particular attention to the principles of learning laid out in
Chapter 3, and in particular to the learning styles described by
David Kolb.
In the end, the selection of training methods and media requires
that program designers have the knowledge of different HRD
techniques, and then use sound judgment in their decision making. HRD
professionals should investigate all available methods, and when in
doubt, consult experienced colleagues, instructional designers, and
consultants.

112
 Notes
Preparing Training Materials

After the training methods have been selected, the next logical
step is to prepare or purchase the training materials, depending upon
whether the program is purchased or designed by the organization. If a
training program is purchased from an outside vendor, training
materials such as books, handouts, and videos will usually be part of the
package. Programs designed in-house will require the preparation of
materials. If the program is similar to past training programs, those
materials may simply need to be modified to fit the current program.

Many kinds of training materials are used, but our discussion here
is on program announcements, syllabi or program outlines, training
manuals, and textbooks.

Program Announcements

Program announcements inform the target audience about the

training program. The announcement should indicate the purpose of
the program, when and where it will be held, and how the employee can
qualify to participate in the program. Sufficient lead time should be
given to employees so that they can adjust their schedules and process the
necessary request forms. Typically, announcements are sent through
supervisory channels, union stewards, company newsletters, an
organization’s intranet, or mailed individually to employees. Some
organizations designate a bulletin board for announcing training
opportunities or make use of electronic mail systems. Some
organizations publish periodic bulletins to provide this information.

Program Outlines

Program outlines (or course syllabi) are documents that

communicate the content, goals, and expectations for the program.
Typically provided at the beginning of the program, these include such
things as course objectives, topical areas to be covered, materials or tools
needed requirements of each trainee, and a tentative schedule of events.
The program outline can be used to establish behavioral expectations
including punctuality, attendance, work habits, class participation, and
courtesy toward other trainees. Such expectations should be clearly

11
3
Notes
explained. For example, it is important for the trainees to be present at
all sessions if training content is sequenced. The attendance policy
should reflect this requirement and explain that any trainee who is absent
may be required to begin a new program from the start.

Training Manuals or Textbooks

Most trainers rely on a training manual or textbook for the basic

instructional material, readings, exercises, and self-tests. Some
documents are organized into modules that make it easy to organize the
training program into sessions. Textbooks provide a broad treatment of
the subject, whereas training manuals are better known for their brevity
and hands-on approach. Trainers who decide to use a textbook would
normally contact the publisher and determine whether individual
modules can be purchased separately, how useful other trainers find the
item, and how easily the item can be customized to the needs of the
organization. In addition to these factors, the purchase price should be
compared with the cost of producing a comparable training manual. For
example, Thomson/South-Western has an active custom publishing
operation (called Text Choice) that allows educators and trainers to
select portions of their content as well as add original materials to
create a customized textbook.

Training manuals can be readily produced by an organization,

particularly given the availability of desktop publishing software. The
production cost would include staff time for curriculum design and
writing, cost of equipment, and printing. The availability of desktop
publishing software and laser printers makes it much easier to produce
a high quality training manual in-house, but still there is a large
demand for the manual, as it is usually less expensive in the long run to
purchase a commercially produced manual.

Scheduling the HRD Program

The task of scheduling training or a HRD program may seem

relatively straightforward when compared to other decisions made by the
trainer, but this is definitely not the case. Organizations can be busy, hectic,
and unpredictable environments, may make the scheduling HRD and other
activities very difficult. The goal in scheduling a HRD program is to ensure
that the participants (both trainer and learners) are available and

114
 Notes
have their attention focused on the learning task at hand. In this section,
we will discuss some of the issues HRD professionals should consider
when scheduling programs. The discussion applies to scheduling programs
that require participants to be in attendance at the time the program is
delivered. In contrast, one of the main advantages of individually oriented
delivery methods, such as CD-ROM or self-paced instruction, is that such
approaches can be done whenever the participants have the time to do
them.

Scheduling During Work Hours

One popular option for program scheduling is to run the program

during normal working hours. This timing both avoids outside conflicts
(such as commuting, family, and personal obligations) and sends a
message to employees that learning is an important part of their job. While
scheduling a program during normal work hours, the HRD professional
should consider factors such as the day of the week, time of day, peak
work hours, staff meeting times, and travel requirements. The day of the
week becomes an issue because employees often favor some days for time
off, such as Monday, Friday, and the days surrounding a holiday.
Employees may wish to extend their weekends and holidays, so these days
are often avoided (if possible) when scheduling training.

Time of day is another factor. Programs scheduled for the start of

the workday may face a significant proportion of tardy or tired
participants. Scheduling a program for the lunch hour may require
building in time for employees to eat during the program, providing lunch,
or requiring employees to eat before or after training. Mid afternoon
programs coincide with the time that many people’s circadian rhythms are
at a low point, resulting in sluggishness and shorter attention spans. To
combat this, the program should include active participation, break
periods, or the availability of light snacks and beverages. In addition,
employees attending programs scheduled close to quitting time may be
distracted or have to leave early to attend to personal or family demands.
Obviously, a program has to be scheduled sometime, but the wise trainer
will note these issues and take steps to deal with them as best as possible.

In addition to day of the week and time of day, other working-

hour constraints may be unique to particular organizational units or

11
5
Notes
occupational groups. These include peak work hours, staff meeting
times, and travel requirements. Peak work hours are the times of the
day, week, month, or year that departments are the busiest and when
scheduling training program would cause a potential conflict. For
example, scheduling a professional development program for
accountants and auditors during tax season would prevent most
potential participants from attending. Managers and supervisors should
also be contacted before scheduling pro¬grams to determine if
participants have any staff meetings, travel requirements, or any other
special scheduling needs. This information will help the trainer to select
the best times and develop contingency plans for any potential conflicts.

Scheduling After Work Hours

Sometimes, HRD programs are scheduled after work or during

the weekend to avoid some of the organizational constraints previously
discussed. This approach can create other problems. Extending the
workday and workweek can cause a hardship for some employees,
particularly those who have family obligations or other personal
commitments. Even when employees know about a scheduled training
program in advance, family problems could arise, causing some
trainees to miss important training sessions. Another problem is
fatigue. Employees may be physically tired from a day’s work and may
not be mentally alert. Even when after-work and weekend programs do
not cause hardships, many employees are reluctant to give up their
leisure time. In these situations, some organizations provide inducements,
including overtime pay, compensatory time (equal time off), and
training as a qualification for promotion and leisure activities to coincide
with the training session.

Summary

The designer of the training program needs to understand each

of the methods and delivery systems to determine the best method for
meeting training objectives, given the organizational constraints.
Workbooks and manuals continue to be most widely used, though there
has been a substantial recent increase in the use of the
Internet/company intranets and CD-ROM/DVDs for provide training.
Program announcements, syllabi or program outlines, training manuals,
and textbooks are kinds of training materials.

116
 Notes

Lesson 2.4 - Implementing HRD Programs

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson, you may be able to

➢ Describe the Training Methods

➢ Enunciate on the Job Training Methods
➢ Assess Off the Job Training Methods

Introduction

The competitive pressures facing organizations today require

employees whose knowledge and ideas are current, and whose skills
and abilities can deliver results. As organizations compete and change,
training becomes even more critical than before. Employees who must
adapt to the myriad of changes facing organizations must be trained
continually to maintain and update their capabilities. Also, managers
must have adequate training and familiar with the development program
to enhance their leadership skills and abilities.

Training Delivery Methods

The third phase of the training process is implementing training

and HRD programs. (Figure shows where these activities fit within the
training and HRD process model.)

Learning covered differences between expert and novice levels

of employee performance. Clearly, training is intended to increase the
expertise of trainees in a particular area. While thinking about the training
method (or methods) to be used, it is useful to consider the current level
of expertise that trainees possess. Figure depicts a learning pyramid. At
the bottom are learning prerequisites, that is, the basic skills or knowledge
the learner needs to get started. As the figure suggests, the novice learner
may easily get confused or anxious, and therefore novice trainees
generally

11
7
Notes
require more guided or instruction-centered training methods. In
contrast, as the trainees’ existing level of expertise increases, they
become more creative and confident. Thus, the desired or ideal training
methods are also likely to shift more toward exploratory or experiential
methods.

Assessment Design Implementation

Evaluation

Assess needs

Select
Prioritize Define evaluation
needs objectives criteria

Develop
lesson
plan Determin
e
evaluatio
n design
Develop/acquir
e
materials

Deliver the Conduct

Select HRD evaluation of
trainer/leader program or program or
intervention intervention

Select methods
and
Interpret results
techniques

Schedule the
program/intention

118
 Expert

More
Exploratory,
Creative,
Focused,
(Memory
Confident Association)

(Cognitive
More Flexibility)

Guided,
Factual,
Confused,
Anxious
Novice
(Learning Prerequisites)

A learning pyramid to guide in the selection of appropriate training

methods

Adopted from Werner & DeSimone (2007). Human Resource Development, 4e. Thomson
South-Western.

As the experiential methods generally require more time to

complete than instruction-centered approaches, they are not as
commonly used to reach large number of individuals (hence, the
pyramid shapes of Figure). This figure is also consistent with the
distinction made between declarative and procedural knowledge, that is,
in most cases, an individual must first learn what to do (declarative
knowledge) before he or she can learn how to do it (procedural
knowledge). An effective training or HRD program should first identify
where trainees are in terms of this pyramid, and then provide assistance
for all trainees to “move up” toward an expert

119
Notes
level of performance. In many situations, both guided and experiential
approaches will be used, for example, when organizations combine the
use of lecture, discussion, case studies, behavior modeling, role
playing, and games or simulations. This combined approach is
especially valuable when trainees have different learning styles and
preferences. The choice of training method should be guided by both
the program objectives, as well as an explicit consideration of the
current level of trainee expertise. Middle arrow in Figure depicts the
point at which individual trainees are ready to shift from more guided to
more exploratory learning approaches.

Training methods can be classified on the basis of whether they

take place on the job versus away from the employee’s normal work
setting. Table lists the on-the-job, classroom, and self-paced training
methods of this chapter. Other training methods used for particular
audiences (such as mentoring for management development) is also
discussed.

On-the-Job Training (OJT) Methods

On-the-job (OJT) training involves conducting training at a

trainee’s regular work place (desk, machine, etc.). This is the most
common form of training; most employees receive at least some training
and coaching on the job. Virtually any type of one-to-one instruction
between coworkers or between the employee and the supervisor can be
called as OJT. On-the- job training has been promoted as a means for
organizations to deal with the shortage of applicants who possess the skills
needed to perform many current jobs, and as a means for organizations to
deal with accelerating market cycles. Unfortunately, much on-the-job
training is conducted informally, without formal structure, planning, or
careful thought.

Structured OJT programs are generally conducted by an assigned

trainer who is recognized, rewarded, and trained to provide appropriate
instructional techniques. A survey of OJT practices found that (1)
supervisors, coworkers, and to a lesser degree, HRD staff members
conducted most of the structured OJT programs; (2) a majority of
organizations provided train-the-trainer programs for these assigned OJT
trainers; and (3) top management generally expressed support for
structured OJT programs. Formal OJT has two distinct advantages over
classroom training.

120
 Notes
First, OJT facilitates the transfer of learning to the job because the
trainee has an immediate opportunity to practice the work tasks on the
job. Transfer the learning is enhanced because the learning environment
is the same as the performance environment. Second, OJT reduces
training costs because no training facilities are needed.

There are, however, several limitations to OJT. First, the job site
may have physical constraints, noise, and other distractions that could
inhibit learning. Many of these cannot be changed because of the nature
of the job. Second, using expensive equipment for training could result in
costly damage or disruption to the production schedule. Third, using OJT
while customers are present may inconvenience them and temporarily
reduce the quality of service. Fourth, OJT involving heavy equipment
or chemicals may threaten the safety of others who are working in close
proximity. Precautions should be taken by the trainer to minimize the
potential problems from these four areas.

Training methods and techniques

121
Notes
In many cases, OJT is used in conjunction with off-the-job training.
For example, KLM Royal Dutch Airlines uses classroom-based training
to provide initial customer service training for new flight attendants.
However, follow-up training is conducted on evaluation flights. Trainees
are asked to demonstrate their service delivery skills on the evaluation
flights in front of experienced flight attendants. There are at least four
identifiable OJT techniques, including job instruction training (JIT), job
rotation, coaching, and mentoring. Now we will see these in detail.

Job Instruction Training (JIT)

JIT is defined as a sequence of instructional procedures used by

the trainer to train employees while they work in their assigned job. It
is a form of OJT. The content of a JIT program is distinguished by its
simplicity. Table details a simple four-step process that helps the
trainer and they are to prepare the worker, present the task, and allow
practice time and follow-up. Preparing the workers is important because
they need to know what to expect. Preparation may include providing
employees with a training manual, handouts, or other job aids that can
be used as references. Presenting the task should be carried out in such
a way that the trainee understands and replicate the task. Some trainers
demonstrate the task before asking the trainee to repeat the process.
Practice time is important for the trainee to master a particular set of
skills. Finally, the trainer needs to conduct a follow-up as a way of
ensuring that the trainee is making progress. During this follow-up
session, the trainer should apply coaching techniques when appropriate.

The success of JIT depends on the ability of the trainer to adapt

his or her own style to the training process. The trainer, particularly if
this person is the trainee’s coworker or supervisor, should have an
opportunity to assess the trainee’s needs before beginning the training.
If the training material is too difficult or too easy, the OJT trainer
should adjust the material or techniques to fit the needs of the trainee.
Once the trainees have demonstrated that they can do the work, they
should be allowed to work on their own. However, it is important for
the trainer or supervisor to check back periodically to answer questions
and make sure everything is going well.

122
 Notes

Job Instruction Training

Job Rotation

Job rotation is the approach where the trainee is generally expected

to learn more by observing and doing than by receiving instruction.
Rotation, as the term implies, involves a series of assignments to
different positions or departments for a specified period. During this
assignment, the trainee is supervised by a department employee, usually a
supervisor, who is responsible for orienting, training, and evaluating the
trainee. Throughout the training cycle, the trainee is expected to learn
how each department functions, including some key roles, policies, and
procedures. At the end of the cycle, the accumulated evaluations will be
used to determine the preparedness of the trainee where the person will be
permanently assigned.

Job rotation is frequently used for first-level management training,

particularly for new employees. When this technique is used, it is
generally assumed that new managers need to develop a working
knowledge of the organization before they can be successful managers.
Two other forms of on-the-job training, coaching and mentoring, also
involve one-to-one

123
Notes
instruction. Coaching typically occurs between an employee and that
person’s supervisor and focuses on examining employee performance and
taking actions to maintain effective performance and correct performance
problems. In mentoring, a senior manager is paired with a more junior
employee for the purpose of giving support, helping the employee learn
the job, and preparing responsibility.

Classroom Training Approaches (Off the Job Methods)

Classroom training approaches are conducted outside of the normal

work setting. In this, a classroom can be a training space away from the
work site, such as the company cafeteria or a meeting room. Although
many organizations capitalize on whatever usable space they have made
available to conduct training sessions, some larger organizations maintain
facilities that serve as freestanding training centers. Conducting training
away from the work setting has several advantages over on-the-job
training. First, classroom settings permit the use of a variety of training
techniques, such as video/DVD, lecture, discussion, role playing, and
simulation. Second, the environment can be designed or controlled to
minimize distractions and create a climate conducive to learning. Third,
classroom settings can accommodate larger numbers of trainees than the
typical on-the-job setting, allowing for more efficient delivery of training.
On the other hand, two potential disadvantages of classroom training
methods are: increased costs and dissimilarity to the job setting, making
transfer of training more difficult.

Five primary categories of classroom training methods are:

1. Lecture
2. Discussion
3. Audiovisual media
4. Experiential methods
5. Computer-based training (classroom-based)

The Lecture Approach

The lecture method involves the oral presentation of information

by a subject matter expert to a group of listeners. As we have noted, the

124
 Notes
lecture continues to be a popular training technique. One of the reasons
the lecture method is so popular is that it is an efficient way of transmitting
factual information to a large audience in a relatively short amount of time.
When used in conjunction with visual aids, such as slides, charts, maps,
and handouts, the lecture can be an effective way to facilitate the transfer
of theories, concepts, procedures, and other factual material.

And the lecture method has been widely criticized, particularly

because it emphasizes one-way communication. It has been suggested
that the lecture method perpetuates the traditional authority structure
of organizations, thus promoting negative behavior (such as passivity
and boredom), and it is poorly suited for facilitating transfer of training
and individualizing training. Similarly, although a skilled lecturer may
effectively communicate conceptual knowledge to trainees who are
prepared to receive it, the lecture has little value in facilitating
attitudinal and behavioral changes. Trainees must be motivated to learn
otherwise, when it is used alone, the lecture method does not elicit
audience responses. A related disadvantage of the lecture method is the
lack of sharing of ideas among the trainees. Without dialogue, the
trainees may not be able to put things into a common perspective that
makes sense to them. Also, many people claim to dislike the lecture
method.

The Discussion Method

The discussion method involves the trainer in two-way

communication with trainees, and the trainees in communication with
each other. As active participation is encouraged, the discussion
method offers trainees an opportunity for feedback, clarification, and
sharing points of view. Given this dynamic, the discussion technique can
overcome some of the limitations of the straight lecture method. A
common maxim for discussion facilitators is, “Never does for the group
what it is doing for itself.” However, the success of this method is
dependent upon the ability of the trainer to initiate and manage class
discussion by asking one or more of the following types of questions:

➢ Direct questions can be used to illustrate or produce a very

narrow response
➢ Reflective questions can be used to monitor what someone else has
said to make sure the message was received as intended

125
Notes
➢ Open-ended questions can be used to challenge the trainees to
increase their understanding of a specific topic.

Managing discussion goes beyond questioning participants. The

trainer must ensure that the trainees are reinforced for their responses.
The trainer must also act as a gatekeeper, giving everyone an opportunity
to express their point of view and not letting the discussion be dominated
by a few vocal participants. Managing discussion in large training classes
can be difficult. Not only the opportunities for an individual to participate
are reduced in large group, some participants may feel intimidated and
be reluctant to get involved. Dividing a large class into smaller discussion
groups, which can then share their ideas with other groups, can increase
the opportunity for discussion.

There are several limitations of the discussion method. First,

a skilled facilitator is needed to manage the discussion process. Skill in
facilitating a discussion is not something that one acquires quickly; skilled
facilitators have generally practiced extensively and prepared thoroughly
before leading a discussion. Second, sufficient time must be available for
meaningful discussion to take place. Third, trainees need to have a
common reference point for meaningful discussion to occur. Assigning and
reading material before the discussion session can help overcome this
obstacle. On balance, most trainers and trainees find a well-done
discussion to be more interesting and energizing than a traditional lecture.
Of course, adequate time, motivation, and resources must be made
available for this method to work effectively, (but then, this is true of any
method of delivering training).

Audiovisual Media

Both the lecture and discussion methods are limited in their ability
to adequately portray dynamic and complex events. Audiovisual methods
take advantage of various media to illustrate or demonstrate the training
material. Audiovisual media can bring complex events to life by showing
and describing details that are often difficult to communicate in other
ways. For the purposes of this chapter, we categorize audiovisual methods
into three groups: static media, dynamic, and telecommunications.

126
 Notes
Static media typically involve fixed illustrations that use both
words and images. This can include printed materials, slides, and overhead
transparencies. Printed materials, such as handouts, charts, guides,
reference books, and textbooks, allow trainees to keep the material,
referring it before, during, and after the training session. Slides are often
used in ways similar to printed materials, but by projecting a computer-or
camera-generated image onto a screen, they can serve as a common focus
for discussion. Slides can also be synchronized with audiotapes to form a
standardized presentation. Such a setup can be delivered without using a
skilled trainer; at a minimum, someone is needed to operate and monitor
the equipment (slide projector and tape player). Overhead transparencies
also allow the trainer to project printed materials or other images on a
screen. Transparencies can be more flexible than slides because the trainer
can also write on the transparency sheets, turning the screen into a sort of
chalkboard.

The use of computer-generated slides (such as Microsoft

PowerPoint presentations) has increased dramatically in recent years.
Some go so far as to argue that “the ability to prepare a slide
presentation has become an indispensable corporate survival skill.”

Dynamic media Technique that present dynamic sequences of

events are considered dynamic media and include compact discs (CDs),
DVDs, diskettes, videotape, films, and audiocassettes. There are literally
thousands of commercially produced films, videos, and DVDs are
available to HRD professionals through film libraries, professional
societies, and retail outlets. Many training vendors emphasize the sale or
rental of training DVDs and videos. In addition, many organizations are
able to produce their own videos at a relatively low cost. For example,
Southwest Airlines produced a nine-minute rap music video that
introduces employees to work procedures and company operations, while
at the same time conveying the team spirit and fun-oriented culture that
typifies the company.

An effective DVD or video takes advantage of the capabilities of the

medium rather than simply reproducing a printed or static presentation.
Unfortunately, many videos are indeed little more than reproductions of
traditional lectures. Some HRD professionals argue that the baby boomers
and later generations, who grew up watching films and television,
may

127
Notes
actually prefer this form of presentation. Yet, one potential limitation of this
technique is that trainers may rely too much on the film or video, and
focus too little on the training content. Such reliance can lead to
complacency among trainees who view the films and videos as
entertainment, rather than as opportunities to learn.

Video tape is also used as a visual aid for behavior modeling

training by recording role plays and then asking group members to critique
their experience while they watch the video. For example, a sales training
program may include a videotaping segment, so that trainees can observe
themselves performing an in-class exercise on how to close a sale. This
approach also provides an opportunity for the trainer to reinforce desired
behaviors. One potential limitation of this technique is that trainees
may feel intimidated by the camera and may even resent the process. To
offset this limitation, the trainer must be supportive and create a “safe”
environment during the program.

Telecommunication The transmission of training programs to

different locations via telecommunications has become increasingly
feasible via satellite, cable, and fiber optic networks. Linking several
locations for instructional and conference purposes are known an
instructional television (ITV), or interactive television, which allows
entire course to be televised. Telecommunication technology also allows
organizations to conduct conferences between remote locations. This
technique is known as teleconferencing, or videoconferencing, is being
used by organizations such as JCPenney, IBM, AT&T, Domino’s Pizza,
and Texas instruments. JCPenney also sells this service to other
organizations. Colleges and universities are also taking advantage of
teleconferencing facility to benefit both their students and corporate
clients. Teleconferencing helps organizations to reduce trainer, travel, and
facility costs, and it increases the availability of training to remote
locations.

Studies have consistently shown that audiovisual training

methods like film, television, and videoconferencing are as effective, as
other methods are (Primary lecture). Given the choices available, HRD
professionals must select the most appropriate audiovisual method for
each particular HRD program. Kearsley made five recommendations
concerning media selection:

128
 Notes
1. Identify the media attributes required for the conditions,
performance, or standards of each instructional objective.
2. Identify student characteristics that suggests or preclude
particular media.
3. Identify characteristics of the learning environment that favor or
preclude particular media
4. Identify practical considerations that may determine which media
are feasible.
5. Identify economic or organizational factors that may determine
which media are feasible.

This list includes both learning-related and practical considerations.

Rothwell and Kazanas pose several further questions that can guide the
proper selection of audiovisual methods:

1. How much time is available to plan and test instruction?

2. What equipment is available to use in designing or delivering
instruction, or in doing both?
3. For what media instructional designers prepare instruction? Do
staff skills lend themselves to some media better than others?
4. How much is an organization willing to spend on the design and
development of instruction?

Readers who want to know more about these various audiovisual

methods and how to select among them would do well to consult other
sources.

Experiential Methods

So far, we have discussed training methods that focus primarily on

presentation of training content. In many of these methods, such as video
and lecture, the learner is generally assumed to be a passive (or somewhat
passive) recipient of information. Experiential learning advocates, such
as David Kolb, state that effective learning requires active engagement on
the part of the learner. Keys and Wolfe summarize this point of view as
follows:

129
Notes
Experientialists believe that effective learning is an active
experience that challenges the skills, knowledge, and beliefs of
participants. This is accomplished by creating a contrived, environment
that is both challenging and psychologically safe for the participant to
investigate and to employ new concepts, skills, and behaviors. Experiential
instructors recognized that learners bring to the learning environment a set
of accumulated knowledge and learning methods that are simultaneously
functional and/ or dysfunctional depending on the learning situation.

Experiential training methods that are commonly used in

organizations include case studies, games and simulations, role
playing, and behavior modeling. These methods fall more toward the
exploratory side of the learning continuum presented in Figure. Each of
these methods is described in the following sections.

The case study method helps trainees learn analytical and

problem-solving skills by presenting a story (called a case) about
people in an organization who are facing a problem. Cases may be
based on actual events involving people in an organization, or they can
be financial. Case studies are typically included in college textbooks
and courses in management, public administration, law, sociology, and
similar subjects. They are increasingly available in video, DVD, and
other media formats and not just on paper.

Although cases vary in complexity and detail, trainees should be

given enough information to analyze the situation and recommend their
own solutions. In solving the problem, trainees are generally required to
use a rational problem-solving process that includes:

1. Restating important facts

2. Drawing inferences from the facts
3. Stating the problem or problems
4. Developing alternative solutions and then stating the consequences
of each
5. Determining and supporting a course of action

Cases can be studied by individuals or small groups, and the

completed analysis and solutions are typically presented by the trainees to

130
 Notes
the rest of the class. Proponents of the case study method argue that this
form of problem solving within a management setting offers illustrations
of the concepts students are expected to learn and use, improves
communication skills, and facilitates the linkage between theory and
practice. Proponents also claim that cases allow students to discuss,
share, and debate the merits of different inferences, problems, and
alternative course of action. Such insight can help students to develop
better analytical skills and improve their ability to integrate new
information.

The case study method has vigorous critics who argue that it
can cause groupthink, focuses too much on the past, limits the teaching
role of the trainer, reduces the learner’s ability to draw generalizations,
reinforces passivity on the part of the learner, and promotes the quantity
of interaction among students at the expense of the quality of interaction.
Andrews and Noel claim that cases often lack realistic complexity and a
sense of immediacy, and inhibit development of the ability to collect and
distill information. In addition, trainees may get caught up in the details of
the situation, at the expense of focusing on the larger issues and concepts
they are trying to learn.

To overcome these limitations, the trainer should make

expectations clear and provide guidance when needed. In addition, the
trainer must effectively guide the discussion portion of the case study to
ensure trainees have an opportunity to explore differing assumptions and
positions they have taken and the rationale for what constitutes effective
responses to the case. The point in discussing cases is not necessarily to
find the ‘right” solution, but to be able to provide a reasoned and logical
rationale for developing a course of action.

Business games and simulations like the case method, business

games are intended to develop or refine problem-solving and decision-
making skills. However, this technique tends to focus primarily on
business management decisions (such as maximizing profits). It is
estimated that 25 percent of organizations use non-computer-based
games or simulations, with 10 percent using computer-based games or
simulations.

Business games, particularly computer simulations of

organizations and industries, are widely used in business schools. A
review of sixty- one studies supported for the effectiveness of business
games in strategic
131
Notes
management courses. Whether these results can be generalized to
organizational settings can be mute question.

Another type of simulation used in management development

programs and assessment centers is the in-basket exercise. The goal of
this technique is to assess the trainee’s ability to establish priorities, plan,
gather relevant information, and make decisions. The sequence of events
involved in an in-basket exercise typically includes the following:

1. The trainees are told that they have been promoted to a

management position that was suddenly vacated. They are given
background information about the organization including
personnel, relationships, policies, and union contracts.
2. The trainees then receive the contents of the manager’s in-basket.
This material includes documents such as telephone messages,
notes, memos, letters, and reports.
3. The trainees are then asked to read, organize, prioritize, and make
decisions regarding the issues presented by the in-basket material.
4. At the end of the decision period, the trainees’ decisions are then
evaluated by trained scores.

The object of this technique is to force trainees to make decisions

in the allotted time period. Because there is usually insufficient time
to read each document and respond, the trainees must make quick and
accurate decisions. The trainees are evaluated not only on the quality of
their decisions but also on their ability to prioritize and to deal effectively
with all the critical documents. Research on the in-basket technique has
shown that it is successful in improving trainee effectiveness, as well as in
predicting future managerial effectiveness, either alone or in combination
with other devices.

One limitation of business games and simulations is that

although they can be quite complex, these techniques often lack the
realistic complexity and information present in real organizations.
Factors such as organizational history and politics, social pressures, the
risks and consequences of alternatives, and the organization’s culture are
difficult to replicate in a simulation. This may undermine the extent to
which what is learned in the game or simulation will transfer back to
the job.

132
 Notes
In addition, many games and simulations emphasize the use of
quantitative analysis in making business decisions and underplay the
importance of interpersonal issues in managerial effectiveness.

Role playing A popular training technique, namely role playing

is reportedly used by 35 percent of organizations. In the role-playing
technique, trainees are presented with an organizational situation, assigned
a role or character in the situation, and asked to act out the role with
one or more of the other trainees. The role play should offer trainees an
opportunity for self-discovery and learning. For example, a management
development program could include a role play situation emphasizing
interpersonal conflict between a manager and a subordinate. Management
trainees would have an opportunity to play the role of both the manager
and the subordinate, in order to understand some of the dynamics of this
situation, as well as practice interpersonal skills. The value of this
technique is enhanced by conducting a feedback session following the
role-play, in which trainees and the trainer criticize the role player’s
performance. In many organizations, the role episode is videotaped, as
discussed earlier, which allows for better feedback and self-observation.

Although self-discovery and opportunity to practice interpersonal

skills are out-comes of role playing this method do have some
limitations. First, as discussed earlier, some trainees may feel
intimidated by having to act out a character (and possibly be videotape
doing so).Trainer should take sufficient time in introducing the exercise,
emplaning the process in detail, and most of all, emphasizing how
participation will help each trainee to better understand and apply
different interpersonal skills.

A second limitation of the technique is the extent to which trainees

are able to transfer this learning to their jobs. Some trainees may perceive
role playing as artificial or as a fun and game, but not as a legitimate
learning tool. Trainees who do not take this technique seriously may
interfere with other trainees’ learning. The trainer must manage the process
effectively and keep reinforcing the importance of participation.

Behavior modeling Social learning theory suggests that many of

our behavioral patterns are learned from observing others. This theory
forms the basis for behavior modeling. In organizations, employees learn
all kinds of behaviors, from observing supervisors, managers, union
leaders,

133
Notes
and coworkers who serve as role models. Under normal conditions, role
models can have a tremendous influence on individual behavior.

In this technique, trainees observe a model performing a target

behavior correctly (usually on a video or DVD). This is followed by a
discussion of the key components of the behavior, practicing the target
behavior through role playing and receiving feedback and reinforcement
for the behavior they demonstrate. Behavior modeling is widely used
for interpersonal skill training and is a common component of many
management training programs.

Researches have shown behavior modeling to be an effective

training technique. It is described in greater detail in our discussion of
management development.

Outdoor education Outdoor-based education, such as rope

courses, has generated considerable interest from employers and
employees alike. This can include work teams being involved with
outdoor games, orienting, or rafting. Frequently, such programs include
either low ropes or high ropes elements. A low ropes course typically
has limited physical risks; whereas high ropes courses typically have
higher perceived risks. Low ropes courses can also be conducted indoor.
Both types of courses usually have a strong focus on group problem
solving and team building. Though there is evidence that such courses
can impact work team functioning and performance, overall, the
empirical results to date have been mixed. Those considering use of such
programs should make sure that the programs match the objectives set
out for training, and that follow-up evaluation is conducted. A recent
article by Scott Williams and colleagues provide helpful guidance
concerning how multiple outcomes can be measured to evaluate the
success of outdoor training.

Self-Paced/Computer-Based Training Media and Methods

As mentioned, computer-based training (CBT) can be conducted

in either a classroom or an individual, self-paced format. Indeed, with the
increased availability of networked computer labs, there can be an almost
limitless interplay between instructor-led and individual-based computer
training. As such, we discuss computer-based training both as one of the
five approaches to classroom training, as well as a major example of
current

134
 Notes
self-paced training approaches. Before 1980s, most self-paced training
was paper based. For example, Fred Fiedler and colleagues developed
culture assimilator training for Americans travelling to particular
countries (such as India or Greece). Trainees read various vignettes about
another culture, and then made choices concerning why they thought a
particular action had been taken. Each response directed the trainee to a
particular page in the workbook.

Computers have had an enormous impact on the delivery of

training in organizations. Today, it is estimated that 55 percent of
organizations use computer-based training (CBT) via CD-ROM in their
training programs, with other multimedia-based efforts certainly pushing
the number of computer-based training approaches much higher than
this. One of the biggest influences on the growth of CBT was the advent
of microcomputers and the rapid increase in their capabilities. In the early
days of CBT, one had to have access to terminals connected to mainframe
computer software that was time-sharing with other business computing
needs. PCs are now present in virtually all organizations, and important
advances in hardware and software are occurring at a dizzying pace.

The primary advantage CBT has over other methods of training is

its interactivity. The interaction between the learner and the computer in
many CBT programs mirrors the one-to-one relationship between student
and tutor: questions and responses can go back and forth, resulting in
immediate feedback. Advanced forms of CBT, like intelligent computer-
aided instruction, can even analyze the pattern of a student’s responses
and errors, draw conclusions, and tailor the lesson the learner receives
accordingly. An additional advantage of technology-based training is
that it is well suited to “on-demand learners,” that is, trainees who need
(and increasingly demand) greater control over when and how training is
delivered. Three approaches to CBT include computer-aided instruction
(CAI), intranet training, and intelligent computer-assisted instruction
(ICAI).

