4.

Organ Level
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY REVIEWER
 Organ – is composed of two or more tissue types
that together perform one or more common
CHAPTER I: The Human Organism
functions.
1.1 ANATOMY
Example: Stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder,
1. Human Anatomy & Physiology – is the study of the
kidney.
structure and function of the human body.
5. Organ System Level
2. Stimuli (Stimulus) – is a detectable change in the
 Organ System – is a group of organs classified as a
internal or external environment.
unit because of a common function or set of
3. Anatomy – is the scientific discipline that
functions.
investigates the structures of the body. (Anatomy
means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, the parts
(Organ Systems of the body: last page)
of the body for study.)
6. Organism Level

Importance of Anatomy and physiology: Organism – is any living thing considered as a whole,
- Basis of understanding diseases whether composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or a
trillions of cells, such as a human.
- Career in health sciences
- Evaluate recommended treatments
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
- Allows an understanding of how the body works
Six essential characteristics of life:
and respond to stimuli.
1. Organization – refers to the specific relationship of the
many individual parts of an organism, from cell
(Anatomists – an expert in anatomy; a dissector.)
organelles to organs, interacting and working together.
1.2 PHYSIOLOGY 2. Metabolism – is the ability to use energy to perform vital
functions, such as growth, movement, and reproduction.
1. Physiology – is the scientific discipline that deals
with the processes or functions of living things.  Plants, algae, bacteria: Photosynthetic organism can
produce its own nutrients.
2. . Human Physiology – is the study of a specific
 Virus – can’t produce its own nutrients.
organism, the human, whereas cellular physiology
and systemic physiology are subdivisions that
3. Responsiveness – is the ability of an organism to sense
changes in the environment and make the adjustments
emphasize specific organizational levels.
that help maintain its life.
The major goals of studying physiology:
 Adaptation – Processes and structures by which
1. To understand and predict the body’s responses to
organism adjust in short term or long term changes in
stimuli.
their environment. Eg: Sweating & shivering
2. To understand how the body maintains internal
4. Growth – refers to an increase in size of all or part of the
conditions within a narrow range of values in the
organism.
presence of continually changing internal and
5. Development – it includes the changes an organism
external environments.
undergoes through time. (Development usually involves
growth, but it also involves differentiation.)
1.3 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL
6. Reproduction – is the formation of new cells or new
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
organism.

Six structural levels:

1.5 HOMEOSTASIS
1. Chemical Level
1. Homeostasis (homeo/same, stasis/stop) – is the
 Smallest level existence and maintenance of a relatively constant
 Atoms, chemical bond, molecule environment within the body despite fluctuations in either
2. Cell Level the external environment or the internal environment.
 Cell – the basic structural and functional Value of a variable (Our average body temperature is
units of organisms, such as plants and .)
animals.
 Organelles – the small structures that make
up some cells.
 Compartments and organelles
 Examples are: Mitochondria & nucleus
3. Tissue Level
 Tissue – is a group of similar cells and the
materials surrounding them.
 Smooth muscle – non-
striated and involuntary.
 Histology – the study of the microscopic
structure of tissues.
Four broad types: Epithelial, Connective,
Muscular, Nervous.
 The abdomen is often subdivided superficially into four
1.6 TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN sections, or quadrants, by two imaginary lines.
1. Anatomical position – refers to a person standing 1. Right upper quadrant
upright with the face directed forward, the upper limbs 2. Left upper quadrant
hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing 3. Right lower quadrant
forward. 4. Left lower quadran
2. Supine – when lying face upward.
3. Prone – when lying face downward. In addition to these quadrants, the abdomen is sometimes
4. Right & Left – are used as directional terms in in subdivided into regions by four imaginary lines, like a tic-tac-
anatomical terminology. toe resulting in 9 regions.
5. Etymology – is the study of the origin of words and 1. Right hypochondriac region
the way in which their meanings have changed 2. Epigastric region
throughout history. 3. Left hypochondriac region
4. Right Lumbar region
6. Superior (Ety/Higher) – in anatomy this term is used for
5. Umbilical region
above or up, also called cephalic.
7. Inferior (Ety/Lower) – in anatomy this term is used for 6. Left Lumbar region
below or down, also called caudal. 7. Right iliac region
8. Anterior (Ety/to go before) – is used for front, also 8. Hypogastric region
called ventral. 9. Left iliac region
9. Posterior (Ety/Posterus, following) – is used for back,
Four planes that is used to observe the body’s structure.
also called dorsal.
(Imaginary flat surfaces.):
10. Ventral (Ety/Venter, belly) – Pertaining to the front or
1. Sagittal plane – it runs vertically through the body and
anterior of any structure. The ventral surfaces of the body
separates it into right and left parts.
include the chest, abdomen, shins, palms, and soles.
2. Median plane – is a sagittal plane that passes through
11. Dorsal (Ety/Dorsum, back) – it means “back” thus,
the middle of the body, dividing it into equal right and
Nearer to or at the back of the body.
left halves.
12. Proximal (Ety/Proximus, nearest) means nearest,
3. Transverse plane or horizontal plane or cross- sectional
whereas Distal means distant. These term are used to refer
– it runs parallel to the surface of the ground, dividing
to linear structures and the other end is farther away.
the body into superior and inferior parts.
13. Medial (Ety/Medialis, middle) - means toward the
4. Frontal plane or coronal plane – it runs vertically from
midline.
right to left and divides the body into anterior and
14. Lateral (Ety/Latus, side) - means away from the
posterior parts.
midline.
15. Superficial (Ety/Superficialist, surface) – refers to a
structure close to the surface of the body.
16. Deep (Ety/Deop, deep) – is toward the interior of the
body.