Computer-aided instruction (CAI) programs can range from

electronic workbooks, using the drill-and-practice approach, to compact
disc read-only memory (CD-ROM) presentations of a traditional training
program. CAI software packages are available at relatively low cost for a
wide range of material, from teaching basic skills such as reading and
typing, to

135
Notes
highly technical scientific, engineering, and machine maintenance
topics. CAI programs are available not only as part of business software
programs (like the tutorial programs that come with such word-
processing packages as Microsoft Word), but also through retail outlets,
and some have software bestsellers. Some organizations custom design
software from scratch or modify existing programs to meet their
unique needs.

Multimedia programs offer an improvement over the more

traditional CAI programs because they provide more appealing visual and
audio content. The multimedia platform can bring the course to life and
make the learning experience more enjoyable. Because audio and video
files are very large, most multimedia courses are stored and distributed on
a CD-ROM disk. Many companies have replaced instructor-led courses
with CD-ROMs. For example, AT&T replaced its three-day new-employee
orientation program with a CD-ROM package that explains how the
company is organized, the role and mission of each department, and how
departments relate to each other.

There are several advantages to CAI as compared to other training

methods and techniques, especially considering the interactive nature of
CAI. Based on the trainee’s responses, the computer will present various
levels of material until the trainee reaches mastery. A second advantage
of CAI’s is its self-pacing feature that allows trainees to control the
speed of instruction and makes them self-sufficient learners. A third
advantage is the logistics of CAI that make it more accessible through an
internal distribution system or downloaded from a central computer or
over the Internet to remote sites to eliminate travel and per diem costs.
Finally, CAI offers an instructional management and reporting system
that automatically tracks student progress and the allocation and use of
instructional resources, including terminals, instructors, and classrooms.
The effectiveness of CAI, like other training methods and techniques, can
be measured by changes in productivity and profits.

Internet and Intranet-based training The Internet remains one

of the fastest growing technological phenomena the world has ever
seen. Today, tens of millions of computers are connected to one another
via modems, telephone and cable lines, superconducting (ISDN)
transmission lines, and the Internet. Intranets are computer networks
that use Internet and World Wide Web technology, software tools, and
protocols for finding,

136
 Notes
managing, creating, and distributing information within one organization
Personal computers with a TCP/IP networking protocol make it possible
for individuals with different operating systems (such as Windows, Mac,
and the various UNIX-based OSs), to communicate with each other,
access information, transmit data, and download data. Current technology
also creates a number of safeguards that can limit access to information
and ensure privacy. Safeguards include firewalls, encryption, and
passwords. Firewalls are “hardware or software that sits between the
Internet and your company’s private network to form a barrier between
your organization and the outside world….and which keeps track of
everyone who tries to access your site.” Encryption capability allows
individuals to transmit messages through a deciphering mechanism that
encodes data when transmitted and then decodes at the destination.

Intranet-based training (IBT) uses internal computer networks

for training purposes. Through their organization’s intranet, HRD
professional can communicate with learners; conduct needs assessment
and other administrative tasks; transmit course materials, training
documents, and multimedia programs; and administer tests at any time
and throughout the organization. IBT is a powerful delivery system for
international organizations that are spread out across the globe. IBT
has most of the features of a multimedia CD-ROM program, plus the
capability for users to communicate quickly. With current advances
real-time multimedia technology (e.g., Java, Shock ware, and Virtual
Reality Modeling language), IBT is now fully interactive with sound,
video, and 3-D imaging, and will compete with disk-based media like
CD-ROMs as a primary means of providing training via technology.

There are a number of limitations to IBT. Given the multimedia

format, which uses large video and audio files, the primary limitation to date
has been the network bandwidth- the size of a network’s transmittal
capacity. However, with the rapid advances in technology (greater
bandwidth, and improved abilities to compress data), this limitation is
increasingly overcome. Another limitation has been the use of multiple,
potentially incompatible browser software configurations that determine
which media types and Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) format
options were available.

137
Notes
Intelligent computer-assisted instruction (ICAI) goes beyond
CAI in terms of flexibility and the ability to qualitatively evaluate learner
performance. Whereas a typical CAI program may allow the learner to
select from several levels of presentation (novice, intermediate, etc.), an
ICAI program is able to discern the learner’s capability from the learner’s
response patterns and by analyzing the learner’s errors. The goal of ICAI
systems is to provide learners with an electronic teacher’s assistant that can
patiently offer advice to individual learners, encourage learner practice
and stimulate learners’ curiosity through experimentation. This would
potentially make the teacher more available for more creative endeavors,
or for helping learners to overcome subtle or difficult problems beyond the
capability of ICAI. Although the availability of ICAI programs is limited
compared to that of CAI, the potential for ICAI is enormous.

ICAI programs are based on advances in artificial intelligence,

which involves “engineering some aspects of the human thought
process” into a computer. Artificial intelligence research is uncovering
ways to improve ICAI programs’ capability to use natural language to
interact with the learner and to understand the learner (by tracking
learner responses and learning from them). Given the rate of progress in
computer hardware, software, artificial intelligence, and knowledge
engineering (designing and organizing information and finding
effective ways to present it), it would not be surprising to see ICAI
programs become common in training educational programs in the not-
too-distant future.

Summary

Any type of one-to-one instruction between coworkers or between

the employee and supervisors can be classified as On the Job Training.
There are at least four identifiable OJT techniques, including job instruction
training (JIT), job rotation, coaching, and mentoring. Classroom training
approaches are conducted outside the normal work setting. Five primary
categories of classroom training include Lecture, Discussion, Audiovisual
media, Experiential methods, Computer-based training, etc.

138
 Notes
Self Assessment Questions

1. Describe the HRD framework

2. “Assessing the need is important for effective HRD programme”
Discuss
3. Explain different levels of need analysis
4. Discuss the methods of organisational analysis
5. Explain the process designing HRD program
6. Discuss factors to be considered for making a purchase decision of
HRD program
7. ‘A lesson plan is a trainer’s guide for the actual delivery of the
training content’ “Comment”.
8. Explain the selection of training methods.
9. Discuss the factors to be considered during the selection of training
methods.
10. How will you schedule the HRD program?
11. What are the guidelines for selecting the training methods
12. Explain methods of On the Job Training
13. Discuss the Off the Job Training methods
14. “Training becomes even more critical than before as
organizations compete and change” examine the statement.

CASE STUDY

Cathay Pacific Airways is an International airline based in Hong

Kong that serves over eighty five destinations on five continents. An
early survey revealed that the travelers felt that the Cathy Pacific service
was good, but not as warm and friendly as customer desired. Some even
described the service as “robotic”. This led to reexamination of how the
company recruited, trained and managed its employees.

To increase customer retention, especially business travelers, Cathy

Pacific decided that something more was needed. Assume you are HRD
professional responsible for organizational changes.

139
Notes

1. How do you go about designing a need assessment for the Airline?

2. What methods would you use to design training that emphasizes
customer service?
3. What type(s) of training would you recommend for ‘Flight
attendants’

CASE STUDY

The personnel office of prashant chemicals Limited informed the

middle managers through a circular that a group of consultants would
be calling on them later in the week to provide training on team building.
The consultants would be emphasizing on how to develop team work
and to build inter group relationships throughout the company. The
information also contained the approach to be adopted by the consultants
and explained the five steps process of team buildings: problem
sensing, examining differences, giving and receiving feedback,
developing interactive skills, and follow up actions. The circular also
included a note on the utility of team building in organizational
effectiveness.

On receiving the circular, middle managers felt tense as they

thought teambuilding as an exercise involving a lot of hocus-pocus as
they thought team sensitivity training exercises in which participants
used to attack each other and let out their aggression by heaping abuse
on those disliked. Therefore, the managers felt that the consultants
were not needed for team building. One of the managers commented,”
now that we understand what is involved in team building, we can go
ahead and conduct session ourselves .All we have to do is to choose a
manage who is liked by everyone and put him in the role of change
agent/consultant. After all, you really do not need high-priced
consultants to do this team building stuff. You just have to have a good
feel for human factor”.

The other managers generally agreed. However, the corporate

personnel director turned down their suggestions and proceeded with his
original programmed of hiring consultants.

140
 Notes
Questions

1. Why did middle managers show resistance to team building

approach of organization development?
2. Do you think the managers had accurate view of team building
concept and role of external consultant in that?
3. Did corporate personnel office sell the concept of team building
and its usefulness properly to middle managers? What actions
that the department has taken?

****

141
142
 Notes

UNIT - III

Unit Structure

Lesson 3.1 Evaluating the HRD Programme

Lesson 3.2 Assessing the Impact of HRD Programs
Lesson 3.3 Career Management and Development

Lesson 3.1 - Evaluating the HRD Programme

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson, you may be able to

➢ Identify the Mechanism for Evaluating the HRD Programme

➢ Understand the Phases of HRD Evaluation
➢ Elaborate on the Models and Framework for Evaluation
➢ Compare Evaluation Frameworks

Introduction

The term effectiveness is a relative term. Typically, effectiveness

is determined with respect to the achievement of a goal or a set of goals.
HRD effectiveness must be determined with respect to the goals of the
program or programs being examined. Therefore, it makes sense to ask the
question of effectiveness more specifically. A HRD or training program
can be effective in meeting some goals (like staying within the budget or
increasing a participant’s skills) and be ineffective in meeting some others
(like improving customer satisfaction).

Purpose of HRD Evaluation

The evaluation of HRD is defined as “the systematic collection

of descriptive and judgmental information necessary to make effective

143
Notes
training decisions related to the selection, adoption, value and
modification of various instructional activities.” This definition makes
several important points. First, when conducting an evaluation both
descriptive and judgmental information may be collected. Descriptive
information provides a picture of what is happening or has happened,
whereas judgmental information communicates some opinion or belief
about what has happened. For example, the statement “25 percent of
first-line supervisors attended a budgeting workshop in the last year”
contains only descriptive information; it simply states the facts.
Similarly, a statement that “20 percent fewer supervisors attended this
workshop than in the previous 12 months” also contains descriptive
information. However the statement, “the turnout for the budgeting
workshop over the last six months is disappointingly low compared to
last year’s turnout” provides judgmental information about someone’s
opinion based on the facts. Both descriptive and judgmental
information are needed in HRD evaluation. Some judgments are made
by those involved in the program, while individuals not involved in the
program make others.

Second, evaluation involves the systematic collection of

information according to a predetermined plan to ensure that the
information is appropriate and useful. Finally, evaluation is conducted to
help managers, employees, and HRD professionals make informed
decisions about particular programs and methods. For example, if part
of a program is ineffective, it may need to be changed or discarded; if a
certain program proves valuable, it may be replicated in other parts of
the organization.

Evaluation can serve a number of purposes within the organization.

According to Phillips, evaluation can help to

➢ Determine whether a program is accomplishing its objectives

➢ Identify the strengths and weaknesses of HRD programs which can
lead to changes, as needed
➢ Determine the cost-benefit ratio of a HRD program
➢ Decide who should participate in future HRD programs
➢ Identify which participant benefited the most or least from the
program
➢ Gather data to assist in marketing future programs
➢ Establish a database to assist management in making decisions

144
 Notes
Better and more informed decision making then, is an important
benefit of conducting an HRD evaluation. But there are other benefits as
well. Zenger and Hargis identified three additional reasons for conducting
HRD evaluations:

1. If HRD staff cannot substantiate its contribution to the

organization, it’s funding and programs may be cut during the
budgeting process, especially when the organization faces tough
times.
2. Evaluation can build credibility with top managers and others in
the organization.
3. Senior management often wants to know the benefits of HRD
programs (see the Opening Case on Lens Crafters).

Building credibility is a key aspect of conducting an evaluation.

After all, other functions performed within the organization are
evaluated to determine their effectiveness. If the HRD department cannot
demonstrate effectiveness, it may not be taken seriously within the
organization. Thus, evaluation is a critical step in the HRD process. It is
the only way one can know whether an HRD program has fulfilled its
objectives or not.

How often are the HRD programs evaluated?

Given their importance, one might expect that HRD programs

are regularly and carefully evaluated. Unfortunately, this is not the
case. A survey of management training and education practices of U.S.
companies found that while 92 percent of companies surveyed conduct
some form of evaluation for company-sponsored training, 42 percent do
not conduct the evaluation at all for the executive MBA programs they
used. In addition, the survey showed that the most commonly used
form of evaluation was participant’s reaction, which as we will discuss,
is useful for only a few of the decisions that must be made about HRD
programs.

Such findings are not atypical. Many HRD researchers have

lamented the lack of evaluation of HRD programs. Many articles have
been written about the importance of conducting evaluations, but more
organizations pay lip service to evaluations than actually conducting
them.

145
Notes
Why aren’t evaluations done more frequently? There are several
possibilities. First, conducting an evaluation is not an easy process. It
requires time, resources, and expertise that the HRD staff may not have or
may not be willing to expend. Second, many factors beyond the program
itself (including the economy, equipment, policies and procedures,
other HR efforts, and resource availability) can affect whether employee
performance improves, thus making it difficult to evaluate the impact of
training. Third, those associated with HRD programs may be afraid of
criticism and program cuts if the evaluation shows that the program was
not effective. Yet the fact is that HRD evaluations can and should be done
in organizations to ensure effectiveness and accountability. It is our belief
that it is the ethical responsibility of HRD professionals to prove to the
organization that their programs are indeed beneficial.

Many HRD and training programs are purchased by organizations

from third parties, such as consultants or vendors. Some practitioners
believe that they fulfill their evaluation responsibility in their pre purchase
decision. Their logic follows that they wouldn’t buy a program they didn’t
think was going to work, so if they have made a wise purchasing decision
(or evaluated the program before buying it), then it isn’t necessary to
conduct any post program evaluation.

Indeed, supervisors and HRD professionals should be wise

consumers of programs and equipment used in their HRD efforts. However,
it is equally important to judge the effectiveness of the program or device
after it has been put into place. We have all made personal purchases that
have not lived up to expectations, even after careful shopping, and it is
unreasonable to assume that HRD and training purchases will be any
different.

Changing Evaluation Phases

Goldstein suggests that efforts at training evaluation have moved through the
following four stages since the 1960s:

1. Stage One focuses on anecdotal reactions from trainers and

program participants. Judging from the survey results cited earlier,
it appears many organizations still operate at this level.
2. Stage two involves borrowing experimental methodology from

146
 academic laboratories to use for program evaluation.
Organizational constraints (including time, resources, and the
inability to randomly select participants or use control groups
that receive no training) make application of these designs
difficult, thus discouraging evaluation efforts.
3. Stage Three creatively matches the appropriate research
methodology to existing organizational constraints, thus making
program evaluation more practical and feasible.
4. Stage Four recognizes that the entire training and HRD process
affects the organization, and shifts the focus of evaluation from
post program results to the entire HRD process.

It should be emphasized that it is possible to creatively apply

sound research methods to HRD evaluation designs and have useful
data for making decisions. Finding ways to perform effective evaluation
serves all parties: the organization, the trainer or HRD professional, and
the trainees. Before we discuss about the data collection and research
design, we will examine several models and frameworks of evaluation.

Models and Frameworks of Evaluation

HRD evaluation models/frameworks

A model of evaluation outlines the criteria for and focuses of the

evaluation. Because an HRD program can be examined from a number of

147
Notes
perspectives, it is important to specify which perspectives will be
considered. Many different frameworks of HRD evaluation have been
suggested. The most widely used evaluation approach has been the
framework laid out by Donald Kirkpatrick. We will discuss this first. While
the different models and frameworks share some features, they also differ in
important ways. The frameworks that we will discuss are presented in Table.

KIRKPATRICK’S Evaluation Framework

The most popular and influential framework for training evaluation

was articulated by Kirkpatrick. Kirkpatrick argues that training efforts can
be evaluated according to four criteria: reaction, learning, job behavior,
and results.

1. Reaction (Level 1) Here the analysis is made to find out whether

the trainees like the program and feel it was valuable? At this level,
the focus is on the trainees’ perceptions about the program and
its effectiveness. This is useful information. Positive reactions to
a training program may make it easier to encourage employees to
attend future programs. But if trainees did not like the program
or think they didn’t learn anything (even if they did), they may
discourage others from attending the programme and may be
reluctant to use the skills or knowledge obtained in the program.
The limitation of evaluating HRD programs at the reaction level is
that this information cannot indicate whether the program met its
objectives by ensuring participant satisfaction.

2. Learning (Level 2) Here the attempt is to find out as to as whether

the trainees learn what the HRD objectives meant to learn? This
is an important criterion that an effective HRD program should
satisfy. Measuring whether someone has learned something in
training may involve a quiz or test clearly a different method
from assessing the participants’ reaction to the program.

3. Job Behavior (Level 3) Here the attempt is to see whether the trainee
use what was learned in training back on the job? This is also a
critical measure of training success. If learning does not transfer
to the job, the training effort cannot have an impact on employee
or organizational effectiveness. Measuring whether training has
transferred to the job requires observation of the trainee’s on-
the-job behavior or viewing organizational records (e.g.,
reduced customer complaints, a reduction in scrap rate).

148
 Notes
4. Results (Level 4) This level attempt to whether the training or
HRD effort improved the organization’s effectiveness? Is the
organization more efficient, more profitable, or better able to
serve its clients or customers as a result of the training program?
Meeting this criterion is considered the “bottom line” as far as
most managers are concerned. It is also the most challenging
level to assess, given that many things beyond employee
performance can affect organizational performance. Typically at
this level, economic and operating data are collected and
analyzed.

Kirkpatrick’s framework provides a useful way of looking at the

possible consequences of training and reminds us that HRD efforts often
have multiple objectives. Recently, Arthur and colleagues conducted
a meta-analysis of 162 training evaluation studies. They found that the
average or mean effect sizes (dt) for training interventions (across all
topics and methods used) were fairly large. That is, effect sizes were as
follows: 0.60 for reaction, 0.63 for learning, 0.62 for behavior, and 0.62 for
results. Practically, we can assure that effect sizes of this magnitude
should lead to meaningful positive changes in most organizational
settings, so this is a most encouraging finding. One interesting side note is
that some of the strongest effects they found (dt = 1.93) were for those
few studies where it was mentioned that needs assessment at the
organizational and person level had been completed before training.

Unfortunately, one of the more enduring (and in our view,

depressing) findings about HRD evaluation is the extent to which most
organizations do not collect information on all four types of outcomes.
For instance, in the 2003 ASTD State of the industry Report, a survey of
276 organizations reported the following: 75 percent collected reaction
measures, 41 percent collected learning measures, 21 percent collected
behavior measures, and 11 percent collected results measures. The
subgroup of organizations that ASTD highlighted as “training investment
leaders” reported higher usage on the latter three measures (72 percent,
59 percent, 33 percent, and 14 percent, respectively), but these numbers
are still not terribly high. This raises the question as to why usage rates
are so low, particularly for behavior and results measures, as these provide
organizations with vital, even invaluable information.

149
Notes
Other Frameworks or Models of Evaluation

Many discussions about HRD evaluation are organized around

Kirkpatrick’s four levels of criteria. However, Kirkpatrick’s approach has
also been the target of considerable criticism and modification. Some
authors point out that the framework evaluates only what happens after
training, as opposed to the entire training process. A second criticism is
that Kirkpatrick’s framework would be better described as taxonomy of
outcomes, rather than a true model of training outcomes. Kraiger, Ford,
and Salas argue that Kirkpatrick’s approach fails to specify as to what sort
of changes can be expected as a result of learning and what assessment
techniques should be used to measure learning at each level. Alliger
and Janak question the validity of the assumptions that are implied by
the framework. They suggest that it “may never have been meant to be
more than a first, global heuristic for training evaluation.” Kirkpatrick
responded to this criticism by stating that “I personally have never called
my framework ‘a model,” and “I don’t care whether my work is called a
model or a taxonomy as long as it helps to clarify the meaning of
evaluation in simple terms and offers guidelines and suggestions on how to
accomplish an evaluation.”

Training researchers have expanded Kirkpatrick’s ideas to

encourage practitioners to do a more thorough job of evaluation. Several
authors have suggested modifications to Kirkpatrick’s four-level approach
that keep the framework essentially intact. These include:

• Expanding the reaction level to include assessing the

participants’ reaction to the training methods and efficiency
• Distinguishing cognitive and affective reactions to training
• Splitting the reaction level to include assessing participants’
perceptions of enjoyment, usefulness (utility), and the difficulty of
the program
• Adding a fifth level (beyond results) to specifically address the
organization’s return on investment (ROI)
• Adding a fifth level to address the societal contributions and
outcomes created by an HRD program

150
 Notes
Galvin, building on studies in the education field, suggested
the CIPP (Context, Input, Process, and Product) model. In this model,
evaluation focuses on measuring the context for training (needs analysis),
inputs to training (examining the resources available for training, such as
budgets and schedules), the process of conducting the training program
(for feedback to the implementers), and the product or outcome of
training (success in meeting program objectives). Galvin also reported
survey results indicating that ASTD members preferred the CIPP model
of evaluation to Kirkpatrick’s framework. Warr et al. proposed a similar
model.

Brinkerhoff extends the training evaluation model to six stages. He

suggests a cycle of overlapping steps, with problems identified in one step
possibly caused by things occurring in previous steps. His stages are:

1. Goal Setting: What is the need?

2. Program Design: What will work to meet the need?
3. Program Implementation: Is it working, with the focus on the
implementation of the program?
4. Immediate Outcomes: Did participants learn?
5. Intermediate or Usage Outcomes: Are the participants using what
they learned?
6. Impacts and Worth: Did it make a worthwhile difference to the
organization?

At least two attempts have been made to develop models that

incorporate research and theory on learning outcomes and the variables
that influence them. Kraiger, Ford, and Salas offered one such model.
Noting that learning outcomes can be of three types (i.e., cognitive, skill-
based, and affective), they propose a classification scheme for evaluating
learning outcomes in each of these three areas. This scheme (shown in
belowTable) is quite specific, identifying the types of measures that can be
used for learning outcomes in each category.

151
 Measurement
Category Learning Construct(s) Focus of Measurement Potential Training Evaluation
Methods
Cognitive Cognitive outcomes
Verb Knowledge Declarative Knowledge Amount of Knowledge Accuracy of Recognition and recall
recall speed tests Power tests
Accessibility of Knowledge Speed tests
Knowledge organization Mental models Similarity of ideal Free sorts
Interrelationships Structural
of elements assessment (e.g.,Pathfinder)
Hierarchical
ordering

Cognitive strategies Self insight Metacognitive Self awareness Probed protocol analysis
skills Self regulation self report readiness for testing
Skill based skill based outcomes
Compilation composition speed of performance Fluidity of targeted behavioural
proceduralization performance Error rates Chunking observation hands on
Generalization Discrimination testing structured
Strengthening situational interviews
Automaticity automatic processing attentional requirements secondary task performance
tuning Available cognitive resources interference problems
Embedded measurement
Affective Affective outcomes
Attitudinal Targeted object Attitude direction Attitude strength self report measures
(e.g.,safety awareness ) Accessibility
attitude strength centrality
conviction
Motivation Motivational disposition Mastery versus performance self report measures
orientatio appropriateness of
orientations
self efficacy perceived performance capability self report measures
goal setting level of goals complexity of self report measures free recall
goal structures goal measures free sorts
commitment

Classification of scheme for learning outcomes for training evaluation

Holton suggests a complex model that has outcomes similar to

Kirkpatrick’s (i.e., learning, individual performance, and
organizational results). The model includes individual variables (e.g.,
motivation to learn, motivation to transfer, ability, job attitudes) and
environmental variables (e.g., transfer climate, external events) that
influence these outcomes.

Comparing Evaluation Frameworks

All of the evaluation frameworks incorporate Kirkpatrick’s levels

of evaluation in one way or the other, either as explicit steps in the model
or as information collected within the steps. None is incompatible with
the framework Kirkpatrick proposed. The most dramatic extension
beyond Kirkpatrick’s ideas is the notion that HRD professionals should be
concerned about the impact their programs have on constituencies outside
the organization.

152
 Notes
Whether that sort of assessment should be included in HRD
evaluation would probably depend on how the individual and the
management of the organization view their organization’s social
responsibility. Further, it is likely that those who feel strongly about social
responsibility would consider and assess the societal impact of all of their
activities, regardless of whether an evaluation model specifies that they
should or not. For those who do not, include of such a level is unlikely to
lead them to change their point of view.

Some models differ from Kirkpatrick’s in that they bring the

earlier phases of the training process, needs assessment, design, and
implementation, into the evaluation phase. For example, the first
three stages of Brinkerhoff’s model (goal setting, program design, and
program implementation) explicitly include these activities. Merging
the rest of the training process into evaluation may improve
Kirkpatrick’s approach, as there is some merit in helping managers,
supervisors, and HRD professionals realize that evaluation is an
ongoing activity, not only that should begin after the training program
has been implemented. Effective HRD involves many decisions, and
having accurate, meaningful information available throughout the
process can improve the decision making process and enhance the
overall effectiveness of HRD efforts.

Overall, we believe that the most serious shortcomings of

Kirkpatrick’s framework are 1) the lack of explicit causal relationships
among the different levels 2) the lack of specificity in dealing with different
types of learning outcomes, and 3) the lack of direction concerning the
measures that are appropriate to assess which outcome measures. Much
has been discovered about the learning process and learning outcomes.

For example, in a research project on enhancing the effectiveness

of behavior modeling training, a reaction measure was collected
immediately after training. Trainees who were told that they needed to use
a checklist to track their progress for four weeks after training liked the
training significantly less than did trainees told to do their best” to use the
principles taught in training. When the same reaction measure was given
four week later, however, the trainees who had used the checklists were
more favorable towards the training as a whole whereas those in the “do
your best” condition were less favorable toward the training. This means
that this measure was now indistinguishable. Furthermore, the trainees

153
Notes
who used the checklists demonstrated significantly more retention of
the training material four weeks after training, and could demonstrate
more of the key behaviors in a spontaneous role-play exercise than
could the trainees who had not made use of the checklists. Our point is
simply that trainers should not assume positive (or negative) scores on
one type of measure that will necessarily translate into similar scores on
measures of a different training outcome.

The efforts to incorporate research and theory on learning and

learning outcomes are the most useful additions to the training evaluation
literature. Holton s model may prove to be useful, although it requires
further development” refinement and empirical testing. It seems that
Kraiger, Ford, and Salas’s classification scheme represents the most
promising new direction for training evaluation. It both addresses a
specific need (offering conceptually based measurement suggestions to fit
various types of learning) and can be used as a foundation on which to
build a theory-based model of HRD evaluation. Finally, recent work on
return on investment (ROI), pioneered by Jack Phillips, also represents a
significant development in HRD evaluation.

Despite all the criticism, Kirkpatrick’s approach remains a useful

way to categorize the criteria that an effective HRD program must
satisfy. If possible, information assessing all four levels of criteria should
be collected (depending on the questions being asked that prompt the
evaluation study). It is also important to make informed decisions about
all aspects of the HRD program.

In its simplest form, evaluation should address the question of

whether the training program achieved its objectives. Based on training
objectives on needs assessment information, and then evaluating those
objectives, is the most parsimonious way of summarizing what training
evaluation is all about. The process framework provides a strong platform
for systematically approaching HRD efforts (Figure).

If this framework is in place, and is used, then we think that

evaluation efforts can focus on some combination of the following points
(depending upon the situation). While this is only a modest expansion
of Kirkpatrick, it highlights some aspects not fully captured by the “four
levels.”

154
 Notes
1. Reaction:
b. Affective — how well did trainees like the training?
c. Perceived usefulness/utility — what was the perceived
usefulness of this training?
4. Learning — how much did trainees learn from the training?
5. Behavior — what behavioral change occurred as a result of training?
6. Results
• What tangible outcomes or results occurred as a result of
training?
• What was the return on investment (ROI) for this training?
(See ROI and utility sections below.)
• What was the contribution of this training program to the
community/larger society?
Assessment Design Implementation Evaluation
Assess

Select
Prioritize Define evaluation
needs objectives criteria

Develop
lesson
plan Determin
e
evaluatio
n design

Develop
material
s

Conduct
Deliver the
evaluation
Select HRD
of
trainer program
program
intervention
or
interventio
n

Select
methods
and Interpret
techniques results

Schedule
the
programme

Training and HRD process model

155
Data Collection Methods

Data sources and collection methods can be used to provide

information for needs assessment. The same data collection methods and
sources are available when conducting training evaluation. Table lists some
common methods for collecting evaluation data, including interviews,
questionnaires, direct observation tests and simulations, and archival
performance data.

Data collection methods for HRD evaluation

Any or all of these methods are appropriate for collecting

evaluation data, depending on their relevance to the questions being
asked. For example, if a HRD professional is interested in assessing
trainee reactions to a seminar on pension benefits, interviews or
questionnaires might be good choices. Alternatively, if management
wanted to know whether the seminar affected interest in the company’s
pension plan, the number of inquiries employees make to the HR
department about the pension plan could be tracked through direct
observation or archival data. Some advantages and disadvantages of
using various data collection methods are listed in Table

Table Advantages and limitations of various data collection methods

Cheri Ostroff developed an interesting way to measure as to

whether the trainees use what they have learned in the training on the
job. One problem with supervisors’ observations has been the difficulties
supervisors often have in recalling specific behaviors that an employee
has engaged in. Ostroff presented supervisors or other observers with
a

156
 Notes
scripted situation and asked them to check as to which of several behaviors
the employee has engaged in or would be most likely to perform.

Method Advantages Limitations

Flexible High reactive effects
Opportunity for clarification High cost
Interview Depth possible Face-to-face threat potential
Personal contact Labor intensive
Trained observers needed
Low cost Possible inaccurate data
Honesty increase if anonymous on-job responding conditions
not controlled
Questionnaire
Anonymity possible Respondents set varying paces
Respondent sets pace Return rate beyond control
Variety of options
Non threatening Possibly disruptive
Excellent way to measure behavior Change Reactive effect possible
Variety of options
May be unreliable
Trained observers needed
Low purchase cost May be threatening
Readily scored Possible low relation to job
performance
Written test Quickly processed Reliance on norms may distort
individual performance
Easily administered possible cultural bias
Wide sampling possible
Reliable Time consuming
Simulation/
Objective Simulation often difficult
performance test
Close relation to job performance High development cost
Reliable Lack of knowledge of criteria for
keeping or discarding records
Objective Information ystem discrepancies
Archival Job-based Indirect
performance Easy to review Need for conversion to usable
data
form
Minimal reactive effects Record prepared for other
purposes
May be expensive to collect

Advantages and limitations of various data collection methods

Another issue to consider in selecting a data collection method is

validity. Validity is concerned with whether the data collection method
actually measures what we want it to measure, that is, are we hitting the
right target? For example, suppose a trainer decides to use a written test to

157
Notes
measure whether trainees have learned the procedure for completing travel
expense forms. The test is valid to the extent that the scores on the test
indicate whether the employee actually knows how to complete the forms.
If the focus of training was on knowing which information was to report
on the expense form, yet the items on the test focus more on performing
calculations, the test scores may be measuring the wrong thing. Reliability
and validity are complex issues, and assessing them often requires
knowledge of statistics and measurement concepts. HRD professionals
who are unfamiliar with these concepts should read more about the topic
or consult other members of the organization, knowledgeable professors,
or consultants who are familiar with these issues.

In addition to be being reliable and valid, data collection

methods must also be practical, given the constraints of the organization.
Practicality concerns shows how much time, money, and resources are
available for the evaluation method. For example, conducting
interviews with all supervisors to assess employee job behavior may
take more time than the staff has availed. In this case, interviewing a
sample of supervisors using a questionnaire may be practical alternative.
As mentioned earlier, realistic and creative trade-offs can ensure that the
evaluation effort is carried out and yields useful information.

Types of Data

Three types of data are available for evaluating HRD effectiveness:

individual performance, system wide performance, and economic.
Individual performance data, which emphasize the individual trainee’s
knowledge and behaviors (Kirkpatrick’s Levels 2 and 3). Examples of
these kinds of data include an employee’s test scores, number of units
produced, and timeliness of performance, quality of performance,
attendance, and attitudes. System wide performance data concern the team,
division, or business unit in which the HRD program was conducted, and
could include data concerning the entire organization. Examples of system
wide data include productivity, rework, scrap, customer and client
satisfaction, and timeliness. Economic data report the financial and
economic performance of the organization or unit, that is, the bottom line,
and include profits, product liability, avoidance of penalties and market
share. Economic data is what ROI and utility calculations are generally
seeking to provide.

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 Notes
A complete evaluation effort is likely to include all three types
of data. Different questions demand different kinds of information. For
example, Robinson and Robinson list possible data choices to
determine whether a sales training program has impacted an
organization’s operations, including ratio of new accounts to old
accounts, call-to-close ratio, average sale size, items per order, and add-
on sales. These and other data could be tracked for individuals,
organizational units, or for an entire organization. Another useful source
for system wide measures is a recent book by Tesoro and Tootson. Again,
the key is to carefully examine the questions being asked or the
decisions being made when selecting which data is to use.

The Use of Self-report Data

Self-report data, or data provided directly by individuals involved

in the training program, is the most commonly used type of data in HR
evaluation. Recall that trainee reactions (Kirkpatrick’s Level 1) remain the
most widely used evaluation measure. Self-reports can offer personality
data, attitudes, and perceptions and can provide information to measure
the effectiveness of HRD or other programs. For example, the trainer may
measure learning by asking trainees to judge how much they knew before
training and how much they feel they know after training. Information
collected this way, whether through interviews or questionnaires, can
be useful and meaningful. However, Podsakoff and Organ identify two
serious problems that can occur when relying on self-report data:

1. Mono-method bias. If both reports in a before-and-after evaluation

come from the same person at the same time (say, after training),
conclusions may be questionable. The respondents may be more
concerned about being consistent in their answers than about
providing accurate responses.

2. Socially desirable responses. Respondents may report what they

think the researcher (or boss) wants to hear rather than the truth.
For example, employees may be fearful or embarrassed to admit
that they learned nothing in a training program.

In addition, there can be what is referred to as a response shift bias,

in which respondents’ perspectives of their skills before training change
during the training program and affect their after-training assessment.

159
Notes
For example, trainees may discover during training that their pre training
judgment of skill was unrealistically high and adjust their post training
evaluations accordingly. As a result, the data may show no improvement of
skill after training, even though such an improvement may have occurred.
Self-report data can be useful in HRD evaluation, but relying on self-
report data alone can be a problem. Depending on the question being
asked, direct observation by trained observers (like supervisors), tests, or
simulations can often yield better, more conclusive information than self-
reports.

Research Design

A research design is a plan for conducting an evaluation study.

Research design is a complex topic. To inform yourself of all the issues
surrounding research design, one could read whole books on the topic.
Barring that, we hope that one would read and understand a summary
of the key points on this topic. However we also recognize that not every
student (or instructor) sees the value of studying this information. So,
for the most comprehensive treatment of this topic, the lesson suggests
the reader to consult the resources listed in the following endnote. For
those seeking thorough, though condensed coverage of research design
issues, we provide an appendix to this chapter that goes into more detailed
than we do here. We have often found that students are more interested in
this material when they are faced with a project on the job, and they are
looking for reference material to help them make choices for a project they
are designing and the appendix provides you with some key information
that can inform your decisions concerning the most appropriate research
design to use for particular situations. At the minimum, however, there
are some critical issues that every HRD student should understand. While
this is far from a complete treatment of the topic, we hope to convey the
importance of research design issues to effective HRD evaluation.

Research design is critical to HRD evaluation. It specifies the

expected results of the evaluation study, the methods of data collection,
and how the data will be analyzed. Awareness of research design issues
and possible design alternatives can help managers and HRD professionals
to do a better job of conducting evaluations and criticizing the results of
evaluation studies.

160
 Notes
When evaluating any HRD effort, the researcher or HRD professional
would like to have a high level of confidence that any changes observed
after the program or intervention were due to that intervention, and not
to some other factor. This is the basic notion of validity, that is, we are
confident of the accuracy of the conclusions?

Unfortunately, it still remains quite typical that, if outcomes are

measured at all, they are only collected after the training program has been
completed. The basic picture is as follows:

➢ Training Provided
➢ Evaluation measures collected

The trainer would obviously like to see high values on each

measure collected. But what might be the problems of collecting measures
after the training has been completed? For one thing, such a one shot
approach may not be measuring the most important thing. Recall our
earlier discussions of how evaluation should be tied directly to the
objectives determined via the needs assessment process. An evaluation
measure that is too broad or generic may not capture real changes that
have occurred as a result of training. A second drawback of this after-only
approach is that one can’t be certain that the outcomes attained were due
to the training. Simply put, this approach to evaluation doesn’t give any
indication of trainees’ initial skill or knowledge level, that is, where they
started. To have greater confidence that the outcomes observed were
brought about by the training (and not some other extraneous factor), the
following practices should be included in the research design:

1. Pretest and post test — including both a pretest and a post test
allows the trainer to see what has changed after the training. If the
majority of trainees already knew the material covered in training
before they started it, then high scores on the post test measure of
learning become much less impressive.

2. Control group — A control group is a group of employees similar

to those who receive training, yet who don’t receive training.
However, this group receives the same evaluation measures as
the group that is trained, and this allows for a comparison of
their scores. The ideal scenario is where the training group and
the control group

161
Notes
have similar scores before training, and then the scores for the
training group increase after training, while those of the control
group remain constant. This provides fairly strong evidence that
the training (and not some other factor) was responsible for the
changes on the outcome measures.

Combining these two points creates what can be called the “pretest-
posttest with control group” research design. We view this as the minimum
acceptable research design for most training and HRD evaluation efforts.
There may be times when trainers have to get with less, but the degree of
confidence in one’s findings will always be lower if one or both of these
factors is missing.

Two other factors should be included in a strong research

design. First, if a control group is used, the trainer should ensure that the
training and control groups are as similar as possible. For example, it
would be unacceptable if the group receiving training had greater existing
knowledge, skills, or abilities than the control group, as this would bias
the results that were obtained after training. Further, if it is possible and
advantageous if the individuals can be randomly assigned to the
training and control groups. Such random assignment further increases
the confidence one can have that training brought about the observed
changes. It must be pointed out that in many real-life training settings,
random assignment is impractical, and is thus not widely used.
However, random assignment increases the likelihood of obtaining
valid results from one’s evaluation efforts.

A second factor to consider is the collection of data over time.

Such an approach, called a time series design, allows the trainer to
observe patterns in individual performance. For example, if performance
is relatively steady over time, and then shows a clear spike after training,
and then remains at this higher level over time, this would again suggest
that the result was due to the training, and not some other factor.

A final point to make here is to do with sample size. Researchers

and practitioners often get frustrated with one another over this issue,
as the number of people providing data for a training evaluation is often
lower than what would be recommended for the purpose of statistical
analysis, then, there are practical limitations in many training
situations

162
 Notes
that limit the number of people receiving training (or in the control
group) to a relatively small number. One study of research on training
evaluation found that the median sample size across these studies was
forty-three people. Yet, having low numbers of trainees is often disastrous
for statistical analyses, because small sample sizes make it difficult to
attain statistically significant results, even when the training has in fact
had an impact. It is generally recommended that, as a bare minimum, the
training and control groups each need at least thirty individuals to have
even a moderate chance of obtaining statistically significant results.
However, many researchers would prefer to see a number much higher
than this, for example, at least 100 people in each condition. This is
difficult to attain in many situations. One approach is to pool data within
an organization (such as collecting data from the same training program
offered over time). Also, recent efforts to combine data from different
research studies via meta-analysis have also helped to determine the
impact of various training interventions. For example, in a widely cited
meta-analysis, Burke and Day combined the results from many different
studies to find the “average” effectiveness of numerous managerial
training methods. The main point, however, is that HRD professionals
need to give careful thought to sample size issues before they undertake
training and evaluation. When sample sizes are small, it is much harder to
show that the training intervention had a positive impact on desired
individual and organizational outcomes.

Summary

HRD evaluation is defined as the systematic collection of

descriptive and judgmental information necessary to make effective
training decisions related to the selection, adoption, value and
modification of various instructional activities. A model of evaluation
outlines the criteria for and focuses of the evaluation. Since the HRD
program can be examined from a number of perspectives, it is important
to specify which perspectives will be considered. Evaluation effort
requires the collection of data to provide decision makers with facts and
judgments upon which they can base their decisions.

****

163
Notes

Lesson 3.2 - Assessing the Impact of HRD Programs

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson, you may be able to

➢ Evaluate of Training Program

➢ Understand the HRD Applications
➢ Understand the Realistic Job Review and its Uses

Introduction

One of the important issues in the HRD activities is to examine

the effect of an HRD program on the organization’s effectiveness. This
assessment can be done using a variety of performance indices, such as
productivity, timeliness, and cost savings. It is important to demonstrate
the effectiveness on the reaction, learning, and job behavior levels, but
HR managers and HRD professionals may be at a disadvantage when
their results are compared to those of other divisions that are able to
express their results in monetary terms. One of the goals of translating the
effects of HRD programs into money terms is to make clear the programs
investments and that will lead to payoffs for the organization in the future.
Although many managers and supervisors pay lip service to this idea, they
often see HRD and other HR interventions primarily as costs-exemplified
by the fact that HR programs are often the first programs that undergo
cost cuts when financial and economic pressures force the organization to
reduce its expenses.

Evaluation of Training Costs

It has long been argued that HR programs are difficult to assess

in financial terms, but the evaluation of training costs (including ROI)
and utility analysis are two practical ways to determine the financial
impact of various HRD programs. Evaluation of training costs involves
comparison of the costs incurred in conducting an HRD program to the
benefits received by the organization, and can involve two categories of
activities:

164
 Notes
cost-benefit evaluation and cost-effectiveness evaluation. Cost-benefit
analysis involves comparing the monetary costs of training to the benefits
received in nonmonetary terms, such as improvements in attitudes, safety,
and health. Cost-effectiveness analysis focuses on the financial benefits
accrued from training, such as increases in quality and profits, and reduction
in waste and processing time.

A framework offered by Cullen et al. distinguishes between

structured and unstructured training, and it lists possible training costs
(training development, materials, time, and production losses) and
benefits (improvements in time to reach job competency, job
performance, and work attitudes). Robinson and Robinson developed a
model that divides training costs into five categories: direct costs,
indirect costs, development costs, overhead costs, and compensation for
participants (see Table). These costs are then compared to the benefits
as measured by improvements in operational indicators, such as job
performance, quality, and work attitudes.

The general strategy for evaluating training costs is to measure

cost and benefit indicators in money terms (or translate them to money
terms) and then compare them. For example, a program’s return on
investment (ROI) can be calculated by dividing total results by total
benefits:

Return on investment = Results/ Training Costs

The greater the ratio of results to costs, the greater the benefit that
the organization receives by conducting the training program. For
example, Bank of America recently conducted a training program
designed for its in-house trainers. Positive reaction, learning and behavior
measures were obtained. Additionally, a 1.15 (or 115 percent) ROI was
determined for this program. For this, the company received an Excellence
in Practice citation from ASTD in 2003.

If the ROI ratio is less than 1, then the training program costs
more than it yields to the organization. Such a program needs to be
either modified or dropped (there may of course, be times when some
noneconomic or legally mandated reason exists to continue a certain
training program; even here, however, if the ROI for the program is
negative, some rethinking or reworking of the program is likely occur).

165
Notes
Training program costs

Training Program Costs

To calculate the cost of a training program, an HRD professional should

consider five categories of expenses.

Direct Costs
These are costs directly associated with the delivery of the learning
activities. They include course materials (produced or reproduced
instructional aids, equipment rental travel food and other refreshments and
the instructor salary and benefits.

Such costs so directly tied to the delivery of a particular program

that if you cancel. The program the day before you planned to conduct
it. You would not incur them. (While program materials may have been
reproduced or purchased, they would not be consumed, and so they
would be available for a future programe.)

Indirect Costs
These costs are in cured in support of learning activities but
cannot be identified with any particular program. Even if the program
were cancelled at the last minute, such costs could not be recovered.

Examples would be costs for instruction preparation, clerical

and administrative support, course materials already sent to
participants and time spent by the training staff in planning the
program simple mentation. Expenses for marketing the program (for
example direct - mail costs) would also be considered in direct.
Marketing may have cost
` 2000 if there is insufficient registration and if the program is
cancelled, the ` 2000 cannot be recovered.

Development Costs
All costs in cured during the development of the program go
in this category. Typically they included the development of video
tapes and computer based instructional programming design of
program materials, piloting of the program and any necessary redesign.

166
 Notes

This category also includes the cost of the front-end assessment,

or that portion of the assessment directly attributed to the program. In
addition the costs of evaluation and tracking are included.If a program is
to be conducted for a few years, the cost is often a mortized over that period.

For example one-third of the development may be charged off in

the first year of implementations one-third in the second year and one-
third in the last year.Otherwise, there is a real “bulge” in the budget
because of development costs during the first year.

Overhead Costs
These costs are not directly related to a training program but
are essential to the smooth operation of the training department.

If you have audio visual equipment that has been purchased

specifically for your department there is a cost to maintain that equipment.
Some portion of that annual cost should be charged to the various training
programs. If you have classroom space available to you there is an
overhead cost for supplying heat and lighting. The cost of supporting that
space for days when the classroom is used for particular courses should be
charged to those programs.

Compensation for Participants

These costs comprise the salaries and benefits paid to participants
for the time they are in a program. If the program is for two days long.
salaries and benefits for your participants for these two days are cost of the
program.

Typically HRD professionals do not know what the individual

people. May earn but can obtain that informationly asking the
compensation department to provide a figure for an average salary paid
to the various levels of people who will be attending. The average salary
is then multiplied by the number of people attending the program, to
derive a compensation estimate

167
Notes
Issues in Computing and Using Roi Estimates

Using ROI estimates to express the contribution of an HRD

program has received increased attention. For example, Jack Phillips
published three articles that advocated using ROI ratios and offered advice
on how HRD practitioners could do this. (Recall that Phillips proposed a
modification of Kirkpatrick’s four-level evaluation model to include ROI
as Level 5) Patti and Jack Phillips have written a recent article addressing
ROI issues in the public sector. Jack Phillips also published a very useful
book on HRD evaluation.

For example, he offered the following process for collecting the information
needed to calculate ROI

1. Collection Level-4 evaluation data: Ask, Did on-the-job application

produce measurable results?
2. Isolated the effects of training from other factors that may have
contributed to the results.
3. Convert the results to monetary benefits.
4. Total up the costs of training.
5. Compare the monetary benefits with the costs.

Step 1 and 2 focuses on research design issues. With regard to step 3,

Phillips advocates collecting both hard and soft data (e.g., units produced
and accident cost, employee attitudes, and frequency of use of new skills)
that demonstrate a program’s effectiveness. This step would obviously be
part of the evaluation study. Once this collection is done, Phillips provides
suggestions concerning how to convert the data to monetary terms (e.g.,
using historic costs and estimates from various sources). In a similar vein,
Parry provides a worksheet that HRD professionals can use and summarize
the costs and benefits associated with an HRD program. More recently,
Parry provided several helpful worksheets to assist in the calculation of both
ROI and cost-benefit estimates.

Phillips made several suggestions regarding how to increase the

credibility of ROI estimates and the cost estimates that they have built
on. These include using conservative estimates of costs, finding reliable
sources for estimates, explaining the assumptions and techniques used
to

168
 Notes
compute costs, and relying on hard data whenever possible. Beyond this,
Parry suggests having managers and supervisors calculate training costs.
He sees their involvement as a way to remove the potential suspicion
that an HRD professional may try to place the data in the most favorable
light to his or her own area.

The second line of thinking regarding ROI estimates focuses on

whether and when ROI estimates should be used. Recognizing the time
and cost involved in creating ROI estimates, Phillips observed that
some organizations set targets for how many HRD programs should be
evaluated at this level. He cites evaluating 5 percent of an
organization’s HRD programs at the ROI level as an example of a target
that could be used. Willyerd sounds a cautionary note on the use of ROI
estimates. She points out that some writers (e.g., Kaplan and Norton)
question the overreliance on accounting and financial measures in
business in general, and instead call for using an approach to
performance measurement that balances a number of parameters (e.g.,
financial, customer, internal process, and innovation and learning).

Willyerd suggests that HRD professionals would be wise to

follow Kaplan and Norton’s notion of a balanced scorecard when
presenting the effectiveness of HRD programs, and that they collect and
communicate data from each of the four perspectives. Doing this, she
states that this method, avoids the shortcomings of relying strictly on
financial measures, while still communicating the impact of the HRD
program on all of the organization’s strategic dimensions. A recent book
by Lynn Schmidt emphasizes a training scorecard for training evaluation
that goes beyond financial measures alone. Others have made similar
arguments as well.

The author hopes that this surge of interest in ROI will encourage
HRD practitioners to attempt to use ROI estimates as one of the ways to
communicate the value of HRD programs. In January 2004, ASTD held
an ROI Network Conference in Scottsdale, Arizona. At this conference,
Merrill Anderson was honored as ROI practitioner of the year, and
Accenture received the ROI impact study award. However, it is
emphasized that such estimates shall be used carefully, and that it is
important to build the credibility of such estimates in the eyes of
management. After all, HRD evaluation is about supporting decisions.
Different decisions call for different supporting data, and building
credibility can ensure that decision makers will actually heed and use the
data provided.

169
Notes
Utility Analysis

The results of an evaluation study often express the effect of

an HRD program in terms of a change in some aspect of the trainee’s
performance or behavior. For example, if untrained employees produce an
average 22.5 units (per day or per hour) and trained employees produces
on an average 26 units, the gain due to training is 3.5 units per employee.
Utility analysis provides a way to translate these results into money terms.
One popular approach to utility analysis is the Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser
model. This model computes the gain to the organization in money terms
∆U, or “change in utility”) using the following variables:

N = Number of trainees
T = Length of time the benefits are expected to be available
dt = An effect size, which expresses the true difference of job performance
between the trained and untrained groups (expressed in standard deviation
units)
SDy = money value of job performance of untrained employees (expressed
in standard deviation units)
C = Costs of conducting the training

Wayne Cascio combined these elements into a formula to compute

the money value of improved performance due to training. The left side of
the equation estimates the benefits of training, while the right side presents
the cost. The formula is:

∆U = (N) (T) (dt) (SDy) – C

Some terms in the equation can be directly measured, such as

N, C, and dt, but others, such as T and SDy, must be estimated. More
complicated versions of this formula have been developed to account for
other factors that may affect the real monetary value of the benefits, such
as attrition and decay in the strength of training effects over time.

Cascio suggests a method for incorporating the results of utility

analysis into cost-benefit analysis for training and HRD programs.
Drawing upon techniques of capital budgeting, the three phases of
Cascio’s approach are as follows:

170
 Notes
1. Compute the minimum annual benefits required to break even
on the program (e.g., how much of a payback must the program
generate in order to cover its costs?).
2. Use break-even analysis to determine the minimum effect size (dt)
that will yield the minimum required annual benefit (how much
of an improvement in job performance that the trained employees
show for the program to generate the payback needed to break
even?).
3. Use the results from meta-analytic studies to determine the
expected effect size and expected payoff from the program (what
is the likely degree of improvement in job performance that the
HRD program being proposed has been shown in the previously
conducted research in this program or method?).

The goal of such cost-benefit analyses is to put HRD professionals

on a more equal footing with other managers, so that they can demonstrate
the expected gains of their programs and compare these gains to either the
gains from the other programs or other potential investments (like the
purchase of a new piece of equipment).

Although the computational formulas for this approach are

somewhat complex, Cascio points out that they can be computerized,
thereby requiring only the HRD manager or professional determine and
input the values that correspond to each of the key parameters (like cost,
benefits, and effect size). The author recommends to complete the utility
calculation exercise at the end of the chapter.

While utility analysis can help to translate the benefits of training

programs into money terms, many training professionals have concerns
about the practicality of such efforts. Further, some researchers have
questioned its value because of the nature of the estimates used to determine
some of the factors in the formula. Latham reports that economists have
not accepted this form of analysis. It is also unclear as to what extent HRD
professionals use utility analysis to communicate the effectiveness of
HRD programs. If the utility analysis is intended to help the managers to
see the HRD programs as an investment and to make more informed
decisions about HRD programs, it is reasonable to ask whether their
decisions are influenced by utility estimates.

171
Notes
Research on this question has produced mixed results. On the
one hand, Latham and Whyte found that managers are not influenced in
the way HR practitioners would hope. They found that including utility
analysis information actually reduced manager’s support for a valid
employee selection program. Similarly, Hazer and Highhouse observed
that “the degree to which managers accept the notion that the effectiveness
of HR programs can be measured in terms of money remains an open
question”. On the other hand, Morrow, Jarret, and Rupinski report that
having a senior management team that is interested in a demonstration
that HRD programs are a worthwhile investment and pre approves the
utility model and procedures to be used will lead to acceptance of utility
information as legitimate.

Utility analysis (in addition to ROI and cost estimates) presents

an opportunity for HRD professionals to provide information to
decision makers in money terms. However, simply providing managers
with the money estimates generated by utility analysis will not by itself be
sufficient to gain acceptance or use. As with ROI estimates, gaining
management acceptance appears to be a key consideration, Michael
Sturman recently proposed a number of modifications to the equations
that are used to calculate utility estimates.

He concludes his article by stating that “for a complex decision

making tool to be useful, the targeted users of the decision aid must
need the information it provides and be trained in its use”. Commenting
on the Whyte and Latham results mentioned earlier, Sturman continues,
“We should not be surprised that an individual untrained with a use of a
decision aid fails to adhere to the results of the aid”. Toward that end,
we provide a list of recommendations offered by various authors that
should increase the chances that management will accept and use utility
information:

➢ Involve senior management in determining the utility model and

procedures to be used.
➢ Train HR professionals and managers in the details of utility
analysis.
➢ Offer an explanation to the components of the utility model.
➢ Involve management in arriving at estimates.
➢ Use credible and conservative estimates.

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 Notes
➢ Admit that the results of utility analysis are often based on fallible
but reasonable estimates.
➢ Use utility analysis to compare alternatives, rather than to justify
individual programs.

Finally, it is important to remember that not all decision makers,

and not all HRD programs, require justification in money terms. We
agree with Latham’s suggestion that HRD professionals find out from
senior managers as to what they consider while determining the value
of HRD programs and provide management with the information in
those terms. For some organizations, this may include the money value,
while in others demonstrating positive improvements in nonmonetary
terms may be preferred.

A lively debate concerning the inclusion of “values” (other than

financial return) in HRD evaluation was presented in Human Resource
Development Quarterly. Interested readers are encouraged to look further
into these issues, as they again remind us of the ethical issues involved in
all evaluation efforts. Finally, we present with an interesting situation
where the researchers moved away from utility analysis and ROI
calculations, and still managed to provide meaningful organizational-
level data on the impact of training.

HRD Applications

Fundamental Concepts of Socialisation

Organizational Roles A role is a set of behaviors expected of from

the individuals who hold a given position in a group. Roles define how a
person fits into the organization and what he or she must do to perform
effectively. For example, when we encounter a receptionist, we expect
that person to perform certain functions of that role, such as greeting us,
providing us with information, and directing us to those in the organization
we wish to see. When newcomers enter into a new group, they must as to
learn what roles they are expected to fulfill in order to fit in and perform
effectively.

173
Notes
Edgar Schein described three dimensions of organizational roles as below

1. Inclusionary - a social dimension (e.g., outsider, probationary

status, permanent status)
2. Functional - a task dimension (e.g., sales, engineering, plant
operations)
3. Hierarchical - a rank dimension (e.g., line employee, supervisor,
middle manager, officer)

A new role requires learning to perform in ways that fulfill the

social, functional, and hierarchical dimensions of that role. For example,
a patrol officer who is promoted to shift sergeant will not be completely
effective until he or she knows the tasks a sergeant must do is able to do
those tasks, and is accepted by others in the sergeant’s role.

The socialization process becomes much more intense and presents

greater challenges just before and after the employee moves across a
boundary. Crossing each boundary requires learning new attitudes and
behaviors and carries with it the risk of failed socialization and negative
outcomes, such as dissatisfaction and turnover.

Role communication and role orientation are two important

issues for organizational socialization. Ideally, an individual’s role would
be communicated clearly and agreed upon by all concerned parties
(including management, peers, and the individual). Unfortunately, roles
are often not communicated clearly. Perception plays an important part
in how roles are defined and communicated, to the individual, his or her
coworkers, the immediate supervisor, and upper management are all likely
to perceive a given role differently. Although many organizations consider
a job description to be the official statement of an individual’s role, job
descriptions are often vague and open to interpretation.

The perceptual nature of organizational roles can lead to the following

three situations:

1. Role overload - when the employee perceives the role as being

more than he or she can bear with
2. Role conflict - when the employee receives mixed messages about

174
 Notes
what is expected of from him or from her by others, such as a boss
and coworkers
3. Role ambiguity - when the employee feels that his/her role is
unclear; this is often the result of from assuming a new position

The individual’s role orientation is also important for

socialization. Individuals do not conform completely to the role
prescribed for them. Role orientation is the extent to which individuals
are innovative in interpreting their organizational roles. Role orientation
exists on a continuum, with a custodial orientation (conforming
closely to established ways of doing things) at one extreme and an
innovative orientation (taking considerable initiative in redefining the
role) at the other. For example, a market research analyst who has an
innovative orientation may include educating managers in the ethics of
marketing as part of his or her role, even though other analysts in the
organization do not perform this function. It is often beneficial for
employees to creatively redefine their roles (i.e., have an innovative
orientation) in ways that improve their own and the organization’s
effectiveness. However, this creativity and innovation will often
challenge some of the organization’s accepted beliefs and established
ways of doing things.

Group Norms: Norms are the rules of conduct (typically unwritten)

that are established by group members to influence or control behavior
within the group. Group norms are an important part of the socialization
process because they indicate the behaviors that insiders agree are
appropriate. Newcomers generally must learn to behave in ways that are
consistent with group norms if they are to be accepted as an insider.

Groups do not develop or enforce norms for all possible

behaviors and situations, but only for significant behaviors. Organizations
distinguish employee behaviors in terms of three levels of importance:
pivotal (behaviors essential to organizational membership), relevant
(behaviors that there are desirable but not essential), and peripheral
(unimportant behaviors). Organizations are more likely to focus on
pivotal and relevant behaviors during socialization and less likely to
teach peripheral behaviors to the employee, or pay attention to them.
Similarly, Daniel Feldman observed that groups will enforce norms
that facilitate group survival, express central values, make expected
behaviors simpler or more predictable, or help members avoid
interpersonal embarrassment.

175
Notes
Learning a group’s norm is not always easy. Norms are usually
informal and unwritten - and also varied! They can differ from group
to group within the same organization. Organizations can facilitate
the socialization process by providing ways to help newcomers learn
organization and group norms, such as in realistic job previews and
orientation programs.

Expectations: Expectations are also central to organizational

socialization. An expectation is a belief about the likelihood that
something will occur. Expectations can encompass behaviors, feelings,
policies, and attitudes. Newcomers have expectations about how they
will be treated, what they will be asked to do, and how they will feel in
the new organization, among other things. Expectations are important
for a variety of organizational issues, including motivation and decision
making. Research suggests that newcomers’ expectations can affect their
satisfaction, performance, commitment, and tendency to remain with the
organization.

Unfortunately, recruiting practices often result in recruits having

inflated expectations of their jobs and organizational life. Unrealistically
high expectations are not likely to be met, leading recruits to be
dissatisfied and increasing the chances they will leave the organization. In
general, un met expectations (whether realistic or not) can lead to
dissatisfaction, which can eventually result in individuals quitting their
jobs. Newcomers develop and test expectations throughout the
socialization process. The expectations that an individual will develop
depend on a number of factors and a variety of sources, including the
organization and its representatives, coworkers, friends, family, the media,
as well as the newcomer’s own personality, attitudes, values, and prior
experiences.

Organizations should be aware of the impact that expectations

have on the newcomer’s performance and satisfaction and take steps to
ensure that the information they provide leads to realistic, attainable
expectations. While organizations can help adjust newcomers’
expectations, surprise cannot be completely eliminated from the
newcomer’s experience, in part, because newcomers may not be aware of
how they feel about certain things until they experience them. For
example, telling an applicant from another geographic area about the
climate in your area is not the same as having the applicant actually
experience it (say, 20 degrees Fahrenheit with wind chill in the winter,
or 100 degrees with high humidity in the summer).

176
 Notes
The Realistic Job Review

A realistic job review (RJR) involves providing recruits with

complete information about the job and the organization. While an RJR
may seem like common sense, it actually stands in contrast to the
traditional approach to recruiting, sometimes referred to as the “flypaper
approach” in which the organization tries to attract applicants by
selectively presenting only positive aspects of the job and downplaying
any negative aspects. In an RJR, the recruit is given both positive and
negative information - in essence, the whole truth. Thus if a job
involves long hours and extensive travel, this information would not be
withheld or glossed over, but rather discussed openly.
Perception of honesty and caring

Vaccination of Self Internal locus Commitment

RJ of control to choice of
expectations selection
organization

Role clarity Job wants are

matched to
organizational
climates

Job Satisfaction

Coping
mechanisms Organizational
develop for commitment
new job

Job Voluntary turnover

performance

Involuntary Tenure in the

turnover organization

Realistic job review effects

Adopted from Werner & DeSimone (2007). Human Resource Development, 4e.
Thomson South-Western.

177
Notes
According to John Wanous, the goal of an RJR is to increase
newcomers’ satisfaction and commitment and the likelihood that they will
remain with the organization. A model of the RJR process (see Figure)
suggests four interrelated mechanisms: vaccination, self-selection, coping,
and personal commitment.

1. Vaccination Against Unrealistically High Expectations - providing

accurate information to outsiders is similar to vaccinating people
against a disease. New recruits are given information that permits
them to adjust their expectations to the reality of the job. For
example, a realistic portrayal of typical overtime or weekend work
may assist applicants in understanding all that will be required of
them in a given job.

2. Self-Selection - realistic expectations enable new recruits to decide

whether the job and the organization match their individual needs.
If they are incompatible, the recruit will probably not accept the
position, thus saving the organization from hiring someone who
would likely be dissatisfied and quit. The model suggests that self-
selecting individuals are more likely to be satisfied employees.
Self- selection obviously assumes that the organization has enough
other applicants that it can afford to let applicants select themselves
out of the hiring process.

3. Coping Effect - realistic expectations help newcomers develop

a clear idea of their roles, which in turn enables them to develop
coping strategies for performing their jobs effectively.

4. Personal Commitment - a new recruit who makes a decision to

join in an organization based on a realistic perspective will develop
a stronger personal commitment to that choice. This may lead to
job satisfaction and a long-term commitment to remain with the
organization. Although the RJR occurs during the recruitment
process, it can also be considered as an HRD intervention in that
it shares many of the same goals and techniques as other HRD
approaches. As we described earlier, the socialization process really
begins before an employee formally joins the organization, and the
RJR addresses its initial step (i.e., anticipatory socialization) by
attempting to adjust unrealistic impressions and reinforce accurate
expectations.

178
 Notes
Uses of Realistic Job Reviews

The first step in developing an RJP is to assess the need for one.
Interviews, questionnaires, and organizational records can be used to
assess the satisfaction, commitment, and turnover of new employees in
an organization. In addition, questions should be asked about whether
new recruits’ expectations were realistic and the extent to which the
organization met their expectations. Employees who voluntarily leave
the organization should be interviewed to state their reasons for leaving
(this is typically done in an exit interview). Often, employees leave for
reasons that are unrelated to their job satisfaction (including following a
spouse/partner to a new location, a change of heart about a career choice,
returning to school, or receiving a better job offer elsewhere); in these
cases, an RJR would likely do little to reduce the turnover.

Furthermore, it is important to consider the performance level of

individuals who voluntarily leave the organization. Some turnover may
be desirable, for example, if the organization’s poorest performers are
the ones who are leaving. However, if this is not the case, and the
organization would like to improve the situation (as when it is difficult
to find new recruits), an alternative selection or training approach
would likely be more effective than an RJR.

Supports of this view have suggested a number of conditions in which an

RJR can be both useful and effective, including:

1. when job candidates can be selective about job offers, especially

during times of low unemployment
2. when the selection ratio is low (the organization has many more
job applicants than positions available)
3. when the new recruits are unlikely to have enough information
available to them to develop realistic expectations (such as with
entry level, complex, or “unique” jobs)
4. when replacement costs are high

A variety of media for delivering an RJR have been suggested,

including printed materials (like booklets), audiovisual presentations
(videos), discussions with a representative of the organization (usually a

179
Notes
recruiter or job incumbent), oral presentations, and interviews. Given that
an RJP can be seen as a philosophy of recruiting rather than simply a
specific program, other media are also possible, including job
advertisements, recruiting literature, direct observation of the work
environment (such as a tour), work simulations, and actual work
experience for the recruit (such as a co-op or internship).

In addition to selecting what media will use to present the RJR, its
content must be chosen. The following issues should be considered in
determining RJR content:

1. Descriptive or Judgmental Content - descriptive content focuses

on factual information, while judgmental content communicates
incumbents’ feelings.
2. Extensive or Intensive Content - Extensive content contains all
pertinent information, while intensive content implies selective
information that is presented more briefly and forcefully.
3. Degree of Content Negativity - Should the contents of the RJR be
highly negative, moderately negative, or somewhere in between?
4. Message Source - if an audiovisual medium is used, should
actors, job incumbents, or other organization members, such as
supervisors or trainers, present the message?

Timing is critical to the RJR. According to theory, RJRs should be

given as early as possible (before a job offer is made) in order to activate
important mechanisms like vaccination and self-selection. However, this
can be an expensive proposition, depending on the number of recruits
and the media used. In addition, senior management may be less likely to
approve using negative information if the RJR is given early (such as in a
recruiting video) rather than late in the process (after an offer is made).

Research does not offer clear guidance on the timing of RJRs because
in many of the studies the RJR was presented later in the process (e.g., after
an offer or after the recruit accepted an offer). Although these studies have
shown that RJRs are effective in lowering expectations and turnover, it
may be that the timing used in these studies has led to conservative
estimates of effectiveness. Early delivery of the RJR seems to be the best
approach, using multiple forms of media - such as job ads, recruiting
brochures,

180
 Notes
and videos, DVDs, or online multimedia presentations - to
communicate realistic information throughout the organizational entry
process. Then, more expensive approaches can be used later, if
necessary, when there are fewer individuals to process.

Stages of Entry Evaluation criteria

Pre-entry 1. Ability of the organization to recruit newcomers
Entry 2. Initial expectations of new comers
3. Choice of organization by the individual, (
specific job wants being matched with climates)
Post-entry 4.Initial job attitudes
Satisfaction with the job
Commitment to the organization
Descriptive statements about the job (to be com
pared with expectations held as an outsider)
Thoughts about quitting
5.Job performance
6.Job survival and voluntary turnover rates

Evaluation criteria for the realistic job review

Effectiveness of Realistic Job Reviews

A variety of choices are available to help organizations evaluate

the effectiveness of them realistic job more, including the criteria listed
in Table. It is recommended that organizations evaluate theirs and
communicate the results of their evaluations through the scientific and
practitioner literature.

This will serve to expand the knowledge base upon which HRD
professionals can make more informed decisions about designing and
implementing. A relatively large number of studies examining the
effectiveness of RJRs have been conducted, including a number of meta-
analyses that review and combine the findings of multiple studies. In
general, research has shown that RJRs reduce inflated expectations,
and have a beneficial effect on turnover, satisfaction, and commitment.
The average reduction of turnover has been between 5 and 10 percent.

181
Notes
Although much research has been done, many of the studies seem to
have design flaws. Thus, while it appears that RJRs are effective, better
designed studies that examine both underlying theory and practical
issues will be of great benefit.

It should be noted that providing new recruits with realistic

information can be expected to go along way in improving newcomers’
attitudes and behaviors. An organization should examine what it can
do to improve the conditions in which the employees work and correct
the problems that it comes across. For example, new employees may
often be disappointed by the lack of responsibility and challenge in early
assignments. Simply telling newcomers about the case which may help
them lower their expectations, but Irving and Meyer found that providing
newcomers with positive work experience has a greater impact than
altering expectations. Similarly, reducing the need for unscheduled
overtime may be more effective than simply telling people about the
“overtime issue.”
In today’s economic environment, even moderate reductions in turnover
can have a significant impact on organizational productivity thus; HRD
practitioners should consider integrating RJRs within their
organization’s socialization processes.

Summary

Assessment can be done using a variety of performance indexes,

such as productivity, timeliness, and cost savings. Evaluation of training
costs can be compared to the costs incurred in conducting an HRD
program to the benefits received by the organization, and can involve two
categories of activities: cost-benefit evaluation and cost-effectiveness
evaluation. Roles define how a person fits into the organization and what
he or she must do to perform effectively. Norms are the rules of conduct
that are established by group members to influence or control behavior
within the group. Group norms are an important part of the socialization
process because they indicate the behaviors that insiders agree are
appropriate. A realistic job review involves providing the new recruits
with complete information about the job and the organization.

****

182
 Notes

Lesson 3.3 - Career Management and Development

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson, you may be able to

➢ Define Career Concepts

➢ Explain the Concept of Career Planning and Career Management
➢ Understand the Stages of Life and Career Development
➢ Understand the Models of Career Development
➢ Explain the Developmental Program
➢ Understand Career Plateau

Introduction

In the mordern employment environment, the availability of career-

enhancing assignments and career management activities can be used both
as a recruitment tool to attract employees and contingent workers to work
for the organizations, and as a motivational tool to gain their full effort,
commitment, and creativity. What should change, and what is changing,
is that the organizational career development should be designed to fit the
responsibilities and needs of both individuals and organizations, providing
the opportunities both need to prosper in a dynamic environment.

Definition Career Concepts

Greenhaus and colleagues described career broadly as “the pattern

of work-related experiences that span the course of a person’s life.”

This definition includes both objective events, such as jobs, and

subjective views of work, such as the person’s attitudes, values, and
expectations. Therefore, both a person’s work-related activities and his
or her reactions to those activities are part of his or her career. Further,
this definition is consistent with the notion that careers develop over
time, and that all persons have careers, regardless of profession, level of
advancement, or stability of work pattern.

183
Notes
By not being tied to advancement-oriented or career-as-
organizational-property points of view, this definition also recognizes
the multiplicity of work-related paths and experiences that people
engage in and respond to throughout their lives. This definition of a
career also underscores the influence and importance of the individual,
organization, and the environment on the individual’s work life. While
the job and occupational choices an individual makes during a career
are determined in large part by forces within the individual, the
organization and other external forces (e g., society, family, the
educational system) also play important roles. The individual is driven
toward particular job choices by his or her skills, knowledge, abilities,
attitudes, values, personality, and life situation. Organizations provide
jobs and information about jobs, as well as opportunities and
constraints within which one may pursue other jobs in the future
(especially if one chooses to remain employed within the same
organization). Both the individual and organization have needs and
priorities, and it is important to remember that both are critical to the
development of one’s career.

Finally, this definition of career takes the focus away from the stereo
typed idea of a career as a stable, long-term, predictable, organization-
driven sequence of vertical moves. It is broad enough to encompass many
of the recent ideas that have been offered in the career development
literature, and it can liberate individuals, practitioners, and theorists to
see the realities and possibilities that currently exist.

The overall process of career development can be defined as “an

ongoing process by which individuals progress through a series of stages,
each of which is characterized by a relatively unique set of issues, themes,,
and tasks.” However, it is useful to distinguish between two sets of activities
that can be subsumed within career development: career planning and career
management.

Career Planning and Career Management

As stated earlier, both the individual and the organization have

interests in an individual’s career, and both parties may take actions to
influence that career. These sets of related activities are referred to as
career planning and career management. These activities can be viewed
as existing along a continuum.

184
 Notes
Career planning is defined as “a deliberate process of 1)
becoming aware of self, opportunities, constraints, choices, and
consequences, 2) identifying career-related goals, and 3) programming
work, education, and related developmental experiences to provide the
direction, timing, and sequence of steps to attain a specific career goal.”
Viewed in this way, career planning is an activity performed by the
individual to understand and attempt to control his or her own work life.
The individual need not perform these activities alone. Assistance from
counselors, supervisors, and others within and outside the organization
can be helpful, but the focus of career planning is on the individual.

On the other end of the continuum is career management, defined

as “an ongoing process of preparing, implementing, and monitoring
career plans undertaken by the individual alone or in concert with the
organization’s career systems.” Career management may include
activities that help the individual develop and carry out career plans,
but the focus is on taking actions that increase the chances that the
organization’s anticipated HR needs will be met. At its most extreme,
career management is largely an activity carried out by the
organization. An example of such an activity is succession planning,
which is typically carried out by senior management to determine which
employee can and should be prepared to replace people in positions of
greater responsibility.

The Figure is given below describes where various career

development activities fit along the career development spectrum. These
activities vary according to (1) the amount of influence by the individual,
(2) the amount of information provided to the individual, (3) the amount of
influence by the organization, and (4) the amount of information provided
to the organization. Career management and career planning activities can
be complementary and can reinforce each other. For example, it is difficult
to monitor the career plans of an individual who has not made specific
plans. A balance between management and planning makes for effective
career development. The organization can support actions at any point
on the spectrum, assisting the employee with career planning, as well as
conducting career management activities.

Jeffrey Greenhaus and colleagues use the term career

management to refer to all phases of career development activities,
from gaining self- awareness, to developing career goals and plans, to
enacting those plans.

185
Notes
Because planning is a significant activity within management, we
adopt this more inclusive use of the term career management and use this
model to form the framework of our discussion of how individuals and
organizations can influence career development. Before discussing how
one can influence the course of one’s career, however, it is important to
examine the career development process.

Employee Mutual focus Organization

Centered: manager-employee centered:
Career planning planning career management

Self directed Company run Corporate Manager Developmental Corporate

Corporate
workbooks career-planning seminars employee assessment talent
succession
and tape workshops on organi- career centers(with inventories
planning
cassettes -zational discussions feedback)
career (includes
separate
training for
managers)

Spectrum of career development activities

Models of Career Development

Just as it is possible to depict adult development as progressing

through a series of stages, it is also possible to depict career development in
this way. We will discuss two approaches to modeling career development:
one is the traditional and the other one is more contemporary.

Traditional Models of Career Development

Numerous models of career development have been offered to

explain the sequence of stages that adults progress during their work lives.
These models emphasize the notion of an orderly series of career stages

186
 Notes
linked to age ranges, place the career into the context of a person’s life, and
contain overlapping concepts. Given the similarities among these models,
Greenhaus and colleagues combined these approaches into a five-stage
model, which is shown in Table

Stage 1: Preparation For Work (Age 0-25)

The major tasks during this period involve forming and defining an
idea of the occupation one would like to engage in, and making necessary
preparations for entry into that occupation. These activities include
assessing possible occupations, selecting an occupation, and obtaining the
necessary education. A great deal of research has been done to identify the
factors that influence occupational choice. The choices one makes during
this stage represent initial decisions rather than final ones, and establish
the first direction of the individual’s career.

Stage .2: Organizational Entry (Age 18-25)

At this stage, the individual selects a job and an organization in

which to begin employment in the chosen career field. The amount and
quality of information obtained can affect as to whether the initial job
choice will be a fulfilling introduction to one’s career or a
disappointing false start. Among the obstacles the individual faces in this
stage are initial job challenge (is it sufficient?), initial job satisfaction
(typically lower than at later career stages, due to the disparity between
initial expectations and organizational realities), and organizational
socialization (becoming an insider).

Stage 3: The Early Career (Age 25-40)

During this stage, the individual is dealing with finding a place in

the world and pursuing his or her life dream; this also involves becoming
established in a career and in an organization. The specific challenges
that must be met to do this include becoming technically proficient and
becoming assimilated into an organization’s culture (i.e., learning its
norms, values and expectations). Successful resolution of these challenges
can result in job satisfaction, advancement in terms of position and
responsibility, and increased financial and social rewards. In short, the
early career stage is about becoming established and “making it.”

187
Notes

1. Occupation Choice: Preparation for work

Typical age range Initially 0-25; then variable
Major tasks Develop occupaional self-image,
assess alternative occupations, develop
intial occupational choice,
occupations,
develop intial occupational
2. Organizational Entry
Typical age range Initially 18-25; then variable
Major tasks Obtain job offer(s) from desired
organization(s), select appropriate job
based on accurate information.

3. Early career: Establishment and Achievemen

Typical age range 25-40
Major tasks Learn job, learn organizational rules
and norms , fit into chosen
occupation and organization, increase
competence,
pursue the dream
4. Midcareer
Typical age range: 40-55
Major tasks: Re-appraise early career and early
adulthood, re-affirm or modify the
dream, make choices appropriate to
middle adult years, remain productive
in work .

5. Late career
Typical age range: 55-retirment

Major tasks: Remain productive in work, maintain

self-esteem, prepare for effective
retirment.

Stage 4: The Midcareer (Age 40-55)

Following Levinson, the midcareer stage begins at the same

time as the midlife transition. Therefore, one of the tasks the individual
faces at midcareer is a reexamination of the life structure and choices

188
 Notes
that were adopted during the early career. The individual may reaffirm
or modify The Dream, make choices appropriate to middle adulthood,
and remain productive at work. These challenges are congruent with the
popular notion of a midcareer crisis. The crisis may be severe for some
and not even seen as a crisis by others. Two events that often occur during
midcareer are plateauing (a lack of significant increases in responsibility
and/or job advancement) and obsolescence (finding one’s skills are not
sufficient to perform tasks required by technological change). As stated
earlier, the individual who successfully resolves these challenges will
remain productive, while one who does not will experience frustration
and stagnation.

Stage 5: The Late Career (Age 55-Retirement)

The individual faces two challenges during the late career. First,
he or she must strive to remain productive and maintain a sense of self-
esteem. This can sometimes be hampered by the negative beliefs that
society has regarding the performance and capabilities of older
workers. Second, this individual faces the challenge of disengaging
from work and retiring. Retirement brings many emotional, financial,
and social changes and should be planned for well in advance of the
actual retirement date. Given current trends In the Social Security
system, the abolition of the mandatory retirement age for most jobs,
and questions about the management of pension funds, many people
will be facing a career without an adequately planned retirement.
Rather than facing retirement, the individual may have to face
occupational change at an age at which his or her parents were dealing
with a shift from work to nonwork. Pressures toward early retirement by
organizations trying to reduce labor costs may at the same time force
some workers into retirement sooner than planned, creating an
additional set of problems.

This model is useful for identifying the normal, or typical,

sequence of events and experiences that occur within one’s working life.
Some individuals, such as those who begin new occupations late in life,
will deviate from the age ranges suggested in the model. Even though the
ages will vary, many of the challenges are likely to stay the same, but the
individual will perceive and respond to them in light of the other issues he
or she is facing at that particular stage of life.

189
Notes
Contemporary views of career development: Certainly, the trends
in globalization, demographics, technology (both information and
otherwise), the changing employment relationship, team-based work,
and new organizational structures are having a significant impact on the
way careers are viewed. Contemporary view of career development is the
notion of differing career patterns, called the multiple career concept
models. This model suggests that there are four different patterns of career
experiences, called career concepts. These four concepts differ in terms
of the “direction and frequency of movement within and across different
kinds of work overtime. Distinctly different sets of motives underlie each
of the four concepts.” The four career concepts are:

1. Linear — A progression of movement up an organizational

hierarchy to positions of greater responsibility and authority;
motivated by desire for power and achievement; variable time line;
in the United States, this has been the traditional view of a “career.”
2. Expert — A devotion to an occupation; focus on building
knowledge and skill within a specialty; little upward movement in
a traditional hierarchy, more from apprentice to master; motivated
by desire for competence and stability; rooted in the medieval
guild structure.
3. Spiral — A lifelong progression of periodic (seven to ten years)
moves across related occupations, disciplines, or specialties;
sufficient time to achieve a high level of competence in a given area
before moving on; motives include creativity and personal growth.
4. Transitory — A progression of frequent (three to five years) moves
across different or unrelated jobs or fields; untraditional; motives
include variety and independence.

An Individually Oriented Career Management Model

As discussed earlier, individuals face a number of decisions in

managing their careers. Greenhaus and colleagues present a valuable
model of how individuals should manage this process. This is presented in
Figure

That response includes eight activities: i) career exploration,

ii) awareness of self and environment, iii) goal setting, iv) strategy
development, v) strategy implementation, vi) progress toward the
goal,

190
 Notes
vii) feedback from work and non work sources, and viii) career appraisal
(Table), to perform them, the individual uses information, opportunities,
and support from family, as well as from educational, work, and societal
institutions. The model suggests that career management occurs in a
series of steps, though the order of progression through these steps may
vary. The career management cycle is a problem-solving, decision-making
process. Information is gathered so individuals can become more aware
of themselves, and the world around them. Goals are established, plans
or strategies are developed and implemented, and feedback is obtained to
provide more information for ongoing career management. It is important
to note that the career management process is cyclical and ongoing.

Information, Opportunities and Support from

Need to make decision

Awareness
of self and Goal setting
Career exploration C
environment
A
B

Career
appraisal H Feedback:
work/nonwor
kG

Progress
toward goal
Strategy Strategy
F
implementation development
E D

Educational, Family, work and Societal Institutions

A model of career management

Adopted from Werner & DeSimone (2007). Human Resource Development, 4e.
Thomson South-Western.

191
Notes
The need to make career decisions can result from changes
within the individual (e.g., questioning done at midcareer) and changes
in the environment (e.g., organizational decisions such as firing and
downsizing, or a merger or acquisition). Effective application of the career
management model, including knowledge of both self and the
environment, realism of goals, career strategies, and continual
feedback, are more meaningful indicators of career success. Following
such a model can assist both employees and organizations in
understanding what should be done to effectively manage careers.
Obviously, employees benefit when they establish and work toward
career goals. But it is also beneficial for the organizations to encourage
their employees to manage careers in this way. Organization oriented
career management models

These models share the idea that the organization’s structure and
needs should guide the organization’s career management system. We
will briefly describe three of these models.

The Pluralistic Approach

As described earlier, Brousseau and colleagues believe that there

are at least four career concepts that represent patterns employees’ careers
can take. They argue that organizations can have career cultures that
mirror these career concepts (i.e., linear, expert, spiral, and transitory).
An organization’s career culture is defined by the organization’s structure,
what forms of performance it values, and the rewards it offers to its
employees. At the same time, the organization’s career culture should
support its strategic direction (e.g., an organization seeking diversification
should adopt a spiral career concept culture).

Brousseau and colleagues present a pluralistic approach as a

way to align the organization and the individual. They state: “We
suggest that both organizations and the workforce as a whole might
benefit from a pluralistic approach that combines varied amounts and
types of organizational structure with an array of quite different career
experience opportunities. Organizations would retain sufficient
structure to maintain certain core competencies and organizational
leadership, while utilizing less structured arrangements to meet the
demands of external change and flux”

192
 Notes
Operationally, Brousseau and colleagues offer three types of career
management methods: (1) counseling, 2) contracts (individual career
development program), and (3) a cafeteria approach that includes a
variety of “career-track options, training opportunities, performance
evaluation schemes, and reward systems”, from which employees may
choose to fit their own career goals. Designing and managing a pluralistic
career culture involves an ongoing process of assessing the gaps between
the organization’s strategy and employees’ career concepts and motives,
identifying the optimal organizational structure, and then identifying and
implementing the proper career management practices.

1. Career Exploration:

Career Exploration involues gathering in formation about one’s

self and the environment for example, a young woman engaged in
career exploration would collect information about her skills, values
and preferences as well as information about the possible jobs and
organizations available to her in the environment.

2. Awareness of Self and Environment:

Successful career exploration will lead the individual to a deepar

self-awareness and an understanding of both opportunities and constrain
ts, present in the environment. This awareness of self and environment
can lead the individual to set or revise career goals, or if such goals are
already, set it would lead to strategy development.

3. Goal Setting:

A Career Goal is an outcome the individual decides to try to

obtain. Such goals may be specific (e.g., I want to become apartner in
my accounting firm by age 35) or general (e.g., I want to be a Successful
and respected chef). To the extent career goals are based on an
awareness of the self and environment they are likely to be realistic.

4. Strategy Development:

A Career Strategy is an action plan for accomplishing the career

goal. An effective strategy should include the actions that should be
carried out and a time table for performing them. Many of the HRD
practices and programs presented in this book can serve as part of an
individual a career strategy. For example a police officer whose career goal
is to become a police sergeant may develop a strategy that include a
sttending college and other

193
Notes
training coureses and successfully completing the sergeant”s examination.
The strategy will be more effective if it is based on realistic self-awareness
and environmental awareness. Green haus lists even career strategies;
competency in the current job, increased involvement in work developing
skills developing opportunities cultivatiing mentor relationships, image
building and engaging in organizational politics.

5. Strategy Implementation:

Strategy implementation involues carrying out the individual

has developed. Following a realistics strategy as opposed to acting
without a clearly defined plan increases the like lihood of attaining the
career goal. It is easier to get where you want to go if you have a plan to
follow. However some people may develop elaborate plans, but then fail
to implement them. Strategy implementaion. Lead to progress toward
the goal and geedback from work and nonwork sources.

6. Progress Toward the Goal:

This is the extemt to which the individual is nearing the

career
goal.

7. Feedback from Work and Nonwork Sources:

Valuable information about the progress toward the career goal can
be obtained from both work soures-such as co-workers supervisors and
specialists and nonwork soureces such as friends, family, and teachers.

8. Career Appraisal:

Feedback and Information on progress toward the career goal

permit the individual to appraise his or her career. This appraisal leads to
reengagment in career exploration and the career management process
continues with another cycle of activities.

Career management activities

A Systems View of Career Management

Nicholson states that there are three main elements of a career

development system: (1) the people system, which includes the activities
involved in selecting, nurturing, and motivating human resources; (2)
the job market system, which includes the structure for developmental
opportunities; and (3) the management and information system, which

194
 Notes
facilitates the exchange of people, ideas, and information. Given the
environmental forces most organizations now face, Nicholson believes
that linking these three systems is vital to career management. He
suggests “career management must link the people system and the job
market system via the management and information system”.

This linkage could be made within organizations by ensuring that

information is available and usable, and could include between-company
cooperation in the form of creating and maintaining databases of people
and jobs. Doing so would provide individuals and organizations with a
way to gain and use knowledge to accomplish their goals Nicholson
suggests that individual outcomes of such a system would include better
job-person fit, competency, and leadership. Organizational outcomes
would include better teamwork, flexibility, and dynamism.

Team-Based Career Development

As many organizations are shifting toward more team-

oriented structures, it is possible that team experiences can be used
for career management. Cianni and Wnuck note that in team-based
organizations, career development responsibility can be shared among
the individual, the team, and the organization. A team model for career
development can enhance an individual member’s growth and ensure
that teams develop as well. Cianni and Wnuck suggest that the basic
attributes of a team career model include the following:

1. Team members serve as role models.

2. Teams reward behaviors that enhance team performance and
growth, and personal growth and development.
3. Teams determine training opportunities both for the team and for
individuals.
4. The team moves collectively to higher organizational levels.
5. People move laterally within the team.
6. The organization evaluates the team; the team evaluates the
individual.

The model offers different developmental activities for different

team career stages Stage 1, designed to integrate the individuals into the

195
Notes
team, would include team competency and project management training,
team building, and skill and personal style assessment. Stage 2, designed
to continue team development, would include team problem solving and
performance monitoring training, task rotation and coaching. Finally,
Stage 3, intended to make the team more independent and accountable,
would include training in learning organization tools, leadership potential
assessment, leadership rotation, and the possibility of having members
lead a Stage 1 team.

Benefits of the team model should include higher productivity,

commitment, organizational flexibility, and retention of high performers.
However, not all teams would benefit from this approach. Cianni and
Wnuck state that this would most benefit cross-functional teams intended
to help the organization to expand into new markets or create new project
or services, as well as internal consulting teams charged with
implementing change or serving internal customers.

These organization oriented career models emphasize the role of

organizational structure and organizational goals as a driving force in
career management, making career management a more strategic
endeavor. They differ in terms of their applicability to particular
organizations. While the pluralistic approach is intended to be used in
a wide range of organizations, the career systems and team models
will fit best in a particular range of organizations. Because these are
new ideas, research and practical experience are needed to determine
their effectiveness and the best way of using them. We find them
intriguing and think they are expanding career development in new and
exciting directions.

The HRD and Career Development Professionals’ Responsibility

In many ways, HRD professional’s role is the same as in the

career management as it is in any other HRD activity: to ensure that the
organization has programs and activities that will help the organization
and its employees to achieve their goals. This role involves all the
foundational activities in needs assessment, design, implementation,
and evaluation.
In addition, in the light of the changes in the career landscape, Hall offers
the following suggestions for career development and HRD professionals
to help individuals become “masters of their own careers”:

196
 Notes
1. Start with the recognition that each individual “owns” his or her
career.
2. Create information and support for the individual’s own efforts for
development.
3. Recognize that career development is a relational process in which
the career practitioner plays a broker role.
4. Become an expert on career information and assessment
technologies.
5. Become a professional communicator about your services and the
new career contract.
6. Promote work planning that benefits the organization as a whole,
over career planning that is unrelated to organizational goals and
future directions.
7. Promote learning through relationships at work.
8. Be an organizational interventionist, that is, someone is willing
and able to intervene where there are roadblocks to successful
career management.
9. Promote mobility and the idea of the lifelong learner identity.
10. Develop the mind-set of using natural (existing) resources for
development.
11. Finally, HRD professionals must examine the employment
practices used by their organization, and determine the extent to
which these practice promote or work against the kinds of career
management behavior they want employees to engage in.

Career Development Practices and Activities

Organizations have a wide range of possible career development

tools and activities from which to choose. Some of these, such as self-
awareness workshops are intended primarily for career planning and
development, while others, such as recruitment, are a part of normal
HR management activities. A study of career development activities at
large organizations grouped career development activities into six
categories: employee self-assessment tools, organizational-potential
assessment processes, internal labor-market information exchanges,
individual counseling or career discussions, job matching systems, and
development programs.

197
Notes
Self-assessment Tools and Activities

Self-assessment activities, such as self-study workbooks or career

planning workshops, focus on providing employees with a systematic
way to identify capabilities and career preferences. Self-assessment is best
used as a first step in the process (i.e., at the stage of self-exploration)
rather than as the only activity in a career management program. Self-
assessment activities can be done by an individual alone, in groups, or in
some combination of the two. Effective self-assessment should (1) set the
stage for the self-assessment experience and (2) help an individual explore
his or her values, interests, skills, feelings, personal resources, goals for
timing, and decision-making styles. This information can help answer
questions such as “Who am I?” “What do I want in my life and my career?”
and “How Can I best achieve my career goals?”

Self-assessment workbooks provide information and a series of

exercises to help an individual discover his or her values, abilities, and
preferences. These workbooks can be purchased from a third party or
designed specifically for an organization. For example, Richard Bolles’
best-selling book What Color is Your Parachute? includes many self-
discovery exercises, along with information about various occupations and
job search skills. Similarly, Jqhn Holland’s The Self-Directed Search helps
an individual reader identify his or her interests and suggests possible
occupations that match these interests.

The advantages of self-assessment exercises developed by third-

party sources are that they are readily available and have been designed by
career development, experts. However, they are not designed to fit within
an organization’s specific HRD and career development strategy. The HRD
staff may need to make modifications, or develop supplementary material
to fill these gaps.

Workbooks designed to complement an organization’s overall

HRD strategy may do better at making employees aware of resources
and opportunities within the organization. Such workbooks can include
a statement of the organization’s career development policy and
associated procedures; information on the organization’s structure,
career paths, and job specifications; information about related training,
education, and development programs; and instructions on how
employees can obtain

198
 Notes
further information, such as names, addresses, and phone numbers of
resource persons within the organization.

The activities included within a workbook can also be delivered

via computers and the Internet. For example, the U.S. Army uses a
microcomputer-based self- assessment system for officers called Officer
Career Information and Planning System (OCIPS), and the American
College Testing Program publishes a computer- based system called
DISCOVER.

Each of these programs provides career information and self-

discovery exercises similar to those found in workbooks. One of the
advantages of using self-assessment workbooks and computer programs is
that they can be completed at the employee’s convenience. However, it can
also be beneficial to provide self-assessment information in an interactive
group session where employees can share and discuss their insights. Career
planning and pre retirement workshops are well suited for this purpose.

Like other self-assessment approaches, career planning workshops

provide a structured experience in which participants develop, share, and
discuss personal information about their strengths, weaknesses, goals, and
values. Workshops can be made up of one or more sessions that focuses
on what career planning and management is all about. Self-discovery,
(reality testing of insights is gained during discussions with the facilitator
and other participants), identification of possible career directions and
opportunities, and career goal setting.

The advantages of workshops include the ability to reach many

people at once, opportunities to gain support from peers and to develop
networks, and exposure to other people’s ideas and reactions. In addition
the feedback from the facilitator and other group members may help the
individual recognize any self-deception or self- ignorance that might
go undetected if a self-assessment workbook were used alone. Potential
disadvantages include scheduling problems, difficulty in designing an
experience that suits for all the participants’ needs (especially if they come
from different organizational levels), and the possibility that some people
may be intimidated by the group setting.

199
Notes
Individual Counseling or Career Discussions

Individual career counseling involves one-to-one discussions

between the employee and an organizational representative. One survey
revealed that organizations primarily use HR professionals, supervisors,
or line managers as career counselors. Such counseling sessions can range
from brief, informal talks, to the annual performance evaluation discussion,
to a series of discussions with a manager or counseling professional.

Individualized counseling can answer a wide range of questions and

can either stand alone or supplement other career development activities.
The career counseling process can be viewed in three stages:

1. Opening and Probing — This stage establishes rapport and

determines the employee’s goals for the counseling session(s).
2. Understanding and Focusing — This includes providing
assistance in self- assessment and establishing career goals and
strategies.
3. Programming — This stage provides support for implementing
the career strategy.

During this process, the counselor can suggest actions to the

employee and provide support and feedback about the ideas and results
of actions taken by the employee.

Counseling can be used for continuing employees as well as

employees who are approaching retirement, are about to be laid off, or
are terminated. Outplacement counseling focuses on assisting terminated
employee in making the transition to a new organization. The use
of outplacement counseling has become widespread since the 1980s,
especially in the wake of the downsizing, mergers, and acquisitions that
organizations experienced during this period. These sessions can focus on
job search skills, stress management, and career planning. Of all the forms
of individualized counseling, outplacement counseling is the most likely
to be performed by a counselor who is not an organization member. Many
consulting firms offer outplacement services for hire.

Preretirement counseling and workshops involve activities that help

employees prepare for the transition from work to nonwork. Retirement is
often filled with great uncertainty on both the personal and the financial

200
 Notes
level. Preretirement counseling programs typically involve discussions
about financial planning, social adjustment, family issues, and preparing
for leisure activities.

An important issue in individualized counseling centers on the

individual selected to be the counselor. In some ways, managers and
supervisors are well suited to serve as counselors. They are knowledgeable
about the organization and should be familiar with the employee’s
performance and his or her capabilities. In addition, they are in an ideal
position to offer support and to follow up on actions taken by the
employee. However, there are disadvantages in using the supervisors and
managers as career counselors.

First, unless they receive training in career development issues

and counseling skills such as listening, questioning, and clarification,
they may lack the skills to perform effective counseling. Second, even
with training some supervisors and managers lack the abilities and/or
desire to perform the task well. They may view it as an added burden
and may not be rewarded by the organization for performing it. Finally,
employees may be reluctant to discuss their career plans with current
bosses or to take advice from a non professional

If managers and supervisors are to be used as counselors, the following

steps should be taken:

1. Their role in the career development process must be clarified.

2. They must be trained to perform this role.
3. They must have the opportunity to discuss their own career
development concerns.
4. The role of counselor or developer should be incorporated into
the organizational reward system (e.g., included in managers’
performance evaluations).

One element of this approach has been used at Metropolitan Life,

where the performance evaluation process for managers and supervisors
includes an evaluation of how well they are doing in developing their
employees.

201
Notes
Internal Labor Market Information Exchanges and Job Matching
Systems

Employees engaged in career planning, need accurate

environmental information in addition to an accurate self-assessment.
To this end, the organization should provide employees with information
about job opportunities within the organization. Two commonly used
methods for doing this are job posting systems and the establishment of
career paths. Job posting is one of the most common career
development activities. It involves making open positions in the
organization known to current employees before advertising them to
outsiders. In a typical job posting program, the organization publishes the
job description, job requirements, pay range, and an application procedure
for vacancies, and it provides a form for employees to submit. The
vacancies can be posted in a common area, such as on a bulletin board
reserved for that purpose. Increasingly, such postings are done online,
using the organization’s website or intranet. Interested employees can then
apply and be considered for the vacant positions. Job posting systems are
widely used in both government and private organizations.

Job posting is a source of career information as well as a

recruiting and selection tool. Employees can learn skills and abilities
which are needed for various positions and can use that information as a
springboard for career development discussions and to establish career
goals and strategies. If they are administered openly and fairly, job
postings can help employees realize that they have a future in the
organization, and this can improve morale. However, job posting
systems can also create problems if employees suspect that only low-
level or undesirable positions are being posted, or if the job requirements
listed are rigged to ensure that an “inside” candidate is the only one
qualified for a position.

A career path is a sequence of jobs, usually involving related tasks

and experiences that employees move through over time. For example, a
career path in a city police department may include the positions of patrol
officer, desk sergeant, lieutenant, captain, and chief of police. Career paths
communicate to employees possibilities for job movement. Together with
job descriptions and job specifications, these paths can aid the employee
in developing a career strategy.

202
 Notes
Career paths can be developed using either a traditional or a job/
behavioral approach. In the traditional approach, the career path represents
what has typically happened in the organization and usually represents
a consensus among managers about logical job movements within a
particular department. For example, if computer operators typically become
technical advisors before becoming supervisor, the career path will reflect
this. In the job/behavioral approach, the path is created by analyzing the
similarities and differences among jobs in the organization. For example,
if the positions of market research analyst and human resource research
analyst require similar skills, these jobs may be listed on the same career
path, even though they exist in different departments. The job/behavioral
approach can include jobs from throughout the organization and, as
a result, open up more possibilities for movement than the traditional
approach.

Some organizations use a dual career path or dual-track system

in which the Path to greater responsibility includes both management
and non-management tracks. The presence of non-management paths,
with relatively equivalent esteem and pay, can serve the needs of
employees who lack the skills or the desire to become managers. For
example, the Exploration Division of British Petroleum established dual
career paths for areas such as engineering and product development.
Teams of managers and employees established the system, and trained
colleagues in how to use the new system. Such an approach opens up
more possibilities than the traditional pyramid structure provides.

While career paths can help provide information to employees

about career progression possibilities, they may rely too heavily on
what the organization has typically done rather than on what it is likely
to need in the future. Given the changes in the career landscape that we
noted earlier in the chapter, vertical progressions may be unavailable,
or they may be shorter than what have traditionally been available,
unappealing to employees with spiral or transitional career concepts, or
not in keeping with the organization’s strategy and career culture.
Therefore, career paths should be developed within the context of each
organization’s strategic and human resource planning activities. In
addition, care should be taken to identify possible alternative paths such
as lateral career movement. This is included in the career grid approach,
in which career grids, based on job content, specify possible vertical and
horizontal sequences of positions

203
Notes
employees may hold. The grids can communicate not only the potential
path but also the competencies required for each position in the paths
and developmental ideas for moving through these positions. From an
organizational viewpoint, this approach is beneficial in that it provide
skilled and valued employees (e.g., the organization’s top engineers
or accountants) with a career option that promises progression, while
allowing them to remain in their specialty area. It also provides a
learning and developmental incentive for employees who are not
interested in becoming managers.

Beyond using career paths and job posting, internal information

can also be supplemented by publishing booklets and flyers that inform
employees of career enhancement possibilities. Knowledge of available
resources such as upcoming training programs and tuition assistance
programs can help employees develop and implement their career
strategy.

Another source of internal labor market information is a skills

inventory. A skills inventory is a database that contains information
about employee skills, education performance evaluation, and career
preferences. It is often part of an organization’s human resource
information system (HRIS). HRD professionals can use this
information during the needs assessment phase to identify the
capabilities of the workforce and pinpoint any skill shortages that
should be addressed. Skills inventory information is usually collected
from voluntary reports from employees. Potential shortcomings of
voluntary self-reports include the possibility of incomplete, inaccurate,
or outdated information, though the recent growth in network and
personal computer-based HRIS has made these issues easier to deal
with than they were earlier.

Organization Potential Assessment Processes

Organizations have a vested interest in ensuring that they have

individuals available who are ready to fill the key positions when these
positions become vacant. Many organizations evaluate the potential,
managerial, professional and technical employees. Those judged as
highly- potential employees can then be groomed” for these positions.
Three ways that potential assessment can be done through potential
ratings, assessment centers, and by succession planning.

204
 Notes
Potential ratings are similar to employee performance evaluations.
An employee’s manager or supervisor typically performs them. They
measure multiple dimensions, and include a summary or overall rating of
the employee’s potential for advancement. The main difference between
potential ratings and performance ratings is that potential ratings focus on
the future rather than the past or present. This method requires the rater
to judge whether an employee is likely to be successful in the job requiring
skills he or she may not currently use. Also, the results of potential
evaluations are unlikely to be made known to the employee. Ratings of
potential are subject to the same problems as performance evaluations
(i.e., rating errors and biases). Raters should be trained in the proper way
to conduct such an evaluation.

Assessment centers, which can be used as part of the employee

selection process, can also be used to assess potential for advancement.”
In an assessment center, small groups of employees perform a variety
of exercises while being evaluated by a group of trained assessors. The
exercises can include simulations, role-plays, group discussions, tests, and
interviews. The exercises should measure relevant skills and aptitudes for
a given position. The assessors are typically managers who are one or two
organizational levels above those being evaluated (assess). Assessors
should be specifically trained for this task. The assessors write a detailed
report on each assessee and usually make an overall judgment about the
assessee’s promotability. When used for developmental purposes, the
intensive assessment fallback is provided to the employee to increase self-
awareness. The feedback from a developmental assessment center can be
used by the employee to develop career goals and a plan for future
development. While career development assessment centers can be
expensive to use, they provide a rich source of data. Care should be taken
in designing assessment center procedures to include assessment of skills
that can be developed in a reasonable amount of time and to include
exercises that permit multiple opportunities to observe participants in each
dimension. Examples of this approach include developmental assessment
centers at AT&T and Kimberly Brothers Manufacturing Company.

Succession planning is a third way of conducting potential

evaluations. This process is most often done for upper-level management
positions. It requires senior managers to identify employees who should
be developed to replace them. Information generated during succession

205
Notes
planning may not be communicated to the employee. If potential
evaluations are made known to the employee and his or her superiors,
this information can be used to create a self-fulfilling prophecy. That is, if
managers believe the employee has a high potential for advancement, they
may be more likely to evaluate the person favorably and promote him or
her more quickly than actual performance warrants. If succession plans
are not communicated to the employee, the organization runs the risk
of a mismatch between the employee’s career plans and its plans for the
employee. Making this information available to the employee can ensure
that the employee develops realistic career plans and reduces the chances
that the person will refuse the position.

In the case of management development, the notion of succession

management can be seen as a way for succession planning to better
serve organizations in a rapidly changing environment. One of the main
properties of succession management is viewing the goal of the process as
one of creating a cadre of individuals who have the competencies needed
to work as part of a senior management team. Future competencies, in
the form of a “leadership template,” are used as the criteria toward which
group of individuals should be developed. The role of senior management
is not to identify specific individuals to replace them, but to identify
developmental opportunities, create challenging assignments that are
central to the business and create a team/network orientation, and mentor
and serve as role models for those who are being developed.

Developmental Programs

Career management includes job rotation, in-house programs,

external workshops and seminars, tuition assistance and reimbursement
plans, and mentoring programs, etc. These programs provide employees
with opportunities to learn new ideas and skills, thus preparing them for
future positions as well as introducing new challenges.

Job rotation involves assigning an employee to a series of jobs

in different functional areas of the organization. These assignments are
typically lateral rather than vertical moves, and can involve serving on
task forces or moving from line to staff positions. Job rotation is a good
way to introduce variety into an employee’s career. In addition, it
provides the employee with a chance to learn and use new skills and to
better

206
 Notes
understand different organizational functions. It can also serve to help
the employee build networks within the organization, and be better
prepared for future promotion opportunities, when they become
available.

Professional non-managerial employees were more interested

in rotation than others. With regard to implementing job rotation, care
should be taken to ensure that the job assignments in job rotation offer
developmental opportunities, rather than just the chance to do
something different.

Mentoring refers to a relationship between a junior and senior

member of the organization that contributes to the career development
of both members. Mentoring relationships can be important from both
a life development and a career development perspective. From a life
development perspective, recall from Levinson’s era approach to adult
development that young adults seek to establish meaningful relationships,
while middle-aged adults often want to make an impact on the generation
to follow them. From a career development perspective, the younger
employee wishes to become established in the organization, while the
middle-aged employee wants to remain productive at work. From either
perspective, the mentoring relationship serves the needs of both members.

The mentoring relationship serves both career and psychosocial

(e.g., social support) functions. The mentor provides the protégé
with career support — by opening doors, “teaching the ropes” of the
organization, creating potential opportunities to demonstrate
competence, enhancing visibility, and ensuring that the protégé has
challenging work. The protégé provides the mentor with a meaningful,
mutually reinforcing relationship that demonstrates the value and
commitment of both parties to the organization. The mentor has a
chance to serve as a role model and share what he or she knows with
someone who can benefit from such knowledge. In return, the mentor
receives respect, support, and in many cases, friendship.

In many organizations, mentoring relationships are formed as a

result of the parties’ mutual attraction. Some organizations, such as
Apple Computer, Federal Express, and the Federal Reserve Bank of
Chicago, have created formal mentoring programs in which mentors
and protégés are paired by the organization and provided with support
for the relationship.

207
Notes
Research has shown that mentoring can yield numerous organizational
benefits, including facilitating the socialization of new members into
the organization, reducing turnover, minimizing midcareer
adjustments, enhancing transfer of beneficial knowledge and values, and
facilitating the adjustment to retirement.

Mentoring relationships are complex. While they serve a variety

of needs for both mentor and protégé, they are also subject to potential
limitations and problems. Limitations of formal mentoring programs
include the small number of mentor pairs that they can accommodate,
and such unintended negative consequence as dissatisfaction with the
relationship and negative feelings of those not involved in the program. It
is not clear whether informal mentoring is superior to formal mentoring
in terms of the depth and scope of the mentor-protégé relationship. While
one research study found that the protégés in informal relationships
received more career-related support and had better career outcomes,
another study found no difference. Recent research by Eby and colleagues
sought to understand negative experiences that protégés have with their
mentors.

It is also not clear as to the extent to which problems exist in cross-

gender mentoring relationships. Earlier writers suggested that such problems
exist. Researches supporting this contention has reported the following
findings:

1. Concern exists between the parties about intimacy and sexual

attraction.
2. There is an inclination for men and women to rely on sex-role
stereotypes.
3. Dissatisfaction with the role-modeling aspect of the relationship
may be felt.
4. The relationship is subject to public scrutiny (e.g., jealous spouses,
office gossip). Peer resentment may occur.

More recent studies have found no gender differences in the

amount of career mentoring that protégés receive. It may be that in male-
dominated occupations, gender role has more to do with differences in
the amount of mentoring received than biological sex. Recent
researches

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 Notes
also have found that women are as good as men to become mentors,
report intentions to mentor, and to see the costs and benefits of entering
a mentorship relations similarly.

Research on cross-racial mentoring suggests another source of

potential problems. Thomas found that black protégés with white mentors
reported less satisfaction with the mentoring relationship and less
support than did members of same-race mentoring relationships. Even
within same-race and same-sex mentoring relationships lack of support
from the organization and incompatibility of the parties can undermine
the relationship. For example, the way that participants in a cross-race
developmental relationship prefer to deal with racial issues affects the
dynamics of such relationships. When both parties share the same strategy
for addressing racial issues, the relationship has both career advancing
and psychosocial elements (i.e., it becomes closer and more personally
supportive). When the parties prefer different strategies for dealing
with racial issues, the relationship is primarily oriented toward career
advancement only, and lacks the psychosocial element.

Given the problems that can occur, some authors have questioned
the value of mentoring. Clawson stated that mentoring is not essential
and that employees can gain some of the same benefits by learning from
their current supervisors, while seeking sponsorship at the appropriate
time from someone else. Kram suggests that it may not be necessary for
employees to look for everything that mentoring can provide in a single
relationship. In addition, relationships with peers can also provide some
of the same functions that mentors do (e.g., information career strategies,
emotional support, personal feedback), and may be more suitable for
individuals without mentors or for those who do not want mentors. Recent
writing recommends the value of a mentoring network, where employees
foster relationships with multiple mentors.

Given the potential benefits for both the individual and the
organization, we believe mentoring is a viable and appropriate career
development strategy. If an organization chooses to develop a formal
mentoring program, three conditions seem to increase the chances of
success:

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Notes
1. The program should be clearly linked to business strategy and
existing HR policies and practices, so as to increase the chances that
potential participants and senior management will accept and
actively support the program.
2. Core components of the program (objectives, guidelines, training
and education, communication strategy, monitoring and evaluation,
and coordination) should be designed for effectiveness rather than
expediency.
3. Voluntary participation and flexible guidelines are critical to success.
4. In addition, formal mentoring programs should be used as one part
of an organization’s overall development strategy. Mentoring should
be tied to strategic business needs and take advantage of natural
learning opportunities in the organization, as well as HR systems that
encourage mentoring.

Issues In Career Development

Several other issues are to be considered while formulating or

modifying an organization’s career development program. These include
generating career motivation, career plateauing, career development for
nonexempt workers, and career development without advancement. We
will discuss each of these issues briefly here.

Developing Career Motivation

Developing career motivation is a significant career management

goal. According to Manuel London, career motivation affects how people
choose their careers, how they view their careers, how hard they work in
them, and how long they stay in them. London sees career motivation as
a set of characteristics grouped into three facets: i) career resilience, ii)
career insight, and iii) career identity. Each of these facets is defined in
Table A person can have a high, moderate, or low level of career
motivation depending on his or her position in each of these categories.
For example, a person with high career motivation will continue to pursue
career goals in the face of obstacles and setbacks (career resilience),
formulate and pursue realistic career goals (career insight), and be highly
involved in work and aggressively pursue career goals (career identity).

210
 Notes
While career motivation is partly determined by an individual’s
life experiences, career activities and practices can help develop a person’s
career motivation. For example, self-awareness workbooks and personal
journals can be used to build career insight. Because career motivation
can affect both decision making and commitment to one’s career, it would
be beneficial for organizations to offer career development activities to
enhance such motivation. Table provides some suggestions for how this
can be accomplished.

1. Career resilience. The extent to which people resist career barriers

or disruptions affecting their work. This consists of self-confidence,
need for achievement, the willingness to take risks, and the ability
to act independently and cooperatively as appropriate.
2. Career insight. The extent to which people are realistic about
themselves and their careers and how these perceptions are related
to career goals. This includes developing goals and gaining
knowledge of the self and the environment.
3. Career identity. The extent to which people define themselves
by their work. This includes involvement in job, organization,
and profession and the direction of career goals (e.g., toward
advancement in an organization).

Definitions of the Three Facets of Career Motivation

Career motivation can be important in addressing the issues

facing workers who have lost their jobs because of downsizing, layoffs,
or some personal issues or setbacks. Efforts to redeploy such workers
can be more effective if career motivation issues are addressed, whether
the methods are government and community programs to assist
unemployed workers to obtain jobs, or retraining for displaced
employees or joint union- management retraining programs, or internal
contingent workforces. London offers a variety of suggestions
concerning how managers and executives can address career motivation
issues to successfully redeploy displaced workers, and how
organizations can support career motivation in older workers.

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Notes
The Career Plateau

The pyramidal structure of many organizations together with a

shrinking number of management positions typically means that a time
will come in an individual’s career when he or she will no longer be able
to “move up” in the organization. In addition, career progress is not likely
to be a continuous upward journey, but rather one that includes periods
of movement and periods of stability. These factors contribute to what
has been termed as a career plateau. A career plateau has been defined as
“the point in a career where the additional hierarchical promotion is very
low”. Early writing on career plateaus suggested that this is a traumatic
experience for many employees (especially those who desire career
growth), accompanied by feelings of stress, frustration, failure, and guilt.
More recent writing suggests that a plateau can also be seen as a “time of
change, transition, reevaluation, and reflection”.

1. To support career resilience

a. Build employees’ self-confidence through feedback
and.positive reinforcement.
b. Generate opportunities for achievement.
c. Create an environment conducive to risk taking by
rewarding innovation and reducing fear of failure.
d. Show interpersonal concern and encourage group
cohesiveness and collaborative working relationships.
2. To enhance career insight
a. Encourage employees to set their own goals.
b. Supply employees with information relevant to attaining their
career goals.
c. Provide regular performance feedback.
3. To build career identity
a. Encourage work involvement through job challenge and
professional growth.
b. Provide career development opportunities, such as leadership
positions and advancement potential.
c. Reward solid performance through professional recognition
and/or financial bonus.

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 Notes
Methods for Increasing Career Motivation

The empirical research on the consequences of career plateaus has

been mixed, with some verification of negative consequences of
plateauing, coupled with other data suggesting that employees at such a
plateau can be happy and productive. At least two explanations for these
mixed findings have been offered. First, Feldman and Weitz stated that the
factors that lead to a plateau affect the consequences of the plateau.

For example, if employees become plateaued because they lack the

skills and ability to advance, they will likely exhibit poor performance and
job attitudes. Alternatively, if the plateau occurs because of self-imposed
constraints or a low need for growth, the employee will continue to perform
well and have positive job attitudes.

Enrichment: Career Development Without Advancement

.
Many organizations find themselves faced with the prospect of
downsizing their workforces and reducing the numbers of management
positions in response to competition and changing business conditions.
However, even with fewer employees, organizations still have to engage
in career development activities, because HR needs will change as
business strategy and technology changes.

These forces increase the likelihood that organizations will have to

develop career development programs, without being able to offer upward
movement or the promise of job security as benefits to employees. Instead,
career development efforts will have to focus on enriching employees in
their current jobs or areas of expertise if they are to increase employee
satisfaction, maintain the skill base of the organization needs, and offer
employees a sense of career security by providing them with the best chance
of gaining meaningful employment if they are laid off.

Career development options within an enrichment strategy include:

1. Certification programs and mastery paths that specify selection

criteria and identify performance expectations, and training
requirements to move through various levels of expertise within a
job

213
Notes
2. Retraining programs
3. Job transfers or rotation
Enrichment programs raise the level of skills and professionalism
of the workforce, and they can increase employees’ sense of self-esteem
and self-determination in guiding their own careers. Given the changes
that are occurring in the organizational landscape, enrichment and
other career development practices that encourage self-determination,
continuous learning, and employability are especially important.

Delivering Effective Career Development Systems

It may be clear by now that any HRD program has the best
chance of succeeding if attention is paid to performing through needs
assessment, design, implementation, and evaluation. The same is true
for career development programs. Our earlier discussion highlights
some of the relevant issues in the design and implementation of an
effective system. Table provides a systematic approach to creating and
delivering an effective career development system.

Using this approach, it is critical to obtain senior management

support and to conduct and evaluate pilot programs before implementing
a full-blown program. Rapid changes in the environment (e.g.,
demographics, technology, and competition) have led to changes in
organizational operations, which then has an effect on employees (e.g.,
the advent of downsizing). Managing career development efforts well in
the current turbulent environment makes it even more important that
such activities be tied to an organization’s strategic plan. This means
that needs assessment data should include organization-level data on
goals, strengths, weaknesses, resource availability, organizational climate,
and on the current human resource plan. Career development, like all
HRD activities, should fit into the overall HR strategy. i.e. Recruitment,
selection, compensation, benefits, and HRD activities have an impact on
career development, and all can be used to facilitate the process.

HRD practitioners should also consider benchmarking their

career development practices by examining effective approaches used by
other organizations. Career development practices can also be
benchmarked through discussions with other professionals and visits to
leading organizations. Many organizations are finding that career
management

214
 Notes
works best when activities are coordinated, within an integrated career
development system. Examples of organizations that have effectively
used this approach include 3M, Bechtel Group, Eastman Kodak
Company, and Boeing.

Identify Needs
1. Link career development to business strategy.
2. Align employee and organizational needs. Build a vision for change
Build a Vision for change
3. Build systems and link them to other management and HR
systems (e.g..,quality initiatives orientation, performance evaluation,
compensation).
4. Use a variety of tools and approaches.
Develop a plan for Action
5. Create a corporate infrastructure but implement career development
systems in individual business units or divisions.
6. Ensure line manager participation starting with system development
Implement for Impact and Longevity
7. Hold line managers accountable and give them the skills they need to
fulfill their responsibilities.
8. Follow up initial implementation with a series of activities that
keep career development salient (e.g., information sharing, career action
teams).
Evaluate and Maintain Results
9. Evaluate.
10. Continuously improve the career development effort.
11. Maintain high visibility and ongoing communication of career
development.

Systems approach to creating a career development program

Adopted from Werner & DeSimone (2007). Human Resource Development, 4e. Thomson
South-Western.

Another issue in developing and delivering career development

215
Notes
activities is the attitude held by many people that career development is
primarily an individual’s responsibility, and therefore this is not a beneficial
area for organizational activity, this takes the individual responsibility
notion to an unhealthy extreme that could encourage employers to abdicate
any involvement in the career development process. This attitude must be
overcome if a career management system is to gain wide acceptance.

Summary

Career is best described as the pattern of work-related experiences

that is spread through course of a person’s life. Career development can
be defined as an ongoing process by which individual’s progress
through a series of stages, each of which is characterized by a relatively
unique set of issues, themes and tasks. Career model includes eight
activities: career exploration, awareness of self and environment, goal
setting, strategy development, strategy implementation, progress toward
the goal, feedback from work and non work sources, and career
appraisal. Organization oriented career management models share the
idea that the organization’s structure and needs should guide the
organization’s career management system. Career management
includes job rotation, in-house programs, external workshops and
seminars, tuition assistance, reimbursement plans, and mentoring
programs. A career plateau has been defined as the point in a career
where the likelihood of additional hierarchical promotion is very low.

The systematic approach for creating Career Development

Programme would involve; identifying needs, Building a vision for a
change, developing a plan for action, implement the plan for impact and
longevity analysis, evaluating and maintaining results.

Self Assessment Questions

1. ‘Evaluating HRD programs will enhance its effectiveness’ “Do you

agree with this statement? If yes state how is it?
2. Explain the models and framework of HRD evaluation
3. Discuss the methods of data collection
4. How do you evaluate the cost of training?
5. Discuss HRD applications

216
 Notes
6. What do you mean by Realistic Job Review? How does it help
the individual and organisation
7. Define career concepts
8. Define career development. Explain the career development model
9. What is meant by career planning and career management
10. Explain the stages of career development model
11. Describe a career development programs

CASE STUDY

Vikas Pvt. Ltd. An engineering firm with 50 years of success

behind it has become a household name in India for its quality
products. Although it had started its business in a modest way, it became
a dominant supplier and engineering and equipments of critical nature
needed by the transporter and engineering industries in a short span of
10 years. Later, with the advent of industrial planning initiated by the
government of India, and by virtue of its position in the engineering
business, it made raped strides in many product lines, including
electronic.
Mr. Vasudeva, an MBA from Harvard with a mechanical
engineering background, was in charge of the Mechanical Engineering
section since 1964.He was promoted as the Chief Executive of the Division
in 01 April 1974. This was in recognition of his outstanding contribution to
the development of new product lines, especially in the area of compressor -
cum- vacuum pumps. In fact, the firm earned a good name in the export
market and also bagged an export award during 1993-94. Moreover, Mr.
Vasudeva was known for his honesty, integrity, leadership and decisiveness.
He was brilliant engineer and always worked hard to be a step ahead
of his competitors in the field. He was virtually a think – tank and the
management were very proud of him.

For the last six months, he spent long hours redesigning the export
model-T compressor – cum- vacuum pump set. In his discussions with his
foreign collaborators, he was convinced that with a little more effort, the
company could successfully redesign the model, thus saving production
costs as well as improving the efficiency by 16 – 20 per cent. He depended
entirely on Mr., Hanuman, a foreman of exceptional ability and tenacity.
Moreover, Mr. Hanuman was good at human relations and commanded

217
Notes
respect from his immediate subordinates. Since the fabrication of the new
model was in its infancy, everyone concerned felt it undesirable to let
person working under him that this matter would not be brought to the
notice of Mr. Keshav, the new works manager and recent induction into
the company. They were one with their new job and always delighted in
any words of appreciation from their chief, Mr., Vasudeva, when he visited
the shop floor.

Mr. Keshav was young and energetic with a flair for Mechanical
Engineering products. He had no knowledge of management, but had
attended a few courses in material management and productivity control.
He always expected others to proper supervisory activities, knew his job
well and always expected others to perform their duties as scheduled. He
could never tolerate indiscipline. His colleagues had nicknamed him “the
real fire-brand” of the company.

One evening, before going home; Mr. Keshav went to the shop floor
where he found six machinists and helpers engaged in fabricating a spare
part of the pump set as per the order of Mr. Vasudeva. Mr. Keshav was
happy to see people working under him so involved in their working.

However, his enthusiasm vanished in morning visit when he saw

that, what they were engaged in was not a normal part of their work.
“Damn it. What the devil are you up to?” He asked in annoyance. The
workers were perplexed; they did not know what to say. However, Mr.
Hanuman soon appeared on the scene and explained the on-going project
and the benefits its success would bring.

The works manger got every angry with Hanuman and

reprimanded him severely. In fact, he was admonished in the presence of
his subordinates and technicians working on the shop- floor. Mr.
Hanuman felt confused and hurt. As though this was not enough he
received a show cause notice from the works manager demanding an
explanation within 24 hours. This was adding insult to injury. He had
no alternative but to report to the chief, but to his chagrin, he found that
Mr. Vasudeva had already left on foreign tour, and was expected back a
month later.

Mr. Hanuman felt that he was approaching a dead end; harassed,

he went from pillar to post but no help or advice was forthcoming.

218
 Notes
Exasperated and hurt he went to the General Manager and handed in his
resignation letter. Mr. Hanuman was known for his honesty, simplicity and
hard work. Only by the dint of hard he developed his skills and risen to the
position of foreman from the level of an ordinary helper within a span of
10 years. His one weakness was that he was very sensitive and would
never compromise on issues affecting his personality and dignity. On the
whole he was respected by all. News of his resignation spread like wild
fire. The workers, technicians and others sympathetic to his cause were
alarmed and eagerly awaited the outcome.

Questions

1. Was the GM right in accepting Mr. Hanuman “s resignation?

2. Was it well advised to keep Mr. Keshav in the dark about the
ongoing project, especially since he was works manager?
3. Did Mr. Keshav act hastily in reprimanding Mr. Hanuman?
4. What action should be taken now?
5. What repercussion would this incident have on all involved?

CASE STUDY

Like several other HR systems at the Hotel Paris, the compensation

program was unplanned and unsophisticated. The company has a narrow
target range for what it will pay employees in each job category (front-
desk clerk, security guard, and so forth). Each hotel manager decides
where to start a new employee within that narrow pay range: The
Company has given little thought to tying general pay levels or individual
employee’s pay to the company’s strategic goals. For example, the firm’s
policy is simply to pay its employees a “competitive salary”, by which it
means about average for what other hotels in the city are paying for similar
jobs.

Lisa knows that pay policies like these may actually run counter to
what the company wants to achieve strategically, in terms of creating an
extraordinarily service-oriented workforce. How can you hire and retain
a top workforce, and channel their behaviors toward high-quality guest
services, if you don’t somehow link performance and pay? She and her
team therefore turn to the task of assessing and redesigning the company’s
compensation plan. So, even a casual review by Lisa Cruz and the
CFO
219
Notes
made it clear that the company’s compensation plan wasn’t designed to
support the firm’s new strategic goals.
The current compensation policies had also bred what one hotel
manager called an “I don’t care” attitude on the part of most employees.
What she meant was that most Hotel Paris employees quickly learned
that regardless of what their performance was, they always ended up
getting paid about the same as employees who performed better and
worse than they did.

Lisa and the CFO knew they had to institute a new, strategic
compensation plan. They wanted a plan that improved employee morale,
contributed to employee commitment, reduced employee turnover and
rewarded (and thus encouraged) the sorts of service-oriented behaviors
that boosted guest satisfaction. After meeting with the company’s CEO
and the Board, the CFO gave Lisa the go-ahead to redesign the company’s
compensation plan, with the overall aim of creating a new plan that would
support the company’s strategic aims.

Questions

1. Discuss the strategic integration of compensation plans at Hotel

Plans, which will influence employee performance.
2. Would you suggest Hotel Paris implement a competency-based pay
plan for its non-managerial staff?
3. Devise a ranking job evaluation system for the Hotel Paris’ non-
managerial employees (housekeepers, valets, front desk clerks,
phone operators, waitstaff, groundskeepers and security guards).

CASE STUDY

Vishal Components Limited manufactures a wide range of

automotive components. It has a workface of 1500 including 250
supervisors and executives. Performance appraisals of these employees are
being carried out annually. The parameter used for performance appraisal
is sense of responsibility, superiors’ dependability on subordinates,
initiative, regularity and punctuality, community activity and potential for
development to take higher positions. All these factors are given
equal

220
 Notes
weight age .the performance appraisal has three objectives: to grant annual
increment, to determine promotability and to assess training needs.
In the year 2010-11, some supervisors and executives were not
given any increment because as per performance appraisal, their total
scores were below standard. The overall low scores were due to
community activity and potential for development which were given equal
weightage along with other factors. On the stoppage of annual increment,
the aggrieved supervisors and executives represented their case to the
managing director of the company and contended that the entire
performance appraisal system was faulty. They were very much against the
inclusion of community activity and potential for development in the
performance appraisal meant for giving pay raise. They argued that all
aggrieved supervisors and executives should be given regular annual
increments and time-bound promotions .The system would be more
objective, air and free from undue biases.

Questions

1. As human resource manager, how will you defend the existing

performance appraisal system of the company? Will you like to
incorporate changes, if any? If yes, what would be these changes
and why?
2. Should there be separate appraisal criteria for appraising
supervisors and executives? If yes, where are such differences
needs?
3. What actions should be taken to the representation made by the
aggrieved supervisors and executives?

****

221
222
 Notes

UNIT IV

Unit Structure

Lesson 4.1 Employee Counselling and Wellness Services

Lesson 4.2 Employee Wellness and Health Program

Lesson 4.1 - Employee Counselling and Wellness Services

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson, you may be able to

➢ Understand the Employee Counseling Services

➢ Elaborate on Employee Counseling Program
➢ Understand the Link Between Employee Counseling and Coaching
➢ Describe Employee Assistance Programs

Introduction

Rising healthcare costs are one of the reasons for which

organizations are so interested in helping employees with their personal
problems. In addition to reducing healthcare costs, employers’ efforts
to improve employees’ well-being are also purported to reduce workers’
compensation costs, tardiness, absenteeism, turnover, time lost in work
because of illness and injury, and accidents while enhancing morale,
loyalty, creativity, productivity, decision-making effectiveness in labor
relations, recruiting, and company image. Given the potential gains, it
is not surprising that organizations are looking for ways to enhance the
well-being of their employees. Another factor promoting organizational
interest in employees’ well-being is a shortage of skilled workers.

223
Notes
Employee Counseling Services

Organizations have adopted the HR strategy that it is better to

retain and help workers with problems than to discard them and be faced
with recruiting new ones. This extra attention to retaining employees
has persisted, even when many companies simultaneously face the
need to downsize some portion of their business. How are organizations
addressing the issue of employee well-being? In addition to traditional
HR activities like training and motivational programs, organizations
are also making a major investment in providing employee counseling
services as a way to promote employees’ well-being.

In the literature describing employee counseling services, the term

counseling has been used to refer to a variety of activities from informal
discussions with an employee to intensive one-to-one discussions with a
trained professional with a view of releasing the mental tension that has
affected an employees. Dale Masi’s four-part definition of mental health
counseling provides a good general description of some of the different
types of activities that are typically involved in this activity at the
workplace:

(1) a relationship established between a trained counselor and

the employee; (2) thoughtful and candid discussion of personal
problems experienced by the employees; (3) an appropriate referral that
secures the necessary assistance; and (4) the provision of short-term
counseling, when a referral is not necessary.

Employee counseling services have existed since the turn of the

century For example, in 1917, Macy’s Departmental Store established an
employee assistance program to help workers in their personal problems,
and by 1920, over 100 of the largest companies in the United States
employed a welfare secretary, and a part of this individual’s
responsibilities included employee counseling. Recently, growth in
wellness-related activities has been explosive.

Estimates in the early 1990s suggested that there were over 20,000
employee assistance programs, which dealt with abuse and mental health
problems, and over 50,000 health promotion programs, which typically
focus on physical health and well-being.

224
 Notes
Employee Counseling as an HRD Activity

Employee counseling serves the same goal as any other HRD

activity: to ensure that each employee is a positive contributor to the
organization’s effectiveness, and that he or she will continue to
contribute in the future. Employee assistance and health promotion
programs often use the same techniques as other HRD interventions.
These techniques include workshops, role playing, behavior modeling,
discussions, lectures, coaching, and audiovisual presentations. In
addition, the process of delivering counseling services is the same as that
of the other HRD interventions, and includes needs assessment,
planning/design, implementation, and evaluation. Designing, delivering,
and evaluating employee counseling programs offer ample opportunity
for HRD professionals to use their expertise (i.e., the “core” systems
framework).

The Link Between Employee Counseling and Coaching

Much of the focus of coaching analysis and discussion is on the

employee’s work performance, and how this can be improved. Clearly,
however, many work performance problems are related to employees’
personal lives, for example, an employee’s habitual tardiness may be
linked to that employee’s use of drugs or alcohol outside the work plane.
The focus of employee counseling is on addressing these personal
problems, particularly as they impact employee work performance. In
reality, coaching and counseling are often intertwined, as supervisors may
find themselves confronted with employee personal problems as they seek
to address a performance issue with an employee.

However, for most employee personal problems, especially those

that are more serious (e.g., depression, substance abuse), supervisors
are generally encouraged to provide early identification and referral to a
trained professional or counseling service, and do not try to solve or
resolve the employee’s problem by themselves. Most managers and
supervisors are not properly trained to deal with serious employee
personal problems, and there are also legal issues to consider employee
counseling. A trained professional is most likely to be aware of the legal
issues involved, and to ensure that any action taken with an employee
comply with all relevant laws and regulations.

225
Notes
An Overview of Employee Counseling Program

Organizations use a wide variety of activities and programs to

help ensure the emotional and physical health of their employees. These
activities range from health- risk appraisals to on-site counseling and stress
reduction workshops, as well as other ways to promote employee health.
They may take the form of a one-session discussion, or a series of
sessions, or an ongoing organizational activity. In this section, the
components of a typical program, the providers of such services, and
characteristics of an effective counseling program is discussed.

Components of the Typical Program

While employee counseling programs vary in terms of problems

addressed and specific techniques used, six activities are typical of such
programs: (1) problem identification, (2) education, (3) counseling, (4)
referral, (5) treatment, and (6) follow-up.

Problem Identification

Problem identification usually involves the use of a screening

device (e.g., a questionnaire or diagnostic test) and/or the training of
employees and supervisors in the identification of problems. For example,
employees may volunteer to have their cholesterol level assessed as part of
a wellness program, or supervisors may be trained to identify the
behavioral patterns that indicate possible. Table provides an example of a
screening device concerning alcohol use.

Questions

1. On average, how often do you drink beer, wine, liquor, or other

beverages containing alcohol?
2. How many drinks do you usually have? On days when you drink
(One drink equals a 12-ounce beer, a 4-ounce glass of wine, or a shot
of liquor.)
3. During the past thirty days, on how many days did you have five or
more drinks on the same occasion?
4. In the next six months, do you want to reduce the amount of
alcohol that you drink?

226
 Notes
Feedback

1. Low-risk drinking is using alcohol in a way that does not harm your
health. Research suggests that on any one day, more than four drinks
for men and more than three for women can cause problems. Having
more than twelve drinks a week can cause problems over time. Also
drinking alcohol every day may cause problems. Unless you limit
your intake to one drink each day, you are advised to drink no more
than four to five days a week.
2. Risk assessment categories:
c. Low risk — drink less than seven days a week and no more than
one to two drinks per occasion
d. Moderate risk — drink up to three to four drinks per occasion or
drink every day
e. High risk — usually or occasionally drink five or more drinks per
occasion

Education

Education typically includes providing information about the

nature, prevalence, likely causes and consequences of the problem, and
ways the problem can be prevented. For example, a program focusing
on hypertension (high blood pressure) might use pamphlets, videos, or
a lecture to raise employees’ awareness of the problem and how it can be
treated or prevented.

Counseling

A counseling involves a person with whom employees can discuss

difficulties and/or seek further help. The type of counseling can vary from a
frank discussion with a supervisor about work-related performance
problems to meeting with a mental health professional skilled in diagnosing
and treating for problems such as depression or substance abuse.

Referral

Referral involves directing the employee to the appropriate resources

for assistance. For example, an employee who shows signs

227
Notes
of cocaine addiction may be referred to a drug treatment facility that
specializes in treating for that addiction.

Treatment/Intervention

Treatment includes the actual intervention to solve the problem.

For example, a nutrition program may include cooking classes or the
offering of healthy foods in the cafeteria and nutritious snacks in
vending machines.

Follow-Up

As with any other HRD activity, some form of monitoring is needed

to ensure that the employee is carrying out the treatment and to obtain
information on employee progress. For example, if the employee agrees to
seek alcohol abuse treatment as part of an agreement to improve his or her
performance, it is necessary to determine whether the employee actually
attends and completes treatment.

Clearly, not all employee counseling programs make use of all

the six types of activities. Which activities an organization uses depends
on the type of problem addressed, the appropriate response to the
problem, and the resources the organization chooses to commit to the
program. Take the example of a program to address employee physical
fitness. One organization may choose to renovate part of its facility or
build a new structure to house a fitness center, complete with a trained
staff, locker room, showers, athletic courts, and exercise equipment.
Another organization may offer employees free or reduced-fee
membership in a local health club. An even less expensive option would
be to make fitness information available and encourage employees to
exercise on their own time.

Providing Service

An organization may offer a counseling program in-house or

contract it out. In- house (or on-site) programs involve using current
employees or hiring specialists, such as psychologists, social workers, or
other trained individuals, to operate the program. Each approach has a
number of advantages and disadvantages. Advantages attributed to in-

228
 Notes
house programs include (1) internal control of the program, (2) familiarity
with the organization (e.g., its policies, procedures, and workforce
characteristics), (3) better coordination of treatment and follow-up,
(4) a sense of ownership of the program, and (5) greater awareness and
credibility with supervisors. However, disadvantages of in-house
programs can include (1) real or perceived problems with confidentiality,
(2) lack of resources needed, (3) reluctance of some employees to use the
service (e.g., a vice president of finance may be reluctant to go to a lower-
level employee to admit a drinking or marital problem), and (4) possible
limitations in staff skills and expertise.

An advantage of contracting the service out is that the organization

can rely on the services of trained professionals whose business is to treat
the problem in question. In addition, confidentiality may be easier to
maintain, cost may be lower, and there may be better identification and
use of community resources. Disadvantages include the lack of on-site
counseling, possible communication problems, and lack of knowledge of
the organization and its employees. The advantages and disadvantages of
both the approaches are discussed.

Characteristics of Effective Employee Counseling Programs

Communicating the program’s services to managers,

supervisors, and employees, and following up with them is critical in
getting organizational members to use it. For example, one survey
found that employee willingness to use an employee assistance program
was related to their familiarity with and trust in the program, and the
personal attention provided by it. Similarly, a study of four wellness
programs found that programs using systematic outreach and follow-up
counseling were more effective than those that did not.

It is also important that managers and supervisors receive

training in identifying problems and in how to counsel or refer
employees to seek treatment when needed. In many counseling
programs, especially those dealing with addiction and mental health,
the supervisor’s role in helping the employee seek treatment and
supporting the treatment effort is critical to success. Other necessary
ingredients for an effective counseling program include:

229
Notes
1. Top management commitment and support
2. A clearly written set of policies and procedures outlining the
program’s purpose and its function within the organization
3. Cooperation with local union (s), if they are present in the
organization
4. A range of care (e.g., referral to community resources, follow-up)
5. aAclear and well-enforced policy concerning employee
confidentiality
6. Maintenance of records for program evaluation
7. Health insurance benefit coverage for services
8. Family education

Employee Assistance Programs

Employee assistance programs (EAPs) are defined as “job-based

programs operating within a work organization for the purposes of
identifying troubled employees, motivating them to resolve their troubles,
and providing access to counseling or treatment for those employees who
need these services.” EAPs have their origins in the occupational
alcoholism programs begun in the 1940s. In the 1970s, they expanded to
cover other issues, particularly drug and other substance abuse issues.
Since then, EAPs have expanded their coverage to also help employees
with mental health issues, such as anxiety, depression, eating disorders,
and compulsive gambling, as well as other personal, marital, or financial
problems that may be affecting their work. Possible outcomes that may be
affected by EAPs include productivity, absenteeism, turnover,
unemployment costs, and treatment for substance abuse, accidents,
training and replacement costs, and insurance benefits.

Mental Health

Among the emotional and mental health issues commonly seen by

counselors in industry are the following:

1. Individual adjustment problems (neurosis to psychosis)

2. External factors such as battering, incest, rape, or crime
3. Sexual problems, including impotence
4. Divorce and marital problems

230
 Notes
5. Depression and suicide attempts
6. Difficulties with family or children
7. Sexual harassment in the workplace
8. Legal and financial problems

Mental health problems may be brought into the workplace from

employees’ personal lives, and work itself can lead to a decline in mental
health. Organizations are affected by employee mental health problems
in the form of absenteeism, poor work habits, low job satisfaction,
interpersonal conflicts, and indecisiveness.

1. EAPs are based on the premise that work is very important to people;
the work itself is not the cause of the employee’s problem.
Consequently, the workplace can be a means to get people help.
2. The supervisor plays a key role in getting help for the employee. Often,
however the supervisor denies the problem and even enables the
troubled employee. to continue the problem behavior. The supervisor
is critical in the confrontational process with the troubled employee.
Therefore, education is necessary to eliminate the supervisor’s
tendency to enable the employee by denying the problem.
3. Information about the employee’s job performance is extremely
important in diagnosis and treatment. It can be used to measure and
track whether treatment is successful.
4. Workplace peers and union stewards are very important; however,
they too can deny the problem and enable the employee to continue
the behavior. Teaching them to confront and consequently break the
denial barrier is an important element.
5. Job leverage is the key ingredient in helpling an imployee. The
counselor must be able to use this in conjunction with the supervisor.
6. EAPs concentrate on job performance issues. They are not intended to
be medical programs.
7. Cost-effectiveness is an important consideration and must be addressed
with upper management.

8. The EAP professional’s Knowledge about addiction is paramount.

Every EAP should be staffed by licensed professionals who are
familiar with addictions and other employee personal problems.

Conceptual framework for EAP

231
Notes
The EAP Approach to Resolving Employee Personal Problems

EAPs are based on the notion that work is very important to

people and that work performance should be used to identify employee
personal problems and motivate employees to seek help. Originally
developed to deal with alcohol abuse, the EAP approach assumes — as
does the Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) movement — that substance
abusers will deny their problem until they are faced with a crisis. From
the EAP point of view, that crisis is created by confronting the employee
with evidence of substandard work performance, meanwhile making
counseling available and attempting to motivate the employee to seek
help. Although this may seem surprising, Dale Masi states that the
workplace is, in fact, an ideal place for employees to receive treatment
for mental health problems. Her argument is that many of the obstacles
for seeking help, such as transportation and time off, are removed in the
workplace. A conceptual framework for the EAP approach is shown in
above Table and Masi’s framework for delivering mental health
services is shown in above Table.

An important aspect of the modern treatment of substance abuse

and other personal problems in the workplace is that the employee
problem is operationally defined in terms of job performance, rather
than clinically defined in terms of addiction or psychiatric disorder. For
example, the patterns of behaviors that indicate a substance-abuse problem
typically include absenteeism, erratic performance, poor quality work,
poor judgment, and complaints by clients or customers. In most EAPs,
supervisors are trained to use the constructive confrontation approach
in dealing with troubled employees. This is, in fact, one of the seven
workplace practices that make up the “Core Technology” recommended
by the Employee Assistance Professionals Association. This strategy calls
for supervisors to monitor their employees’ job performance, confront
them with evidence of their unsatisfactory performance, coach them on
improving it, urge them to use the EAP’s counseling service if they have
personal problems, and emphasize the consequences of continued poor
performance. Constructive confrontation proceeds in progressive stages;
at each stage, employees must choose whether to seek help from the EAP,
manage their problems themselves, or suffer the consequences of their
actions.

232
 Notes
According to this approach, the supervisor need not, and perhaps
should not, say that the employee has a drug or alcohol problem.
Rather, the supervisor should treat the problem like any other
performance problem and leave it for the employee to seek help from
the appropriate source. With this approach, recommending that the
employee contact an EAP or other agency “if you need to” should be
the extent of the supervisor’s intervention.

However, referral by a supervisor is not the only method by which

employees may contact an EAP. Employees with personal problems may
contact the EAP directly “and receive counseling without the supervisor’s
knowledge. Some have argued that this is the preferred referral strategy,
because the employee receives help before job performance is affected.
It is also possible for one employee to encourage a peer with a problem
to seek help from an EAP. In fact, some success with Member Assistance
Programs (MAPs) has been reported, where union representatives are
actively involved in the administration of the assistance program. It
is argued that union representatives can intervene in a potential work
performance problem before it becomes severe enough that the employer
must deal with it.

The components of the typical EAP can vary in terms of

organizational policy, referral method, use of in-house and external
resources, types of problems treated, and staffing. In general, though, the
typical EAP consists of the following:

➢ A policy and procedures statement that makes clear the

responsibilities of both the organization and the employee
concerning health and personal problems impacting the job
➢ Employee education campaigns, which may include letters, poster
campaigns, or extensive training programs
➢ A supervisory training program that teaches problem
recognition and performance documentation
➢ Clinical service that may be provided by a professional in-house
staff, or by off-site or community agencies
➢ Follow-up monitoring to ensure real problem resolution has
occurred

233
Notes
The components of the typical EAP can vary in terms of organizational
policy, referral method, use of in-house and external resources, types of
problems treated, and staffing. In general, though, the typical EAP consists
of the following:

➢ A policyandprocedurestatementthatmakescleartheresponsibilities
of both the organization and the employee concerning health and
personal problems impacting the job
➢ Employee education campaigns, which may include letters, poster
campaigns, or extensive training programs
➢ A supervisory training program that teaches problem
recognition and performance documentation
➢ Clinical services that may be provided by a professional in-house
staff, or by off-site or community agencies
➢ Follow-up monitoring to ensure real problem resolution has
occurred

1. Counseling in the workplace is short term. Long-term therapy is

appropriate in the community.
2. There are logistical as well as legal problems when families are
included. Although EAP programs often services to families, they are
based on self-referral and supervisory-referral.
3. The manager or supervisor is the key person in the client’s work life.
The work associates are similar to family members. The counselor
should learn their configuration and how these individuals interact
with and impact the employee.
4. The counselor assumes the role of a “broker” or go-between for the
employee between the supervisor and the therapist in the community.
5. The counselor should have skills in management consultation, that
is, meeting with supervisors to determine whether they have a
problem employee, advising them on a course of action, and
supporting them through the referral and after-care process.
6. Crisis counseling (to deal with emergency episodes such as suicide
attempts) should be available in the workplace.
7. The counselor must have special skills in “confrontation to break the
denial of the employee appropriately, especially the addicted person.

234
 Notes
8. Confidentiality is an even greater issue in the workplace thanit
is in a community mental health clinic or social agency because of
the uniqueness of the work setting. Competition for jobs, well as an
environment that does not necessarily understand employee’s personal
problems, mandate a clearly defined and enforced confidentiality
policy.
9. Record-keeping procedures need to be carefully developed and
delineated, so that employees are assured of their privacy. This is not
as necessary to explain to clients in a hospital or social agency, it is
accepted in such situations. Employees worry about who will read
their records (especially HR professionals ). The privacy Act, Alcohol
and Drug Regulations, and other relevant laws are guideposts that all
EAPs should follow to protect their employees.
10. The counselor must also design and implement educational
programs in the workplace.
11. The unique work system ( including HR and company physicians) can
be used to help the employee. The counselor needs to understand how
these systems work.
12. Counselor need to be able to work with labor unions in the
workplace as appropriate.

Stress management programs or interventions (SMIs) are defined as

“any activity, program, or opportunity initiated by an organization,
which focuses on reducing the presence of work-related stressors or on
assisting individuals to minimize the negative outcomes of exposure to
these stressors.” SMIs are a popular form of employee counseling
program, with roughly 40 percent of organizations estimated to have
such interventions. Companies such as John Hancock Insurance and
General Electric have been cited for their exemplary stress management
programs. The techniques used to treat stress vary widely, including
education, time management physical exercise, assertiveness training,
biofeedback, meditation, and communications training.

Summary

Rising healthcare costs are one reason organizations are so

interested in helping employees with their personal problems. Employee
counseling is a HRD activity which ensure that each employee is a

235
Notes
positive contributor to the organization’s effectiveness, and that he or
she will continue to contribute in the future. HRD interventions
techniques include workshops, role playing, behavior modeling,
discussions, lectures, coaching, and audiovisual presentations.
Organizations use a wide variety of activities and programs to help
ensure the emotional and physical health of their employees. It is also
important that managers and supervisors receive training in identifying
problems and also as to how to counsel or refer employees to seek
treatment when needed.

****

236
 Notes

Lesson 4.2 - Employee Wellness and Health Program

Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson, you may be able to

➢ Understand the Meaning of Employee Wellness Programs

➢ Understand the Levels of Wellness Program
➢ Identify the Issues in Wellness Programs
➢ Describe Organizational Strategies

Introduction

Employee wellness programs (EWPs) or health promotion

programs (HPPs) are made up of activities that promote employee
behavior and organizational practices that ensure employee health and
fitness. Unlike disease prevention and health protection programs,
HPPs and wellness programs are based on the premise that wellness is
more than the mere absence of disease. These programs attempt to
encourage individuals to adopt lifestyles that maximize overall well-
being.

While stress management may be a component of an HPP, HPPs

also deal with non stress issues, such as obesity and smoking cessation.
Interest in health promotion programmes and fitness is very high. It is
estimated that there are over 50,000 programs that promote the physical
fitness among employees, and the number is growing. According to a
survey by Hewitt Associates, the percentage of worksites that have
implemented at least some form of health promotion activity grew to 91
percent in 1997, with wellness programs offered by 89 percent.

According to one national survey, some of the most common

health promotion activities are exercise/fitness, smoking cessation, stress
management, blood pressure education, and back pain problem prevention.

237
Notes
Levels of Wellness Program

O’Donnell describes three levels at which fitness and wellness

programs can be implemented.

They are

Level I programs primarily cover educational activities and may not

attempt to directly change employee behavior. Techniques used in Level I
programs include newsletters, posters, classes, and health screening.

Level II programs are those that attempt to bring about direct

behavioral change. The activities in such programs may include supervised
exercise classes, memberships in fitness centers, and classes on how to
properly perform physical work tasks, such as lifting.

Level III programs try to create an organizational environment

that helps employees maintain healthy lifestyles. Two widely
publicized examples of Level III programs are Johnson and Johnson’s
Live for Life program and Control Data’s Stay well program, which the
company also sells to other organizations. A recent survey of health
promotion experts emphasized the need to link health promotion efforts
with an organization’s goals and strategy.

Heirich and colleagues described ten dimensions of worksite wellness

programs. These dimensions are:

1. Establishing a constructive policy for wellness

2. Conducting wellness screening — health risk appraisals
3. Establishing working relationships with community resources
4. Referral of employees to treatment and health-improvement
interventions
5. Providing health-improvement interventions using a menu
approach
6. Outreach and follow-up counseling, done on a regular and
ongoing basis
7. Wellness events done for the entire organization
8. Consultation on worksite policies and systems, and
organizational- level changes

238
 Notes
9. Ongoing evaluation of the process used to carry out the wellness
program as well as any reductions in employees’ health risks
10. Periodic evaluation based on work performance and benefit use

Behavioral Change
Screening Programs Educational Programs
Programs

Annual medical exam Alcohol and drug use Exercise and fitness
Blood analysis Breast self-exam Aerobics

Cervical cancer Colon and

Cancer prevention Calisthenics
rectal cancer

Coronary disease
Diabetes Recreational sports
risk factors

Cardiopulmonary
Fitness assessment Competitive sports
resuscitation
Health fairs Weight control Weight training
Health-risk appraisal Exercise and fitness Exercise instruction

Height and weight First aid EAPs

High blood pressure Cancer detection Healthy back

Preemployment medical
Low back pain Self-defense
exams

Pulmonary function tests Nutrition Smoking cessation

Seat-belt use Stress management

Screening for job-specific
health Smoking cessation Weight loss

Stress Cooking classes

Activities in an employee wellness or HPP

In addition, they suggest two other important issues: turning fitness

centers into wellness centers, and involving employees’ family members in
the activities of the wellness program.

Table lists out activities that might take place in employee wellness
or health promotion programs. The sequence of events common to many
such programs can be described as follows:

239
Notes
The program begins with employee health screening, results of the
health screen are fed back to the employee in some type of counseling
sessions, Employees are advised to participate in one or more health
promotion activities consistent with their current health status, and follow-
up counseling and health assessment reinforces and maintains employee
involvement. Four common components of HPPs are exercise and fitness,
smoking cessation, nutrition and weight control, and control of
hypertension (high blood pressure).

Corporate exercise and fitness programs are among the most popular
employee well-being interventions, especially among large employers, 83
percent of employees who offer an exercise-for-fitness program. These
programs can supply a range of services for employees, from jogging trails
and on-site fitness centers to exercise breaks and company-sponsored
sports leagues. Companies such as Xerox, Kimberly-Clark, Goodyear Tire
and Rubber, Blue Cross of Indiana, and Tenneco have sponsored such
programs.

One of the driving forces behind the strong interest in exercise

and fitness programs is the evidence that the risk of developing coronary
heart disease, cancer, and other leading causes of death can be reduced
by adopting a healthy lifestyle. Unfortunately, it has been estimated that
10 percent of adults in North America engage in regular activity at a level
that could achieve or maintain cardio respiratory fitness. This is despite
the fact that even a modest increase in aerobic fitness beyond the level
of a sedentary middle-aged adult is related to a significant reduction in
the risk of dying prematurely. Organizations supporting fitness and health
programs expect to generate benefits such as a greater ability to attract
and retain employees, more positive employee attitudes, and increased
productivity through reduced absenteeism, turnover, and a heightened
physical capacity to perform work. Organizations also use fitness
programs as a way to cut rising healthcare costs.

Organizations that use fitness programs should identify the needs

of all employees and provide incentives to ensure that those at greatest
risk also participate. Systematic outreach and follow-up counseling
have also been found to increase the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness
of fitness programs. Other aspects of an effective fitness and exercise
program include establishing goals and objectives, obtaining management

240
 Notes
commitment, hiring quality staff, developing an evaluation strategy, and
recruiting participants. Finally, it does not appear that a large investment
in equipment and facilities is needed. One review of worksite fitness
programs found that combining outreach, individual counseling, and a
supportive organizational environment with a moderately well-equipped
facility was an effective (and cost-effective) approach.

Smoking Cessation

Smoking is one of the most publicized health risks in society and

in the workplace. It has been amply demonstrated for some time that
smoking is linked to greater incidence of coronary heart disease, stroke,
cancer, and emphysema. Evidence continues to mount concerning the
increased health risks that befall on smokers, as well as nonsmokers
exposed to cigarette smoke (i.e., secondhand smoke). The additional
annual cost of employing smokers and allowing smoking in the
workplace has been estimated to be
$2,853 per smoker.

Organizations have increased their sponsorship of smoking

cessation programs as a way to help employees, reduce costs, and
provide a safer workplace. In many cases, state and local laws banning
smoking in public areas have also prodded organizations to help
employees quit smoking. Fifty-nine percent of worksites with fifty or
more employees, and 85 percent of medium-sized and large worksites
have a formal policy that prohibits or severely restricts smoking in the
workplace. A survey of private worksites found that 35 percent of
respondents had a smoking cessation program. Organizations can
either sponsor smoking cessation programs in-house, as part of an EAP,
stress management, or wellness program, or can refer interested
employees to an outside organization, such as the American Cancer
Society or a local hospital.

Nutrition and Weight Control Interventions

Overweight is defined as being 25 to 29.9 percent or more over

one’s “ideal” body weight (based on height and gender). Obesity is defined
by a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or more.

Over the past twenty years, the trends toward increasing obesity
in the Indian population are dramatic and troubling. Obesity has been

241
Notes
causally associated with musculoskeletal problems, hypertension, high
levels of blood sugar and cholesterol, and some forms of cancer. Because
of the health and cost consequences of obesity and because of employee
concerns about appearance, workplace weight control and nutrition
interventions are becoming more common.

Worksite weight control programs can be effective in helping

participants achieve short-term weight loss (that is, one to two pounds
per week), but their effectiveness with regard to long-term weight loss and
their health and productivity benefits have not been established. Similarly,
worksite nutrition and cholesterol programs can lead to short-term benefits
for participants (e.g., attitude and dietary change, decreased cholesterol
level), with more intensive programs that used individual counseling and
follow-up leading to better results.

In each of these types of programming, more and better conducted

studies can help establish causal links to improve health and behavior.
For example, results of two well-conducted, large-scale health promotion
programs have recently been reported. Both interventions led to reduced
fat intake and increased fruit and vegetable consumption. As is the case
with other health improvement programs, employee participation is an
important aspect of program effectiveness. It does seem to be the case that
competition serves to improve both participation and the success rate of
such programs.

Negative attitudes toward overweight individuals are widespread

in our society. A review by Mark Roehling demonstrated substantial
evidence of bias and employment discrimination against overweight
people. There are obvious psychological and economic implications here
for overweight individuals, but also potential legal implications for
employers.

The point we would stress is that organizational efforts to assist

individuals in losing weight can be good and beneficial to both the
employee and the organization. However, organizations and their
representatives need to make sure that their nutritional and weight control
interventions are kept free of negative stereotypes and negative job
outcomes for participant’s unless the participant’s weight is truly related to
their ability to perform a given job.

242
 Notes
Control of Hypertension

Health problems linked to hypertension include a significantly

greater incidence of heart disease and stroke. Despite the potentially
devastating effects of hypertension, it can often be controlled through
exercise, weight reduction, medication, stress reduction, and a low-salt
diet. The high incidence of hypertension and the relative ease with which
it can be detected and controlled have made hypertension screening and
control programs popular in the workplace.

Organizations need not have a full-blown fitness or health

promotion program to help employees reduce hypertension. A typical
screening and control program may include:

➢ Provision of educational materials

➢ Blood pressure screenings to identify hypertensive employees
➢ Referral of such employees for treatment
➢ Installation of blood pressure screening equipment for
employees to use and monitor their own blood pressure
➢ Low-salt foods available in both cafeteria and vending machines
➢ Periodic monitoring of employee progress

Overall Effectiveness of Health and Wellness Programs

It is recommended that organizations have multiple components

to their health and wellness programs, that is, covering as many of the
topics as possible. A recent compilation of the results of over forty
studies about the impact of such programs demonstrated reductions in
sick leave, health plan costs, and workers compensation costs of over 25
percent.

Further, an average cost-benefit ratio of 5.93 was obtained,

suggesting that the benefits of such programs far outweigh the costs.
This is fairly impressive evidence of overall effectiveness. It would seem
that the challenge now is to get more organizations to implement such
inclusive wellness programs, and then to see more individuals take part
in them.

243
Notes
Issues in Employee Counseling

Each of the employee counseling approaches discussed previously

is affected by a common set of issues, including effectiveness, ethical and
legal issues, responsibility, and unintended negative consequences.

Effectiveness of Employee Counseling Interventions

Several factors make it difficult for rigorous research to be

conducted on these topics. First, the personal nature of many problems
addressed by counseling, such as substance abuse and mental illness,
may make organizations reluctant to allow researchers access to the data
needed. Second, defining success and effectiveness for many of these
problems is a difficult task. In the case of alcohol abuse, for example,
many programs define alcoholism indirectly, in terms of changes in job
behavior, rather than directly, in terms of the volume or pattern of
alcohol consumption.

Is an alcohol abuse program effective if treated employees return

to normal working patterns, even if the employees still drink? Similarly,
what period of time is suitable to establish that a problem has been solved?
Does a reduction of stress for six months signify success? The prevention
of relapse is a significant factor, whether in the case of weight control,
hypertension, or fitness interventions. The effectiveness can be defined
using multiple criteria, including cost-effectiveness, short and long-term
behavior and attitude changes, participation rates, and direct impact on
the cause of the problem. It would also be beneficial to conduct more
longitudinal studies that use multiple worksites and interventions and to
examine organizational-level interventions and outcomes.

Third, the reasons an organization has begun an intervention in

the first place may affect the research whether the research is done and
how effectiveness is defined. Some organizations launch employee
counseling programs because they believe it is the right thing to do or
because the program is consistent with the organization’s philosophy.
Other organizations implement such programs to enhance the
organization’s image, both internally and externally. Effectiveness data in
these cases may not affect whether the organization continues to offer
the program; the fact that the program is being offered is the key
concern.

244
 Notes
One way to encourage organizations to evaluate their programs is
to provide a model that identifies the data needed for sound evaluation.
Gebhardt and Crump describe a strategy for evaluating wellness programs
that we believe could be used as a guideline for evaluating EAPs and SMIs
as well. Their strategy includes these steps:

1. Determine the demographics of the organization (age, sex, etc.).

2. Determine expected participation rates.
3. Estimate program start-up and maintenance costs needed to
meet objectives.
4. Implement a testing and tracking system to quantify program
outcomes.
5. Measure pre- and post program changes for relevant outcomes.
6. Analyze the program variables separately by relevant
demographic groups and by measuring participation versus
nonparticipation in the program.
7. Perform cost-benefit analysis of present and future benefits,
expressed in current rupee value.

Following this framework is not easy, as it is often hard to identify

all the costs and benefits of a program and to express them in economic
terms. However, conducting an evaluation based on this strategy can
provide the data needed to make informed decisions about the program.
Ethical issues in employee counseling

Two ethical issues relating to employee counseling services merit

discussion: confidentiality and the nature of participation (i.e., whether
mandatory or voluntary). Each is discussed here.

Confidentiality is a key concern in all types of employee counseling

interventions. All records of program utilization should be held in the
strictest confidence, and maintained separately apart from an employee’s
personnel file, and should be released only with the express permission of
the employee.

While data generated by participation in, for example, a nutrition

program may be less sensitive than that gained from a drug treatment

245
Notes
program, it is nevertheless important to guarantee the confidentiality of all
employee counseling records. Program policy statements should include
an explicit description of the confidentiality policy and the steps involved
in implementing it.

A second ethical consideration is whether the participation in a

counseling program should be voluntary or mandatory. While
organizations stand to gain greater benefits if all members of a target
group participate in a program (e.g., all smokers), Employees should have
the right to determine their lifestyle, and should not be forced to engage in
behavior change other than that relating to performance of their jobs.
Even an employee with a substance abuse problem should be free to
choose whether and how to deal with that problem. The organization
can offer assistance in treating the problem, but it should not attempt to
force acceptance of treatment. If the employee’s substandard
performance does not improve after he or she has had ample
opportunity to improve, then the organization should pursue its regular
procedures concerning discipline and discharge.

Native Outcomes of Employee Counseling Programs

It is possible that participation in a counseling or fitness program

can have unintended negative consequences. This is particularly true of
health promotion programs. Some potential unintended negative
consequences could include (1) workers’ compensation cost increases;
(2) employees participating in fitness programs may experience
scheduling problems, increased fatigue and accidents, and lower
performance; or (3) prohibiting smoking may lead to conflicts between
smokers and nonsmokers. There is little research on this topic to guide
organizations in making decisions. Decision makers concerned about
such consequences may find some help by investigating the experiences
of other organizations.

Organisational Strategies Based on Human Resources

Recognition has been growing that, under certain conditions,

human resources contribute to a competitive advantage for
organizations. People can have the core competency when they have
special capabilities to make decisions and be innovative in ways that
competitors cannot easily imitate. Having those capabilities requires
selection, training, and retention of good employees. An employee group
without those special abilities would not be as strong a basis for
competitive advantage.
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 Notes
The shared values and beliefs of a workforce are called
organizational culture. For people to be a core competency managers must
consider the culture of the organization because otherwise excellent
strategies can be negatived by a culture incompatible with those strategies.
Further, the culture of the organization, as viewed by the people in it,
affects attraction and retention of competent employee. Numerous
examples can be given for key technical, professional, and administrative
employees leaving firms because of corporate cultures that seem to
devalue people and create barriers to the use of individual capabilities.

Productivity as an HR-Based Strategy

The more productive an organization is the better is its competitive

advantage, because the costs to produce its goods and services are lower.
Better productivity does not necessarily mean more is produced; perhaps
fewer people (or less money or time) were used to produce the same
amount. A useful way to measure the productivity of a workforce is the
total cost of people per unit of output. In its most basis sense, productivity
is a measure of the quantity and quality of work done, considering the cost
of the resources used. It is also useful to view productivity as a ratio
between inputs and outputs that indicates the value added by an
organization or in an economy.

At the national level, high productivity leads to higher standards

of living, as shown by the greater ability of a country to pay for what
its citizens want. Increases in national wage levels (the cost of paying
employees) without increases in national productivity lead to inflation,
which results in an increase in costs and a decrease in purchasing power.

Organizations and Productivity: Productivity at the organizational

level ultimately affects profitability and competitiveness in a for-profit
organization, and total costs in a not-for-profit organization. Decisions
made about the value of an organization is often based on the productivity
for which it is capable.

Perhaps none of the resources used for productivity in

organizations are so closely scrutinized as the human resources. Many
of the activities undertaken in a HR system are designed to affect
individual or organizational productivity. Pay, appraisal systems,
training, selection,

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Notes
job design, and compensation are HR activities directly related with the
productivity.

A useful way to measure HR productivity is by considering unit

labor cost, which is computed by dividing the average cost of workers by
their average level of output. In using unit labor costs, one can see that a
company paying relatively high wages still can be economically competitive
if it can also achieve an offsetting high productivity level. Low unit labor
costs can be a basis for a strategy focusing on human resources.

Increasing Productivity: Most of the productivity improvement

efforts have focused on their workforces. The early stages included
downsizing, reengineering of jobs, increasing computer usage, and
working employees harder and longer. These approaches have been useful
in some firms. Some ideas for the next round in productivity
improvements include:

➢ Outsourcing: Contract with someone else to perform activities

previously done by employees of the organization.
➢ Making workers more efficient with capital equipment: Typically
the more money spent on equipment per worker, the greater will be
the output per worker.
➢ Replacing workers with equipment: Certain jobs are not done as
well by humans. The jobs may be mindless, physically difficult, or
require extreme precision. For example, a ditch is better dug by one
person operating a backhoe than by several workers with shovels.
➢ Helping workers work better: Replace outmoded processes,
methods, and rules. Also, find better ways of training people to
work more efficiently.
➢ Redesigning the work: Some work can be redesigned to make it
faster, easier, and possibly even more rewarding to employees. Such
changes generally improve productivity.

Quality and Service as HR-Based Strategies

Both high quality products, and/or extremely good service can

be strategic competitive advantages that have HR dimensions. Quality
of production must be considered as part of productivity, because one

248
 Notes
alternative might be to produce more products and services but of lower
quality. At one time, American goods suffered in the market as a result of
this trade-off. W. Edwards Deming, an American quality expert, stated that
getting the job done right the first time-through pride in craftsmanship,
excellent training, and an unwillingness to tolerate delays, defects, and
mistakes-is essential to quality production. However, attempts to improve
quality have worked better for some firms than for others.

Delivering excellent customer service is another approach to

enhancing organizational competitive performance. Service begins
with product design and includes interaction with customers, with the
ultimate goal of meeting customers’ needs. Some organizations do not
produce products but do only services. Service excellence is difficult to
define, but people know it when they see it. In many organizations,
service quality is affected significantly by the individual employees
who interact with customers.

Linking HR Planning and Strategy for Competitive Advantage

Many think that organizations decide on strategies and then HR

planning is done to supply the right number and kinds of employees.
However, the relationship should go deeper. Business strategies affect
HR plans. Consideration of human resources issues should be part of
the initial input to the strategy formulation process. For example, it may
be important to identify competitive advantage opportunities that fit
the existing employees or assess strategic alternatives given the current
capabilities of human resources. HR professionals should be doing
environmental scanning to know and pinpoint which skills are available
and which are not. HR professionals also should be able to estimate
lead times for adjusting to labor shortages or surpluses, because HR
will be involved in implementing any strategies that affect people.

To describe the relationship between the strategy and HR, two

basic strategies can be identified: cost-leadership and differentiation. An
example of a company following a cost-leadership strategy might be Wal-
Mart, and of the differentiation strategy it may be Intel or Microsoft. A
cost-leadership strategy may be appropriate in a relatively stable business
environment because it approaches competition on the basis of low price
and high quality of product or service. The differentiation strategy is

249
Notes
more appropriate in a more dynamic environment characterized by rapid
change and requires continually finding new products and new markets.
The two strategies may not be mutually exclusive, because it is possible
for an organization to use one strategy for one product or services and
another with others.

The cost-leadership strategy requires an organization to “build”

its own employees to fit its specialized needs. This approach needs a
longer HR planning horizon. When specific skills are necessary for a new
market or product, it may be more difficult to internally develop them
quickly. However, with a differentiation strategy, responsiveness means
that HR planning is likely to have a shorter time frame, and greater use of
external sources, (such as acquisition of another company with specialized
employees).

Summary

Employee wellness programs (EWPs) or health promotion

programs (HPPs) are made up of activities that promote employee behavior
and organizational practices that ensure employee health and fitness.
Corporate exercise and fitness programs are among the most popular
employee well- being interventions, especially among large employers.
Organizations that use fitness programs should identify the needs of all
employees and provide incentives to ensure that those at greatest risk also
participate. Each of the employee counseling approaches is affected by a
common set of issues, including effectiveness, ethical and legal issues,
responsibility, and unintended negative consequences. The more
productive an organization is, the better is its competitive advantage,
because the costs to produce its goods and services are lower.
Consideration of human resource issues should be part of the initial input
to the strategy formulation process.

Self Assessment Questions

1. “Like any other HR activities the organizations are also making

a major investment in providing employee counseling services
as a way to promote employees’ well-being” Discuss
2. Explain the components of employee counseling program.
3. Describe employee assistance program

250
 Notes
4. What is meant by employee assistance programme? State its
contents and approaches.
5. What is meant by employee wellness program
6. What are the levels of wellness program
7. Discuss organizational strategies to improve the effectiveness of
human resources

CASE STUDY

Share options are a benefit normally reserved for directors. However

it was reported that motor components supplier UNI PART offered shop
floor workers the opportunity to participate in such a scheme.

The applied to all full time staff who had worked for the company
for over six months, who had received a satisfactory appraisal and whose
division has reached its 2007 targets. It was estimated that 2600 of the
3800 staff would be eligible. They were given option to buy a limited
number of shares, 5 to 10 depending upon service, at a 15% discount for
everyone bought at the market rate.

You may wish to consider the following points.

➢ How does the scheme compare with typical executive share option
schemes?
➢ What are the advantages and disadvantages of this approach?
➢ Does it penalize those who work for the division that has not
reached its target? for the reason that may be beyond an
individual’s control?

CASE STUDY

Suppose you are a Restaurant manager who is conducting a

coaching discussion with one of your servers about the server’s repeated
failure to complete store closing operations before leaving for the night.
You have conducted coaching analysis and have determined that the server
is able to complete this responsibility, that all obstacles to doing so have
been removed, and that this is an important part of a server’s job in your
restaurant.

251
Notes

a. Describe as to how do you get the server to agree that the problem
exists, and what you would do if the server refuses to acknowledge
that a problem exists
b. Describe the option available to you in dealing with this situation
c. Which option would you select? Support your choice

****

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 Notes

UNIT V

Unit Structure

Lesson 5.1 Work Force Reduction, Realignment and Retention

Lesson 5.2 HR Performance and Benchmarking
Lesson 5.3 Diversity of Workforce

Lesson 5.1 - Work Force Reduction, Realignment and Retention

Learning Objectives

After reading this unit, you may be able to

➢ Understand the Meaning of Workforce Reduction and Realignment

➢ Understand the Meaning and Strategy for Retention of Human
Resource
➢ Evaluate the Determinants of Retention

Introduction

Planning is of little value if no subsequent action is taken. The

action taken depends on the likelihood of a human resources surplus or
shortage. A surplus of workers can be managed within a HR plan in a
variety of ways. But regardless of the means, the actions are difficult. 14.2
Workforce reductions and realignment

In this era of mergers, acquisitions, and downsizing, many workers

have been laid off or had their jobs eliminated due to closing of selected
offices, plants, and operations. It has been called “downsizing,”
“rightsizing,” “reduction in force” (RIF), and in many other terms as well,
but it almost always means cutting employees. “Lay-offs” come in response
to a shortfall in demand for products, while “downsizing” involves job
reductions based on a desire to operate more efficiently when the demand is
strong.

253
Notes
Downsizing is a structural change that negates rehiring laid-off
workers. However, workers who are laid off (but not as part of
downsizing) may get their jobs back when demand picks up.

The outcome of downsizing is a bit clearer after many examples

and studies. Downsizing has worked for some firms, but it doesn’t generate
additional revenue. It only generates lower costs in the short term;
“corporate liposuction” one observer calls it. But when companies
cannibalizes the human resources they need to grow and innovate,
disruption follows for some time.

Senior executives still see layoffs as their first line defense against
an economic downturn, but some research suggests downsizing can
hurt productivity by leaving “surviving” employees overburdened and
demoralized. Loss of employees may mean a loss of informal knowledge
of how to handle specific problems and issues or how to respond to
specific customers or suppliers. However focusing on trimming
underperforming units or employees as part of a plan based on sound
organizational strategies may make sense. Such a plan often includes
cutting capital spending.

Workforce realignment can occur in all forms as the HR Perspective

illustrates. Some common problems include demoralized managers,
lawsuits, sabotage, and a need for more security. Alternatives to layoffs
should be examined first to avoid negative repercussions for organizations.

The effects of Mergers and Acquisitions

Another cause for downsizing has been the proliferation of mergers

and acquisitions in many industries. One has to look at the financial or
telecommunications industry to see massive consolidation in the number
of firms. Some mergers occurred between two huge firms, such as British
Petroleum and Amoco or Norwest and Wells-Fargo banks, while others
have been smaller merges, such as the merger of two local hospitals. But a
common result of most mergers and acquisitions (M&As) is an excess of
employees once the firms have come to be combined. The wave of M&A
activity in the United States has often left the new, combined companies
with redundant departments, plants, and people. Because much of the
rationale for combinations is financial, eliminating employees with
overlapping responsibilities.

254
 Notes
Corporations that are closing facilities or eliminating departments
may need to offer financial transition arrangements. A transition stay
bonus is extra payment for employees, whose jobs are being eliminated,
thereby motivating them to remain with the organization for a period of
time.

Just as critical is the impact of job elimination on the remaining

employees, an AMA survey found that in 69% of the surveyed firms,
employee morale declined in the short term and 28% of the firms had
longer-term decline in employee morale after downsizing. Additionally,
resignations and employee turnover all increased substantially in the
year following the downsizing. These consequences of organizational
restructuring are crucial challenges to be addressed by HR management.

Managing Survivors of Downsizing

A common myth is that those who are still around after

downsizing in any of its many forms and so glad to have a job that they
pose no problems to the organization. However, some observers draw
an analogy between those who survive downsizing and those who
survive wartime but experience guilt because they were spared while
their friends were not. The result is that performance of the survivors
and through- out the organization are adversely affected.

The first major reduction in force (RIF) of workers ever undertaken

in a firm is often a major jolt to the employees’ view of the company.
Bitterness, anger, disbelief, and shock are common reactions. For those
who survive the cuts, the paternalistic culture and image of the firm as
a “lifetime” employer often is gone forever. Survivors need information
about why the actions had to be taken, and what the future holds for them
personally. The more the employees are involved in the regrouping, the
more likely the transition is to be smooth. Managers, too, find downsizing
situations stressful and react negatively for having to be the bearers of bad
news.

Downsizing Approaches

The need for downsizing has inspired various innovative ways of

removing people from the payroll, sometimes on a massive scale. Several

255
Notes
methods can be used when downsizing occur: attrition, early retirement
buyouts, and layoffs are the most common.

Attrition and Hiring Freezes

Attrition occurs when individuals who quit, die, or retire are

not replaced. With this approach, no one is sent out of a job, but those
who remain must handle the same workload with fewer people. Unless
turnover is high, attrition will eliminate only a relatively small number
of employees in the short run. Therefore, employers may use a method
that combine attrition with a freeze on hiring. This method is usually
received with better employee understanding then many of the other
methods.

Early Retirement Buyouts

Early retirement is a means of encouraging more senior workers

to leave the organizations early. As an incentive, employers make
additional payments to employees so that they will not be penalized too
much economically until their pensions and Social Security benefits take
effect. The financial incentives of such voluntary termination programs,
or buyouts, entices employees to quit. They are widely viewed as ways to
accomplish workforce reduction without resorting to layoffs and
individual firings.

Buyouts appeal to employers because they can reduce payroll

costs significantly over time. Although it faces some up-front costs, the
organization does not incur the continuing payroll costs. One hospital
saved $2 for every $1 spent on early retirees. As noted, early retirement
buyouts are viewed as a more humane way to reduce staff then
terminating long-service, loyal employees. In addition, as long as
buyouts are truly voluntary, the organization is less exposed to age
discrimination suits. One drawback is that the employees the company
wishes would stay, as well as those it wishes would leave, can take
advantage of the buyout.

Layoffs

Layoffs occur when employees are put on unpaid leaves of

absence. If business improves for the employer, then employees can be
called back to work. Layoffs may be an appropriate downsizing strategy
during
256
 Notes
a temporary economic downturn in an industry. Nevertheless, careful
planning of layoffs is essential. Managers must consider the following
question: while resorting to layoffs.

➢ How are decisions made about who should laid off, using seniority
or performance records?
➢ How will callbacks be made if all workers cannot be recalled at the
same time?
➢ Will any benefits be given to workers who are laid off?
➢ If workers take other jobs, do they forfeit their callback rights?

Companies have no legal obligation to provide a financial cushion to

laid-off employees; however, many a companies do that. When a provision
exists for severance pay, the most common formula is one week’s pay for
every year of employment. Larger companies tend to be more generous.
Loss of medical benefits is a major problem for laid-off employees, but
under federal law displaced workers can retain their medical group coverage
for up to 18 months, and up to 36 months for dependents, if they pay the
premiums themselves.

Retention of Human Resources

Retention of employees has become a primary concern in many

organizations for several reasons. As a practical matter, with lower
turnover for every individual who is retained one person have to
recruited, selected, and trained. Also, organizational and individual
performance is enhanced by the continuity of employees who know
their jobs, co- workers, organizational services and products, and the
firm’s customers. One survey of supervisors and workers found that
losing high performers made it more difficult for organizations to reach
their business goals. In addition, continuity of employees provide
better “employee image” for attracting and retaining other individuals.

Importance of Retention

A survey of Chief Executive Officers found (26%) that they believe

the greatest contribution to organizational success over the next five years
will be to get and retain employee talent. For example, one technology

257
Notes
company with 5,000 employees, SAS Institute, determined that the
turnover cost of their highly skilled employees averaged $60,000 per
departure. By focusing on retention, the firm had an attrition rate of 17%
below the industry average, meaning that 850 fewer employees had to
be hired at an estimated “savings” of more than $50 million per year.
SAS’s focus on retention has allowed the organization to be more
innovative with its retention programs. SAS also found that increased
employee retention has contributed significantly to reaching its
organizational goals.

Retention as Management Concern

Changes in economic conditions, along with the collapse of the

dot.com employment bubble and slowing of the growth of technology
firms, have led some to speculate that the emphasis on retention was a
temporary concern. However, an updated McKinsey & Company survey
found that 90% of those firms surveyed said it was more difficult to
retain talented individuals than it was several years before. Therefore, it
is imperative that organizations and managers recognize that retention
must be a continuing HR practice and a significant responsibility for
all supervisors and managers. Some firms, such as Mutual of Omaha,
American Express, and others, conduct retention training for managers.
Even more directly, firms evaluate managers and supervisors on retention
as part of their performance reviews. Hartford Life Insurance and other
firms tie managers’ performance reviews and bonuses to the retention and
attraction of employees. Also, more senior managers have stock options
linked to employee retention.

Retention Officer: Some employers have placed such a high

priority on employee retention that they have designated an individual
as the retention officer for the firm. One estimate is that 10% of large
U.S. firms have assigned at least one person to focus on retention. Often
an individual in the HR area is assigned a specific focus on retention to
ensure that it receives high priority and the multifaceted efforts are needed
to increase employee retention.

Why People Stay or Leave

Individuals stay or leave their jobs and organizations for many

reasons. Obviously, individuals who are terminated leave as per the
order

258
 Notes
of the organizations. But the bigger issue in many organizations is why
employees voluntarily leave. One survey by McKinsey & Company, a
large international consulting firm, emphasized the importance of
retention by concluding that employers face “a war for talent.” The
McKinsey studies conducted several years apart found that the most
critical factors affecting the attraction and retention of managers and
executives can be classified into three areas. The area, key items, and
percentage responses are listed as follows:

Great Company

➢ Value and culture (58%)

➢ Well managed (50%)
➢ Company has exciting challenges (38%)

Great Job

➢ Freedom and autonomy (56%)

➢ Job has exciting challenges (51%)
➢ Career advancement and growth (39%)

Compensation and Lifestyle

➢ Differentiated pay package (29%)

➢ High total compensation (23%)
➢ Geographic location (19%)
➢ Respect for lifestyle (12%)

Several different studies provide some consistent patterns and

insights. Figure contains data from a SHRM Retention Practices Survey.
Notice that the first three factors with the highest percentages such as
career opportunities, competitive compensation/benefits, and poor
management, are controllable items in the sense that they are influenced
by organizational policies and practices. Of the remaining areas cited,
several of them are personal, less controllable by employers (relocation,
returning to school, etc.).

259
Notes
Retention Determinants

It has been recognized by both employers and employees that

some common areas affect employee retention. If certain
organizational components are being provided, then other factors may
affect retention. Surveys of employees consistently show that career
opportunities and rewards are the two most important determinants of
retention. Finally, job design/work factors and fair and supportive
employee relationships with others inside the organization contribute to
retention.

Organizational Components

A number of organizational components influence individuals in their

decisions to stay or leave their employers. Organizations that have
positive, distinctive cultures and values have fewer turnovers, as the
opening discussion indicates.

Organizational Culture and Values

Organizational culture is a pattern of shared values and beliefs

that provides organizational members meaning and rules for behavior.
Numerous examples can be given for key technical, professional, and
administrative employees leaving firms because of corporate cultures
that seem to devalue people and create barriers to the use of individual
capabilities. In contrast, creating a culture that value people enables
some corporations to successfully attract and retain employees.

One corporation well known for its culture and values is Southwest
Airlines. The firm focuses considerable effort on instilling its values of
customer service and employee involvement through its HR efforts. These
efforts have yielded greater performance, retention of employees, and a
reputation as an “employer of choice” in the airline industry. Even after
the terrorist attacks in September 2001, Southwest was the only airline
that did not cut staff and significantly reduce its flights. The genius of
Southwest’s culture, founding CEO Herb Kelleher, has repeatedly stated
that showing respect for people is central to Southwest Airline’s culture.

One key organizational value that affects employee retention

is trust. One study of more than 600 employees found that trust
and

260
 Notes
organizational values were noted as factors that influenced intentions of
employees to stay with their current employers. Employees who believe
that they can trust managers, co-workers, and the organizational justice
systems are much less willing to leave their current employers.

Organizational Strategies, Opportunities, and Management

Other organizational components that affect employee retention

are related to the strategies, opportunities, and management of the
organization. In some organizations external events are seen as
threatening, whereas others see changes as challenges requiring
responses. The latter approach can be a source of competitive
advantage, especially if an organization is in the growing, dynamic
industry.

One factor affecting how employees view their organizations is

the visionary quality of organizational leadership. Often such vision is
demonstrated by having an identified strategic plan that guides the firm’s
response to changes. Organizations with clearly established goals that hold
managers and employees accountable for accomplishing results are viewed
as better places to work, especially by individuals wishing to progress both
financially as well as in career.

Job Continuity and Security

Many individuals have seen a decline in job security over the

past decade. All the downsizings, layoffs, mergers and acquisitions, and
organizational restructurings have affected employee loyalty and
retention. Also as co-workers experience layoffs and job reductions,
anxiety levels of the remaining rise. Consequently, employees start
thinking about leaving before they too get cut. On the other hand,
organizations where job continuity and security is high tend to have
higher retention rates.

Job insecurity concerns generally increase as workers become

older because these individuals perceive they would have more difficulty
in finding employment that provides comparable pay, benefits, and
responsibilities. Even younger individuals have experienced some increase
in job insecurity due to the decline in employment at some dot.com and
high-technology companies.

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Notes
Rewards and Retention

The tangible rewards that people receive for working come in the
form of pay, incentives, and benefits. Numerous surveys and experiences
of HR professionals reveal that one key to retention is to have competitive
compensation practices. Many managers believe that money is the prime
retention factor, 89% in one survey, and many employees cite better pay or
higher compensation as a reason for leaving one employer for and joining
with another. However, the reality is a bit more complex.

Pay and benefits must be competitive, which means they must be

“close” to what other employers are providing and what individuals believe
to be consistent with their capabilities, experience, and performance. In fact,
money may be a factor for some people leaving a job, but the other factor
may be why many stay.

Competitive Benefits

Another compensation issue affecting employee retention is

having competitive benefits programs. Offering health insurance,
retirement, tuition assistance, and many other benefits commonly offered
by competing employers is vital. Burger King, Pizza Hut, and Taco
Bell have learned the importance of competitive benefits. By
introducing new benefits, including retirement plans, health insurance,
and other benefits not previously provided, each of these fast-food firms
have seen employee turnover decline significantly. All three firms
attribute the enhanced benefits as contributing substantially to lower
turnover rates. Employers also are learning that having some benefits
flexibility aids retention. When employees choose how much and what
benefits they will have from a “cafeteria” of choices, given a set of
money available from the employer, the employees can tailor the
benefits to their needs. By giving employees greater choice, employees
feel more “individual” and “in control”, thus reducing their desire to
move to another employer.

Special Benefits and Perks

A number of employers use a wide range of special benefits and

perks to attract and retain employees. One large Seattle Company has on-
site recreation clubs, discount travel programs, day-care centers, and other

262
 Notes
resource benefits for employees. At other firms concierge benefits provide
employees with assistance in personal matters at their places of work.
Some of the coverage benefits offered at work have included dry
cleaning pickup and drop off, car maintenance services in company
parking lots, coffee and latte kiosks, ATM machines in break rooms,
along with many others. By offering these special benefits and perks,
employers hope to reduce the time employees spend after work on
personal chores and to be seen as more desirable employers where
individuals will remain for longer stays.

Performance and Compensation

Many individuals expect their rewards to be differentiated from

others based on performance. For instance, if an employee receives
about the same pay increase and overall pay as others who have lower
productivity, more absenteeism, and work fewer hours, then the result
may be a feeling of “unfairness.” This may prompt the individual to look
for another job where compensation recognizes performance differences
exist. The results of a survey on rewards at work found that individuals
are more satisfied with the actual levels of their pay than the processes
used to determine pay. That is why the performance management system
and performance appraisal processes in organizations must be linked to
compensation increases.

To achieve greater performance links to organizational and

individual performance, a growing number of private-sector firms are
using variable pay and incentives programs. These programs in the form
of cash bonuses or lump sum payments are one mechanism used to reward
extra performance.

The growth of technology firms have highlighted another facet of

performance differentiation-giving employees’ incentives in the form of
stock options, organizational ownership, and other longer-term rewards.
Yahoo, Amazon.com, and other technology firms have made extensive use
of stock options for many employees. However, the collapse of their stock
prices in 2001 caused them to have to “re price” or lower the levels at
which the stock options were given, in order to retain employees.

263
Notes
Recognition

Employee recognition as a form of reward can be both tangible and

intangible. Tangible recognition comes in many forms, such as “employee
of the month,” perfect attendance, or other special awards.

Recognition also can be intangible and psychological in nature.

Feedback from managers and supervisors that acknowledge extra effort and
performance of individuals provides recognition, even though monetary
rewards are not given. For instance, a franchise firm for the widely known
KFC food chain uses both tangible and intangible recognition as part of
employee retention efforts. Employees who receive recognition cards from
either customers or co-workers can exchange them for movie tickets and
other rewards. Also, managers have been trained to make special efforts to
recognize employee performance and service.

Retention Interventions

Based on what the measurement and assessment data reveal,

a variety of HR interventions can be undertaken to improve retention.
Turnover can be controlled and reduced in several ways. During the
recruiting process, the job should be outlined and a realistic job preview
was presented, so that the reality of the job matches the expectations of the
new employee. By ensuring that the expectations of potential employees
match with what the organization is likely to offer, voluntary turnover may
be reduced.

Another way to eliminate turnover is to improve the selection

process in order to better match the applicants to the jobs. By fine-tuning the
selection process and hiring people who will not have disciplinary or
performance problems or whose work histories suggest higher turnover
potential. Employers can reduce turnover. Once selected, individuals who
receive effective orientation and training are less likely to leave.

Other HR factors are important as well. Compensation is important

because a competitive, fair, and equitable pay system can help reduce
turnover. Inadequate benefits also may lead to voluntary turnover, especially
if other employers offer significantly higher compensation levels for similar
jobs. Career development and planning can help an organization keep

264
 Notes
employees. If individuals believe they have few opportunities for career
development advancement, they are more likely to leave the organization.
Employee relations, including fair/nondiscriminatory treatment and
enforcement of HR policies, can enhance retention also.

Successful retention intervention efforts occurred at Deloitte &

Touche, a national accounting and consulting firm. An HR study at the firm
found that it was losing many talented women employees after several years
of employment with the firm. Because the firm had invested significant time
and funds in training and developing employees, a special program
throughout Deloitte & Touche was established to focus on retaining all
employees, especially women who had significantly higher turnover rates.
Key portions of the program include workshops on “Men and Women as
Colleagues,” enhanced career mentoring programs, revised family/work
policies and alternatives, and establishing a women’s leadership program.
Retention of all employees, including women, improved.

Summary

Downsizing is a structural change that negates rehiring laid-off

workers. A cause for downsizing has been the proliferation of mergers
and acquisitions in many industries. Attrition, early retirement buyouts,
and layoffs are the most common methods of downsizing. Surveys of
employees consistently show that career opportunities and rewards are
the two most important determinants of retention. Finally, job
design/work factors and fair and supportive employee relationships
with others inside the organization contribute a lot to the retention.

****

265
Notes

Lesson 5.2 - HR Performance and Benchmarking

Learning Objectives

After reading this unit, you may be able to

➢ Understand the Bench Marking Process

➢ Understand the Impact of Globalization on HRD
➢ Understand the Concept of Expatriate and Repatriate
➢ Describe Global Management Assignment

Introduction

One approach to assessing HR effectiveness is benchmarking,

which compares specific measures or performance against data on those
measures in other organisations adopting “best practices”. HR
professionals interested in benchmarking try to locate organizations that
do certain activities particularly well and thus become the “benchmarks.”

Benchmarking Analysis

When information on HR performance has been gathered, it must

be compared to a standard, which is a model or a measure against which
something is compared to determine its performance level. For example,
it is meaningless to know that the organizational turnover rate is 75% if
the turnover rates at comparable organizations are unknown. One means
for obtaining benchmarking data is through telephone calls, which then
may be followed up with questionnaires and site visits to benchmarking
partners. The common benchmarked performance measures in HR
management are:

➢ Total compensation as a percentage of net income before taxes

➢ Percent of management positions filled internally
➢ sales per employee
➢ Benefits as a percentage of payroll cost

266
 Notes
A useful way to analyze HR involves calculating ratios that can be
compared from year to year, thus providing information about changes in
HR operations. For example, one suggested series of ratios and measures
is shown in Figure.

HR Performance Area Method of Calculation

I. CEO’s priority numbers Whatever CEO sees as linked to
organizational strategic goals

2. Human value added Revenue

- Operating expense
- Pay and benefits
= Adjusted profit + Full time.
equivalent employees

3. Return on human capital invested Revenue

- Operating expense
- Adjusted profit
= Adjusted profit + Pay and benefits

4. Time to fill openings Total calendar days from each

requisition to accepted offer/
Number of openings filled

5. Turnover cost Cost to terminate

+ Cost to hire
+ Vacancy cost
+ Productivity loss
= Total + Employees lost

6. Voluntary turnover rate Total voluntary employee

separations /Total employees
7. Return on training (Dependent upon type of training
done)
8. Cost per employee hired Advertising expenses
+ Agency fees
+ Employee referral bonuses
+ HR recruiters pay and benefits
+ 10% misc. costs
= Total + Total number of
employers hired

267
Notes

9. Pay and benefits as % of operating Total pay and benefits expenditure

expense + Total operating expenses

10. Healthcare cost per employee Total healthcare benefits expenses

+Total number of employees

HR Business Performance Calculation

Effectiveness is best determined by comparing ratio measures

with benchmarked national statistics. The comparisons should be tracked
internally over time. For instance, the Society for Human Resource
Management (SHRM) and the Saratoga Institute have developed
benchmarks based on data from more than 500 companies, presented by
industry and by organizational size. The Saratoga Institute in Santa
Clara, California, surveys employers annually and compiles information
that allows individual employers to compare HR costs against national
figures.

Return on Investment (ROI) and Economic Value Added (EVA)

Return on investment (ROI) and economic value added (EVA) are

two related approaches to measuring the contribution and cost of HR.
Both calculations are a bit complex, so they are just highlighted here.
Return on investment (ROI) shows the value of expenditures for HR
activities. It can also be used to show how long it will take for the activities
to pay for themselves. The following formula can be used to calculate the
potential ROI for a new HR activity:

ROI = C/A + B
Where:
A = Operating costs for a new or enhanced system for the time period
B = One-time cost of acquisition and implementation
C= Value of gains from productivity improvements for the time period

Economic value added (EVA) is a firm’s net operating profit after

the cost of capital is deducted. Cost of capital is the minimum rate of
return demanded by shareholders. When a company is making more than
the cost of capital, it is creating wealth for shareholders. An EVA approach
requires that all policies, procedures, measures, and methods use cost
of capital as a benchmark against which their return is judged. Human

268
 Notes
resource decisions can be subjected to the same analyses. Both of these
methods are useful, and specific information on them is available from other
sources.

Utility or Cost/Benefit Analyses In utility analysis, economic or

other statistical models are built to identify the costs and benefits associated
with specific HR activities. These models generally contain equations that
identify the relevant factors influencing the HR activity under study.

Impact of Globalization on HRD

There are a number of forces that together have led to world trade
increasing over 60% in the past decade. Some of the more prominent are
discussed below.

Global Population Changes

Throughout the world in the developed / Industrialized countries

such as the European Union (EU), Japan, and the United States, population
growth have become significant. In those areas an aging population and
declining birth have contributed to slower growth in the number of
workers and consumers. However, population in China, India, Africa,
Latin America, and other countries and regions continues to grow
significantly. To take advantage of this growth, firms throughout the world
have established operations, formed joint ventures, or merged with firms
in these countries. The prospect of billions of new consumers in the faster-
growing countries is driving global investments and operations. Consumer
demands for products from other countries are also driving globalization.
As examples, German and Japanese cars, French cosmetics, U.S. fast food,
Mexican beer, and Korean electronics are all available globally and desired
by consumers in many count

Global Economic Interdependence

Economic experts estimate that by 2020 the six largest

economies will be the U.S., China, Japan, Indonesia, India, and Korea.
Firms based in other countries are responding to these opportunities.
Thus the economic future of organizations throughout the world is
linked to the growth of the world economy. An example of this linkage
is unrest, as has occurred

269
Notes
in Indonesia, Turkey, Argentina, and some other countries. This unrest
has affected stock markets throughout the world. Other examples of the
global economy can be seen by the effects of the economic stagnation in
Japan, the fall of the U.S. stock market, and results of international
terrorist acts at the U.S. World Trade Center. These examples indicate the
level of interdependence among the economies of individual countries.

Regional Alliances

The development of a number of regional trade and political

alliances also has contributed to globalization. The two most well-known
alliances are as follows.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

The United States, Canada, and Mexico recognized the

importance of world trade by eliminating barriers and working together
by signing the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The
Commission on Labor Cooperation (CLC), established as part of
NAFTA, reviews complaints filed in the U. S., Canada, or Mexico
regarding occupational safety and health, child labor, benefits, and
labor-management relations. Discussions have held for expanding
NAFTA to include other Latin American countries also.

European Union (EU)

In Western Europe, efforts of several decades led to the creation

of the European Union. The economic integration of the countries in
the EU received a major push in 2002 with the introduction of the Euro
currency. The EU also has established labor and other standards, adopted
by individual EU countries, which has led to greater similarity of HR
practices in EU-based firms. Foreign firms operating in the EU have had
to comply with the requirements.

Global Communications

Another major contributor to globalization is the development

and evolution of telecommunications and technology that aids the rapid
transfer of information. Satellite technology has brought television and

270
 Notes
wireless telephone services to remote villages in Africa, India, China, and
Latin America. The worldwide growth in the use of the Internet has made
that people and firms can easily communicate and have access to huge
amounts of information and data.

Much of the communication on the Internet is in English. As the

global language of business, English allows easier communications
and information flow. In many countries students learn English as their
second language, and many foreign firms train their employees in
English. For instance, Telecom Italia provides English courses for its
employees, and several large Japanese global firms use English as their
“business language.”

Staffing Global Assignments

Staffing global assignments involves selecting, placing, and

locating employees in other countries. The need for individuals who
can provide leadership in global organizations emphasizes the
importance of global staffing. According to several different surveys of
large multinational corporations, about 85% indicated a shortage of
global leaders with the capabilities required for success.

When staffing global assignments, cost is a major factor to be

considered. The cost of establishing a manager or professional in another
country can run as high as $1 million for a three-year job assignment. The
actual costs for placing a key manager outside the United States often are
twice the manager’s salary. For instance, if the manager is going to Japan,
the costs may be even higher when housing costs, schooling subsidies,
and tax equalization payments are calculated. Further, if a manager,
professional, or executive quits an international assignment prematurely
or insists on a transfer home, associated costs can be equal or exceeding
the annual salary. “Failure” rates of managers sent to other countries may
run as high as 40% to 50% in some firms or countries, and the reasons for
this failure are discussed later in this chapter.

Global organizations can be staffed in a number of different ways.

Each staffing option presents some unique HR management challenges.
For instance, when staffing the citizens of different countries, different
tax laws and other factors have to be applied. HR professionals need to be
knowledgeable about the laws and customs of each country. They
must

271
Notes
establish appropriate payroll and record-keeping procedures, among other
activities, to ensure compliance with varying regulations and requirements.

Expatriate and Repatriate Support and Development

International employees typically are placed in three different

classifications, as discussed below.

Expatriates

An expatriate is an employee, working in an operation, who is

not a citizen of the country in which the operation is located, but is a
citizen of the country of the headquarters organization. Also referred to
as parent-country national (PCN). Expatriates are used to ensure that
foreign operations are linked effectively with the parent corporations.
Generally, expatriates are also used to develop global capabilities
within an organization.

Experienced expatriates can provide a pool of talent that can be

tapped as the organization expands its operations more broadly into even
more countries. For example, Japanese-owned firms with operations in the
United States have rotated Japanese managers through U.S. operations in
order to expand the knowledge of U.S. business practices in the Japanese
firms. The HR Perspective describe a research study on use of expatriates
who are parent-country nationals and host-country nationals to staff
global subsidiaries.

Host-Country Nationals

A host-country national is an employee working for a firm in an

operation who is a citizen of the country where the operation is
located, but where the headquarters for the firm are in another country.
Using host-country nationals is important for several reasons. One
reason is that the organization wants to establish clearly that it is making
a commitment to the host country and not just setting up a foreign
operation. Host- country nationals often know the culture, politics,
laws, and business customs better than an outsider knows. Tapping into
the informal “power” network may be important. Another reason to use
host-country nationals is to provide employment in the country.

272
 Notes
Third-Country Nationals

A third-country national is a citizen of one country, working in a

second country, and employed by an organization headquartered in a third
country. For example, a Indian citizen working for a British oil company as
a manager in Norway is a third country national. Staffing with use of
third- country nationals shows a truly global approach. Often, these
individuals handle responsibilities throughout a continent or region.
For instance, a major U.S.-based electronics company has its European
headquarters in Brussels, Belgium. Although most employees on the
clerical staff are Belgians, only about 20% of the professionals and
managers are from Belgium. Most of the rest, except for five U.S.
expatriates come from other Western European countries.

Possible Global Assignments

Decisions about how to staff global assignments vary based on

the nature, purpose, and length of the assignment. There are four
different types of global assignments requiring intercultural capabilities:

➢ For technical assignments, individuals are sent to do limited jobs

and then to return, which requires limited cultural skills.
➢ In functional assignments, individuals are sent for extended
projects or jobs but return upon completion of work, and some
intercultural skills are needed.
➢ For developmental assignments, individuals are sent to develop and
broaden their understanding of global operations and intercultural
understanding and skills are important.
➢ On strategic assignments, individuals are sent to fill critical
strategic jobs, requiring extended efforts, and intercultural
understanding and skills are critical to success.

The importance of intercultural capabilities increases as

assignments progress from technical to strategic. Also, the higher the
level of responsibility and longer the assignment, the more intercultural
capabilities are needed. Instead of making assignments for three years
long or more, global employers now find that shorter-term assignments
can be effective in reducing the “resistance” of assignees and their
failure

273
Notes
rates. Short-term assignments of several months at a time create different
personal and family stresses than relocation for several years. Also, the
assignments provide global development experiences for employees
without disrupting the individuals’ careers. Different compensation
and lodging issues arise with shorter-term assignment. But success
with shorter assignments requires planning to address such issues as
housing, travel, return trips, compensation, and health and safety
concerns.

Another means of providing global experience is through the use

of multicultural or transnational teams. These, teams may be temporary
or somewhat permanent, formed to solve a specific problem or to handle
ongoing activities. They often include headquarters representatives, host-
country nationals, and third-country nationals. They are useful not only
as potentially valuable business units, but also as development vehicles for
leaders.

Recruiting for Global Assignments

Recruiting employees for global assignments requires approaches

and understanding different from the typical recruiting efforts in a home-
country setting. The recruiting processes must consider cultural differences,
laws, and language considerations. For instance, in Eastern Europe potential
recruits like to work for European and U.S. firms, so recruiters emphasize
the “western” image. In Hong Kong recruiting ads often stress success
factors by showing “typical employees” of a firm wearing expensive
watches and stylish clothes.

The growth of the Internet has made global recruiting much more
accessible, particularly for individuals in search of professional
management jobs. Those individuals and more technologically
knowledgeable candidates can be reached using Internet advertising.
Global search firms also can be used to locate specialized global
managerial talent.

Selection for Global Assignments

The selection process for an international assignment should

provide a realistic picture of the life, work, and culture to which the
employee may be sent. HR managers start by preparing a comprehensive
description of the job to be done. This description notes responsibilities

274
 Notes
that would be unusual in the home nation, including negotiating with
public officials; interpreting local work codes; and responding to ethical,
moral, and personal issues such as religious prohibitions and personal
freedoms.

Cultural Adjustment
Personal Characteristics
Cultural awareness
Flexibility and risk taking
Cultural adaptability
Emotional stability
Diversity acceptance
Ambiguity tolerance
Global experiences
Physical/stress coping

Successful
Global
Employees

Communication Skills
Organizational Requirements Language capabilities
Organizational knowledge Nonverbal awareness
Technical abilities Coaching and listening skills

Job-related skills Conflict resolution abilities

Figure shows the most frequently cited key competencies for successful global
employees.

Cultural Adjustment

Crucial to global success for individuals is how they adjust to the

cultural differences in their foreign assignments. Prior global experiences,
even foreign vacation travel, can be explored as part of the selection
process to gain insights on how culturally adaptable individuals are.
Awareness of cultural issues and differences and acceptance of diverse
cultural and customs are important areas to explore. Throughout the
selection process, especially in the selection interviews, it is crucial to
assess the potential employee’s ability to accept and adapt to different
customs, management practices, laws, religious values, and infrastructure
conditions.

275
Notes
However, individuals with different cultural backgrounds must
be considered as well. For instance, the U.S. emphasis on assertiveness,
individualism, and independence may lead the U.S. interviewers to
expect applicants to exhibit those characteristics. But in some Asian
cultures deference to authority and conflict avoidance may result in Asian
candidates not displaying the “American characteristics” in selection
interviews. Therefore, if the candidates are to be placed in China or Japan,
the interviewers’ styles and expectations may need to be altered.

Organizational Requirements

Many global employers find that knowledge of the organization

and how it operates is as important as cultural adjustment factors in
determining global assignments success. Interacting with managers in
the home country, representing the firm in the foreign locations, and
managing foreign employees all require some understanding of the
firm’s products, services, organizational “politics,” and policies.

As with any job, the individuals must have the needed technical
abilities and meet the job-related KSAs to be successful in work.
However, simply meeting organizational requirements may not be
sufficient for ensuring global assignment success. For this reason, the
selection process for someone from inside the company must also
assess the other factors shown in Figure. For candidates from outside
the organization, industry knowledge may be helpful, but a realistic
preview of the organization is essential in order to determine person-
organization fit.

Personal Characteristics

The experiences of many global firms demonstrate that the best

employees in the home country may not be the best employees in a global
assignment, primarily because of personal characteristics of individuals. A
number of identified personal characteristics contribute to the success of
global employment. The stress of living and working in foreign countries
requires people who exhibit emotional stability, adjusting to different
cultures as challenges, and enjoy the risks associated with those challenges.
Also, the physical demands of travel, jet lag, time zone changes, long work
hours, and frequent business meetings and dinners place significant stress on
global employees.

276
 Notes
During the selection process many global employers use
personality tests and other assessment in order to assess candidates’
suitability for global assignments. For example, Motorola uses intelligence
and personality tests, as well as assessment centers and role-playing
exercises to assess potential candidates for global assignments. The
importance of assessing personality characteristics was underscored by a
study that found that extroversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability
increased the desire of expatriates to complete their global assignments.

Communication Skills

One of the most basic skills needed by expatriate employees is

the ability to communicate orally and in writing in the host-country
language. Inability to communicate in the local language may
significantly inhibit the success of an expatriate. Numerous firms with
international operations select individuals based on their technical and
managerial capabilities and then have the selected individuals take
foreign language training.

But in any language, communication includes far more than

simple vocabulary. Nonverbal communications through greetings,
gestures, pace, and proximity all vary in different countries. Interacting
with other people through coaching and listening skills is at least as
important as speaking the language. Conflict resolution abilities are
essential, particularly given different cultural values regarding conflict.
For example, in some Western countries, the individual parties address
conflicts directly and forcefully. In many other cultures conflicts go un
attended, and conflict resolution often requires more time and extensive
communications sensitivities.

Personal/Family Factors

The preferences and attitudes of spouses and other family members

also present major staffing considerations. Two of the most common reasons
for turning down international assignments are family considerations and
spouses’ careers. Many expatriates are married, and three-fourths of the
married expatriates are accompanied on overseas assignments by their
spouses and 60% bring children with them. Also, the growth in dual-career
couples complicates the transfer of international employees, particularly
with the work-permit restrictions which are common in many countries.
Notice that person/family concerns top the list, followed by factors related

277
Notes
to candidate selection and the job not meeting individuals’ expectations.
Since the personal/family factors play a large role in the success of global
employees, the selection process may include interviews of spouses,
partners, and even children. If significant resistance or opposition to
accepting a global relocation and adapting to different cultures will create
family conflicts, then there is a greater likelihood that the global employee
will not complete the assignment or will not be as successful.

Global Assignment Management

Once employees have been selected for international

assignments, continuing organizational support for the employees is
crucial. The intention of expatriates to quit and their commitment to their
organizations are affected by how they view the support given to them by
their employers That is why management of global assignments is so
important As Figure indicates, there are two major phases in the cycle
of global assignment management, The first phase is expatriation, in
which an organization prepares and sends global employees to their
foreign assignments, once the employee needs continuing support and
development, as discussed later in the chapter. Upon completion of
this assignment repatriation occurs. Repatriation involves planning,
training, and reassignment of global employees to their home
countries. It should also be noted that if the global employee is being
sent to a third-country, then must begin as part of repatriation actions.

Global Assignment Management Cycle

Adopted from Mathis & Jackson (2005). Human Resource Management, 10e. Thomson
South-Western

278
 Notes
Pre-departure orientation and training

The orientation and training that expatriates and their families

receive before departure significantly affect the success of the overseas
assignment. Unfortunately, various surveys have found that only 50% to
60% of global employers provide formal training programs for expatriates
and their families. When offered, most expatriates participate in this
training, which generally produces a positive effect on cross-cultural
adjustment.

The most common topics covered in pre-departure training are

Daily living conditions, Cultural customs, Business issues, Country
history, Geographical climate, Transportation and communication
systems

Individuals selected to work outside their home countries need

answers to many specific questions about their host countries. Training
in various areas aids the adjustment of expatriates and their families to
deal with host-country counterparts. Training in customs and practices
can be especially valuable to individuals who will not live outside the
home country but will travel to other countries for business purposes.

Intercultural Competence Training

Growing number of global employers are providing intercultural

competence training for their global employees. Intercultural competence
incorporates a wide range of human social skills and personality
characteristics. There are three components of intercultural competence
require attention when training expatriates for global assignments:

➢ Cognitive: What does the person know about other cultures?

➢ Emotional: How does the person view other cultures and how much
sensitivity exists to cultural customs and issues?
➢ Behavioral: How does the person act in intercultural situations?

But knowing about the country and one’s abilities may not be
sufficient. A growing number of global employers are using training
methods that allow individuals to behave in international situations and
then receive feedback. One of the most popular methods in the Culture
Assimilator used worldwide, especially by European-based firms, the

279
Notes
Culture Assimilator is a programmed training and learning method
consisting of short case studies and critical incidents. The case studies
describe intercultural interactions and potential misunderstandings on the
part of expatriates and host-country nationals. Each case study centers
around some situation or difficulties experienced by an expatriate, a host
national, or both. The incidents are analyzed after the answers are given
and they are discussed and evaluated from the two viewpoints: the
original home-country culture and the target host-country culture. The
assumption behind Culture Assimilator training is that as the trainees
receive feedback on their responses, they begin to understand both the
cognitive and emotional facets of the target culture. This understanding
allows them to subsequently select more appropriate behavioral
responses during their global assignments.

Expatriate Support and Development

There are several areas that affect the cross cultural adjustment
process. To get global employees to their new assignments requires
planning relocation efforts including moving their possessions, selling
their existing homes, obtaining new housing, and other activities. Once
global employees arrive in the host country, they need assistance in
“settling in.” Arrangements should include someone to meet them and
assist them. Basics such as obtaining housing, establishing bank
accounts, obtaining driver’s licenses, arranging for admissions to
schools for dependent children, and establishing a medical provider
relationship need to be part of international relocation. But differences in
culture, language, and laws may complicate these activities in a foreign
country. The sooner the expatriates and their families establish a
normal life, the better the adjustment will be, and less likely that
expatriate failure will occur (Figure is given below).

Continuing Employee Communications and Support

Continuing home-office support helps to reduce premature

assignment departure. One of the greatest deterrents to accepting foreign
assignments comes from employees’ concerns that they will be “out of
sight, out of mind.” If they do not have direct and regular contact with
others at the corporate headquarters, expatriates can feel isolated and left
out of important company activities. The growth of the Internet and
company

280
 Notes
intranets helps alleviate some of the communication concerns. Personal
contact through phone conversations also is important, but may be
difficult due to time zone differences and the quality of
telecommunications services in some lesser-developed countries.

Continuing Career Development

Many expatriates experience anxiety about their continued career

progression. Therefore, the international experiences of expatriates must
offer benefits to the employer and to the expatriate’s career. Firms sometimes
address this issue by inviting the expatriates back for development
programs and through regular interactions with other company managers
and professionals. Another useful approach is to establish a mentoring
system which matches an expatriate with a corporate executive in the
headquarters.

This executive talks with the expatriate frequently, ensures that

the expatriate’s name is submitted during promotion and development
discussions at the headquarters, and resolves any headquarters-based
problems experienced by the expatriate.

Repatriation

The process of repatriation, whereby expatriates are brought

home or moved to other global assignments, must address potential
difficulties that can arise when it is time to bring expatriates home. For
example, expatriates no longer receive the special compensation packages
often available to them during their assignments, which mean that the
expatriates experience a net decrease in total income, even if they receive
promotions and pay increases.

Back in the home organization, repatriate employees must readjust

to a closer working and reporting relationship with other corporate
employees. Often, expatriates have a greater degree of flexibility,
autonomy, and independent decision making than their counterparts in the
United States. Another major concern focuses on the organizational status
of expatriates upon return. Many expatriates have concerns about what
jobs they will have, whether their international experiences will be
valued, and how they will be accepted back into the organization.
Unfortunately,

281
Notes
surveys reveal that almost half of expatriates feel that their employers do
a poor job of repatriation. To counter these concerns, some companies
provide career planning, the mentoring programs, and even guarantees of
employment upon completion of foreign assignments.

Expatriate Adjustment Stages

Adopted from Mathis & Jackson (2005). Human Resource Management, 10e. Thomson
South-Western

Summary

Benchmarking is the process which compares specific measures

or performance against data on those measures in other “best practices”
organizations. Return on investment (ROI) and economic value added
(EVA) are two related approaches to measuring the contributions and the
cost of HR. Global population changes, Global economic interdependence,
Regional alliances and Global communications have their impact on
HRD. Staffing global assignments involves selecting, placing, and
locating employees in other countries. International employees typically
are placed in three different classifications i.e. Expatriates, Host-Country
Nationals, and Third-Country Nationals. Recruiting employees for global
assignments requires approaches and understanding different from the
typical recruiting efforts in a home-country setting.

282
 Notes

Lesson 5.3 - Diversity of Workforce

Learning Objectives

After reading this unit, you may be able to

➢ Describe Cultural Diversity

➢ Cross Cultural Education and Training Programs
➢ Understand the Management of Diversity
➢ Describe HRD Programs for Diversified Employees

Introduction

In order to organizations to compete successfully in a global

economy, they must be able to attract and retain the best employees
possible. For most organizations, this means recruiting and hiring a
more diverse workforce. Organizations have recognized the
demographic changes that have occurred in the workforce over the past
forty years. In response to the civil rights and feminist movements, as
well as the equal employment legislation that began in the 1960s many
organizations established programs to facilitate the recruitment and
retention of qualified women and minorities. The inclusion of women,
minorities, and other underrepresented groups have made organizations
more culturally diverse.

Cultural Diversity

Cultural diversity is defined as the existence of two or more

persons from different cultural back ground in any single group or
organization. Most organizations are culturally diverse because their
employees are from different cultural subgroups (whether gender, race,
ethnic origin, etc.). But even if an organization is culturally diverse, it
may not be aware of or acknowledge this diversity.

283
Notes
Valuing Differences and Diversity Training

Barbara Walker, former manager of the International Diversity

Program at Digital Equipment Corporation, is credited with coining the
phrase “valuing differences” in the 1980s. Her approach was to create an
environment in which each person’s cultural differences are respected.
Valuing differences soon became popularized as diversity training. The
diversity training movement gained momentum when the Hudson Institute
published a report in 1987 that predicted that women and minorities
would represent 85 percent of all net new entrants in the labor force by
the year 2000. This prediction led to a sense of urgency by employers who
felt they were ill prepared to handle this kind of change. It also resulted
in the proliferation of diversity consultants and programs (e.g., cultural
sensitivity training), many of which came with a large price tag.

It is estimated that 72 percent of organizations conducted

diversity training in 2003. Diversity training programs vary in scope
and length. At one extreme there are one- to three-day programs for
managers that designed to transform them into culturally sensitive
people. Most of these are one-shot programs that have no follow-up to
reinforce the issues raised in training. For example, US WEST
developed a diversity program that includes two kinds of training: (1) a
three-day program called managing a Diverse Workforce for managers
and union stewards and (2) a one-day version called “The Value of
Human Diversity” for the remaining 65,000 employees. Other
organizations have used a different approach that include a strategy to
foster long-term cultural change. For example, Pacific Gas & Electric
created a program based on the assumption that a cadre of internal
trainers is needed to cultivate a multicultural organization. Employees
are selected to attend a six-day certification (“train-the-trainer”)
diversity awareness program and, upon graduation, are expected to
champion diversity in their day-to-day interactions with others.

Managing Diversity

Thomas defines managing diversity as “a comprehensive

managerial process for developing an environment (organizational
culture) that works for all employees.” This approach goes beyond both
affirmative action and valuing diversity because it focuses on building a
positive environment for everyone and on full utilization of the total
workforce. It does not exclude

284
 Notes
women or minorities, nor does it exclude whites or males. It is an
attempt to create a level playing field for all employees without having
regard for cultural distinction. Coming to an agreement on the definition
of diversity can be a very difficult task, as many experienced trainers
will attest. However, one recent article defined it as “the commitment
on the part of organizations to recruit, retain, reward, and promote a
heterogeneous mix of productive, motivated, and committed workers
including people of color, whites, females, and the physically
challenged.” To do this, managing the diversity approach requires (1) a
long- term commitment to change; (2) substantive changes in
organizational culture; (3) a modified definition of leadership and
management roles; (4) both individual and organizational adaptation;
and (5) structural changes.

The long-term commitment to change, particularly from top

management, is necessary to allow sufficient time and resources to bring
about a change in organizational culture. For example, Pillsbury has
created the three-year objectives for its division heads for managing
diversify:

1. To develop and implement strategic plans for creating more

culturally diverse organizations
2. To increase leaders’ and managers’ knowledge and skills in
managing a culturally diverse workplace
3. To attract, motivate, and retain women and people of color

To achieve these objectives, managers must be totally committed

to the program. Commitment from key organizational members (top
managers, union leaders, etc.) is an important part of managing diversity.

A substantive change in culture is necessary if an organization

expects to change the underlying assumptions, values, and beliefs that
have fostered sexist and racist attitudes. Employees must learn to be
more understanding of language and cultural differences and be able to
identify and reject cultural stereotypes. Most organizations that have
developed managing diversity programs rely on education and training
programs, much as the valuing differences approach does. For example,
organizations like Avon, Apple Computer, and Xerox have made
diversity education the cornerstone of their managing diversity
programs.

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Notes
Modified definitions of leadership and management roles are
needed to accommodate the changes in organizational culture. Not only
is it important that management roles be redefined during the change
process, they may also be redefined as part of managing diversity
program. For example, managers may be required to serve as formal
mentors to one or more of the women and minorities in their organization.
Other organizations may require managers to lead a diversity core group.
To ensure that these roles are institutionalized, some organizations have
created a new corporate office for managing diversity. This office gives
the program high visibility, and ensures that all activities are coordinated.

Managing diversity requires both individual and organizational

adaptation, because as the organizational culture undergoes a redefinition
and begins to take on new characteristics, employees must be able to adapt
to these changes. How well the organization and its employees adapt to
this is highly dependent on the management and leadership of the change
process. Sufficient support systems must be available for people who are
not sure about what is expected of them and how to adapt to these new
expectations. For example, some employees may feel this program is
affirmative action under a new name. Managers must be able to reinforce
the point that a managing diversity favors no subgroup.

Structural changes are necessary to accommodate the changes in

management and leadership roles and changes in individual expectations.
For example, several structural changes within the HRD function may
need to be made. These include (1) developing new policies that support
the management of diversity initiative; (2) changing formal orientation
programs to place more emphasis on diversity issues; (3) developing
formal career development programs; (4) adding a diversity component
to some of the ongoing training programs, particularly management and
supervisory training; and (5) developing a diversity resource library for all
types of ongoing diversity programs.

Effectiveness of managing diversity programs

There is growing awareness of the need to address diversity

issues. Many organizations have achieved success with such programs.
However, a problem with managing diversity is the resistance of long-
held attitudes to change. Even when organizations bolster their change
strategy with

286
 Notes
diversity education and training programs, there is no guarantee that all
employees will place the same value on learning about their own attitudes
and about other cultures, particularly if they feel they have nothing in
common with members of those cultures. The fact remains that people
tend to feel most comfortable among those with whom they have things in
common (e.g., common cultural attributes).

This perceived backlash should not be ignored in a process of forced

change. Resistance to change is rooted in personal values, beliefs, and
attitudes. To overcome this resistance, we feel that organizations should
consider introducing multiculturalism through a planned change strategy.
This would entail making use of theories and interventions. Further,
there is a growing body of work that provides guidance concerning how
organizations can manage diversity in a way that is strategic, proactive,
and more grounded in solid empirical and theoretical research than has
typically been true to date.

Cross-cultural Education and Training Programs

Globalization is increasingly being linked to diversity management

efforts. The argument is that a multicultural perspective is needed for
organizations to successfully compete in the global marketplace. To prepare
these individuals for their assignments, many organizations are providing
cross-cultural training. Most cross-cultural awareness training programs deal
with at least four elements:

1. Raising the awareness of cultural differences

2. Focusing on ways attitudes are shaped
3. Providing factual information about each culture
4. Building skills in the areas of language, nonverbal
communication, cultural stress management, and adjustment
adaptation skills

To raise the awareness of cultural differences discussion should

focus on understanding the assumptions, beliefs, and values people have
about other cultures. Without first developing insight into these elements,
it will be difficult for people to value cultural differences. For example,
people from Japan and some other Asian countries may have difficulty
in assimilating with the aggressiveness that is common in many U.S.

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Notes
workplaces. Without understanding these differences, Americans may
misinterpret the motive of a Japanese manager who is unwilling to
confront an American worker who has been overtly aggressive toward
him.

Programs that focus on how attitudes are shaped help people to

understand how cultural stereotypes are formed and the destructiveness
of cultural bias. Even though people may understand cultural differences,
they may not understand how assumptions, values, and beliefs underlie
sexist and racist attitudes. For example, a male manager may take extra
effort to understand gender differences and learn to value women’s
contributions at the workplace. However, since there are a limited number
of female managers, he may assume that most women lack the desire
(or ability) to become managers. This assumption may result in his not
actively encouraging female subordinates in developing the skills needed
to qualify for a management position. This may serve to create a glass
ceiling. Without focusing on how these attitudes are developed, it will be
difficult to change them.

Providing factual information about each culture is necessary to

reinforce new assumptions, values, beliefs, and attitudes about different
cultures. When people are strongly ethnocentric i.e. feeling that their
culture is superior to others, training may be provided, with the goal of
reinforcing that every culture has its own unique and valuable experiences,
perspectives, and styles of approaching problems. There is empirical
evidence suggesting that cultural diversity brings together different
experiences, perspectives, and styles that can be used for approaching
problems and situations resulting in increased productivity. People need
to know what these strengths are and how they can help individual workers
and the organization to do a better job.

Programs that build skills in the areas of language, nonverbal

communication, cultural stress management, and adjustment adaptation
address critical interpersonal relations of employees both inside and
outside the organization. In order to establish effective relations with
people, they must learn as to how to communicate. Nonverbal
communication, including body language (e.g., gestures and handshakes),
can be particularly important. Part of the communication training effort
should focus on learning to understand cultural differences in body
language and other nonverbal communication when dealing with
different cultural groups.

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 Notes
Human resource development programs for culturally diversified
employees

The changing demographics of the workforce present both

opportunities and challenges to HRD professionals. One of the
challenges is seeking to remove all causes of discrimination. HRD
professionals can do at least two things. First, they must be willing to
confront the underlying assumptions, beliefs, and attitudes that foster
bigotry and stereotyping that exist within their organization. They can be
advocates for people who are the victims of discrimination and must be
willing to fight for institutional justice. Second, HRD professionals
should examine their organization’s practices in the areas of
socialization, orientation, career development, and sexual and racial
harassment.

Socialization and Orientation

Socialization is the process by which an individual becomes

an insider through assimilation roles, norms, and expectations of the
organization. A new employee’s initial experiences in an organization
are particularly significant in influencing later decisions about career
choices and to remain in an organization or not. For example, when
learning experiences are designed for new employees, the following
issues should be considered:

1. New employees (including women and minorities) may feel

isolated when their cultural differences prevent them from
obtaining the interesting and challenging work assignments that
are needed to learn important job-related skills and to qualify for
promotions.
2. Women and minorities may experience additional stresses if they
feel they must become “bicultural” in order to be accepted by
coworkers in the majority group.
3. Women and minorities are sometimes held in higher standards
than other coworkers as they enter nontraditional occupations.

Failure to consider these issues can result in the loss of talented

employees

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Notes
Some organizations have recognized the influences of cultural
differences on the socialization process and have taken steps to incorporate
them into their orientation and socialization practices. For example,
Armco Steel recognized that subtle attitudes and prejudices against women
and minorities had a negative effect on their upward mobility. Armco saw
how these attitudes and prejudices were manifested during the
socialization process. Specifically, it looked for ways in which existing
employees could serve as role models during the socialization process.
Having role models from one’s own race and gender can make it easier
for new employees to confront issues like sexism and racism without
fearing reprisal from coworkers

There is disagreement about the value of holding training and

orientation programs that are targeted to a segregated audience (e.g.,
women or minorities only) Some organizations believe that if the goal of
managing diversity is to get employees to work together, it is important
not to segregate women or minorities at any point in their development.
However, other organizations see such sessions as important in meeting
the special needs of these groups. Organizations like DuPont and GTE
provide additional classroom training for newly hired women, but the
trend is to avoid the impression of preferential treatment. Morrison and
Von Glinow have stated that, “Because women and minorities face
special situations as tokens, they may need to perfect certain
competencies such as conflict resolution.” While we agree that it may be
beneficial for incoming women and minorities to be given special
awareness and training programs to help them make the adjustment and
deal with difficult cultural issues, these programs should exist within an
overall plan targeted toward all employees to achieve the goal of
multiculturalism.

Career Development

Most career development models and programs do not explicitly

deal with the special concerns of a culturally diverse workforce.
Programs that promote valuing differences and managing diversity can
be useful in creating a positive climate for career advancement.
Although both of these approaches rely on education and training to
change some of the underlying assumptions, values, and beliefs that
sustain barriers like the glass ceiling, only the managing diversity
approach attempts to integrate these efforts into the organizational
strategy. For example, Jim Preston,

290
 Notes
former CEO of Avon, saw managing diversity as a significant part of
his organization’s business strategy, and stated that “if you are going to
attract the best . . . people into your organization, you’d better have a
culture; you’d better have an environment in which those people feel
they can prosper and flourish.”

Organizations can modify or create career development policies

and programs without using a managing diversity approach. However,
if sexist and racist attitudes are prevalent, an organization is less likely
to be successful using “traditional” career development techniques to
help advance the careers of women and minority employees. A “new”
career development program should include specific roles for managers
(e.g., serving as mentors or advocates) and a formal role for HRD
department in monitoring the process.

Mentoring to Promote Diversity

Mentoring is a relationship between a junior and senior member

of the organization that contributes to the career development of both
members. There is some evidence to suggest that women see barriers to
mentoring because they feel that a male mentor might misconstrue their
request as a romantic or sexual gesture, are concerned about how others
feel about the relationship, and feel that the male mentor would reject
them.

In terms of minorities, a study found that the development of

minorities in organizations is affected by such things as the “absence of
mentors, less interesting or challenging work as a result of being in the out
group, and being left out of the informal social network.” This is supported
by research that has examined diversified mentoring relationships (i.e.,
those made up of a majority member and minority member) and
homogeneous mentorship (i.e., those made up of both minority members
and both majority members). The findings show the following
relationships:

➢ Minorities in homogeneous mentoring relationships receive

more psychosocial support (e.g., personal support, friendship)
than those in diverse mentoring relationships.
➢ Mentors are also better role models in homogeneous relationships.

291
Notes
➢ Psychosocial support existed in diverse relationship when both the
mentor and protégé showed the preferred strategy for dealing with
(racial) differences.

HRD professionals who design and implement mentorship

programs should be aware of these possibilities and attempt to construct
their programs in ways that maximizes the benefits and minimizes the
problems. Even though there are some inherent potential problems with
mentoring, the benefits outweigh the potential pitfalls, and that
mentoring should be part of the career development process.

Sexual and Racial Harassment Training

Reports of sexual harassment have remained high over the past

fifteen years. Organizations must take affirmative steps to deal with
this problem at the workplace. Recent court decisions make it clear that
the burden is on organizations to create a safe environment free from
sexual demands or hostile acts. Similar issues exist concerning racial
and other forms of harassment as well. For example, the Civil Rights
Bureau for the State of Wisconsin advocates a single organizational
policy covering all forms of workplace harassment.

A number of steps should be taken to implement training to reduce

workplace harassment. On the whole, the HRD process model discussed,
provides a framework for the issues that should be addressed in establishing
this sort of program. The four steps listed highlight some of the issues
specific to developing and delivering a sexual or racial harassment training
program:

1. Preparation of a policy and complaint procedure. Make sure the

harassment policy is up-to-date and can be understood by all
members of the organization. An appropriate policy should include
procedures for (1) defining the scope of responsibility, (2) prompt
and measured responses to claims of harassment, (3) authority to
address the issue, and (4) multiple avenues for filing complaints.
Some organizations have made the employees to sign a document
indicating that they have read and understood this policy.

292
 Notes
2. Assessment of the organizational climate. It is important to determine
if the organization is ready to accept the appropriate change,
particularly if such training is mandatory. Also, it is important to
survey the employees to see how they feel about harassment issues.
The data could be helpful for determining program content. For
example, if evidence shows that a number of supervisors try to
discourage formal complaints; the program may need to reinforce
supervisors’ legal responsibilities in this area.

3. Content of the training program. The program should describe

the current laws including interpretation of recent court decisions,
review of the organizational policy and procedures, communicate a
set of organizational standards of conduct, outline responsibilities
of supervisors, discuss methods of counseling or referring victims,
and address situations where harassment is likely to take place.

4. Selecting the trainer or trainers. Care must be taken in selecting

a trainer who has both expert knowledge of the law and an
understanding of the organizational politics. Many organizations
seek an outside consultant with legal experience in this area.

In addition, the issue of whether the training should be

mandatory or not should be assessed. As a rule, if there is sufficient
evidence for widespread harassment, training should be mandatory.
These steps need to be modified in situations where there is significant
resistance to change. If this is the case, organizations often take a more
direct approach (e.g., zero tolerance) to ensure that this kind of
discrimination is eliminated or at least minimized.

Some organizations advocate zero tolerance, which suggests that

policies dealing with all forms of discrimination will not be accepted. In
this situation, the policies would probably include strong sanctions
against certain kinds of behavior, up to and including dismissal.

Even with a strong policy, however, it is recommended that

training and education be used as a vehicle for communicating the
policy. The long-term effectiveness of these kinds of interventions
depends on the continued commitment of top management.

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Notes
Other Human Resource Management Programs and Processes

Many organizations have extended managing diversity programs

beyond HRD programs and processes by changing human resource
management (HRM) policies and programs to meet the special needs
of the new workforce. Through the development of affirmative action
and “diversity recruitment” programs, many organizations have been
able to develop effective recruitment methods that are more effective in
attracting qualified women and minority candidates. A growing number
of organizations are holding managers formally accountable for diversity
goals, for example, incorporating such goals into their performance
evaluation process.’ Further, the influx of women and minorities into
the workforce has led the organizations to modify some of their HRM
practices to meet the needs of a culturally diverse workforce. For example,
some organizations have devised flexible work schedules and child- care
programs directed at the growing number of working mothers who are
entering or reentering the workforce. IBM, after realizing that 30 percent
of its employees had child-care needs and an equal number had elder-care
responsibilities, revised its child-care program and established a program
for elder care.

Summary

Cultural diversity is defined as the existence of two or more

persons from different cultural groups in any single group or
organization. Managing diversity is a comprehensive managerial process
for developing an environment that works for all employees. Most cross-
cultural awareness training programs deal with raising the awareness of
cultural differences, focusing on ways attitudes are shaped, providing
factual information about each culture and building skills in the areas of
language, nonverbal communication, cultural stress management, and
adjustment adaptation skills. HRD professionals should examine their
organization’s practices in the areas of socialization, orientation, career
development, and sexual and racial harassment.

294
 Notes
Self Assessment Questions

1. What is meant Workforce reduction and realignment

2. Discuss the effects of Mergers and Acquisitions on employee
turnover
3. Explain the approaches of Downsizing
4. Discuss the determinants of employee retention
5. Define bench marking
6. How do you evaluate the cost of HR
7. Discuss the impact globalization on HRD
8. Explain global staffing
9. Explain classification of International employee
10. Explain the functions of HRD in the Global employment?
11. Define cultural diversity
12. Explain the cross cultural education and training programs
13. Explain HRD programs for managing diversity

CASE STUDY

In March 2006, some leading IT services companies in India such

as Wipro Technologies (Wipro) and IBM India dismissed several
employees, when they discovered that the information provided in the
employees’ Curriculum Vitaes (CVs) was false. The companies also
blamed some of the recruitment agencies which had recruited the
dismissed employees, for helping them to fake their CV’s. These charges
and allegations highlighted the growing problem of fake CVs in the Indian
job market. The phenomenon of fake CVs was not just restricted to the
software industry. It was also prevalent in other sectors like ITeS, financial
services, retail etc. It was estimated that Rs 400 crores was spent by Indian
companies for filling 200,000 jobs a year in these sectors and 10-12% of
the selected candidates had submitted false information in their CVs.
However, the extent of falsification was believed to be much higher in the
IT and ITeS sectors as they accounted for 50% of the 200,000 jobs and
were highly attractive to job seekers due to their high salary packages and
other benefits.

The main areas for falsification were work experience, expertise

and skills, educational qualifications, and previous salary packages. It

295
Notes
was reported that in many cases the falsification of the CV’s was done
with active collaboration of recruitment agencies and at times even
with the knowledge and connivance of the company’s recruitment
managers. The boom in the Indian job market had resulted in the
growth of the recruitment industry and it was reported that 1,500 new
recruitment agencies were set up since 2004 to cater to the growing
demand. The issue of fake CVs highlighted concerns regarding the
professional practices and ethics of the recruitment agencies. Industries
which used the services of these agencies were concerned about the
negative perceptions the issue might create with customers based in
foreign countries. They felt that this problem, if unchecked, could negate
India’s status as a favorable destination for outsourcing of software and
BPO services. The Executive Recruiters Association (ERA), the
association of the Indian recruitment industry, expressed its regrets on
this issue and promised strict action against the erring member
agencies.

1. Elucidate the problem in this case

2. State the ethical issues in this case.
3. Should the companies go for direct recruitment or outsource?
4. Suggest suitable methods for improving this situation

CASE STUDY

Automotive Components Limited is a major manufacturer of

automatic filters mostly used in automobiles of various types. It supplies
filters directly to automobile manufacturers in bulk quantity besides
supplying to the market for replacement .On one day two engineers from
a reputed engineering consultant came. They inspected the production
facilities and workshop; they came on the next two days also. During their
visit the atmosphere in the workshop was tense as the engineers made
several enquiries from the foreman of the workshop. Three days after the
last visit of these engineers a notice was put on the notice board asking the
workers to shut off motors and lights during the lunch break.

During the following week a rumor spread that the company

was not able to discharge its contractual commitments because of the
technical defects in the plant .Therefore a big order was likely to be
cancelled resulting into closure of the plant for some time. This period
became quite

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 Notes
distributed both for workers as well as for the foreman .Three workers
made enquires on different occasions from the foreman. About the reasons
for the visits by the outside engineers .In fact one of the workers put a
question” Is there going to be layoff in the plant?” The foreman himself
being ignorant in the matter had little to say. Thus rumors spread
further about the likely layoff and retrenchment .The union leaders
criticized the approach of the management and threatened with strike if
any worker was laid off or retrenched.

On getting this news of lower productivity and threat of strike

the production manager visited the plant and talked to the foreman and
some of the senior workers. One of the office bearers of the union
questioned angrily when some of them were to be thrown out. The
production manager was taken by surprise and asked the foreman what
workers were talking about. The foreman narrated the total situation
right since the visits of outside engineers and notice of conserving
power. He also told about the rumour of cancellation of big order and
consequently retrenchment of some of the workers the production
manager was taken back and could not believe what the foreman was
saying .He asked the foreman “But all this is not true, did you not tell
the workers?” The foreman kept quiet.

Later in the day, the production manager called a meeting of union

office bearers along with some workers. He also invited the foreman to
attend the meeting. In the meeting the production manager informed
about the objectives of the visits of outside engineers. He told that the
engineers were invited to observe the existing machine layout and to draw
plan for installing new equipment.

He explained that notice for putting off motors and lights during
the lunch break was meant to save power as there was shortage of
power and this had nothing to do with the visits of the engineers.
Regarding the cancellation of order, he agreed that one big order was
likely to be cancelled because of some troubles at the buyers’ plant but
the company had secured a much bigger order and that instead of
layoff. There would in fact be more recruitment. But all these could not
convince the workers and after two days the union gave a notice to the
production manager for a one day protest strike.

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Notes
Questions

1. Discuss the reasons for the problem that arise in the company.
2. Advise the production manager as to how he should proceed in
the matter.

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8. Brain S. Klass, “HR OUTSOURCING AND ITS IMPACT: THE

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