Caudal - at or near the tail or the posterior part of the body.

Cephalic - Relating to the head or the head end of the body.

Situated on, in, or near the head.

The central region of the body consists of:

1. Head
2. Neck
3. Trunk
- Thorax (Chest)
- Abdomen (Belly)
- Pelvis (Hips)
 Upper Limb
- Arm – extends from the shoulder to the elbow.
- Forearm – extends from the elbow to the wrist.
- Wrist
- Hand
 Lower Limb
- Thigh – extends from the hip to the knee.
- Leg – extends from the knee to the knee.
- Ankle
- Foot
The three large cavities in the trunk that is not open to the
outside of the body:
1. Thoracic cavity – is surrounded by the rib cage and its
separated from the abdominal cavity by the muscular
diaphragm
 Mediastinum – is a section that houses the heart, the
thymus, the trachea, the esophagus, the blood
vessel, and other structures.
2. Abdominal cavity – is bounded primarily by the
abdominal muscles and contains the stomach, the
intestines, the liver, the spleen, the pancreas, and the
kidneys.
3. Pelvic cavity – is a small space enclosed by the bones
of the pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, part of
the large intestine, and the internal reproductive
organs.
 Abdominopelvic cavity – is a cavity that consists of
the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity.

17. Serous membrane or serosal membrane – is a thin

membrane that lines the internal body cavities and
organs such as the heart, lungs, and abdominal cavity, it
also reduces friction.
 Visceral serous membrane – inner layer or covers
the organ.
 Parietal serous membrane – outer layer
 Cavity – a fluid-filled space between the
membranes.

The thoracic cavity contains three major serous

membrane-lined cavities:
1. Pericardial cavity – surrounds the heart
 Visceral pericardium – covers the heart
 Parietal pericardium – forms the outer layer of the
sac around the heart.
 Pericardial fluid – the fluid filling the pericardial
cavity.
- Pericardiocentisis - is a procedure where fluid is
aspirated from the pericardium.
2 & 3. Pleural cavity – it surrounds each lung.
 Visceral pleura - it covers both lungs.
 Parietal pleura – lines the inner surface of the
thoracic wall, the lateral surfaces of the
mediastinum, and the superior surface of the
diaphragm.
 Pleural cavity – is located between the visceral
pleura and the parietal pleura and contains pleural
fluid.
- Pleuracentisis - the perforation of a cavity of the
body or of a cyst or similar outgrowth,
especially with a hollow needle to remove fluid
or gas.
CHAPTER 2: The Chemical Basis of Life CHAPTER 3: Cell Structure and their Functions
2.1 BASIC CHEMISTRY 3.1 CELL STRUCTURE
1. Chemistry – is the scientific discipline concerned 1. Cell – is the basic living unit of all organism.
with the atomic composition and structure of 2. Organelles – small organs that specialized structures within
substances and the reactions they undergo. a cell.
3. Cytoplasm – the living material surrounding the nucleus.
Matter, Mass, and Weight:
1. Matter – is anything that occupies space and has mass. 3.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
2. Mass – is the amount of matter in an object. Four important functions performed by our body cell:
3. Weight – is the gravitational force acting on an object of 1. Cell metabolism and energy use
a given mass. 2. Synthesis of molecules
4. Kilogram (kg) – the international unit for mass. 3. Communication
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
Elements and Atoms:
1. Element – is the simplest type of matter having 3.3 CELL MEMBRANE
unique chemical properties. It also composed of atoms 1. Cell membrane (plasma membrane) – is the outermost
of only one kind. Example: Carbon – Carbon atoms component of a cell, it encloses the cytoplasm and forms the
Oxygen – oxygen atoms boundary between material inside the cell and material
outside it.
(Note: About 96% of the body’s weight results from the
elements oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen.)
Cell membrane is made of; two major types of molecule:
2. Atom – is the smallest particle of an element that has 1. Extracellular – substances outside the cell.
the chemical characteristics of that element. It also 2. Intracellular – substances inside the cell.
contains protons, electrons, and neutrons.  Fluid-mosaic model - explains various observations
(The nucleus accounts for 99.97% of an atom’s mass, but regarding the structure of functional cell membranes.
only 1-tentrillionth of its volume.) According to this model, there is a lipid bilayer in which
3. Proton – positively charged particle located inside the the protein molecules are embedded.
nucleus.  Membrane channels - a family of biological membrane
4. Neutron - neutral charged particle located in the proteins which allow the passive movement of ions,
nucleus. water or other solutes to passively pass through the
5. Electron – negative charged particle located outside membrane down their electrochemical gradient.
the nucleus.  Receptor molecules - are part of an intercellular
6. Electron cloud – is an informal term in physics. It is communication system that enables cell recognition and
used to describe where electrons are when they go coordination of the activities of cells.
around the nucleus of an atom.
7. Atomic number – is the unique number of protons in
each atom of an element.
8. Mass number – is the number of protons and neutrons.

Molecules and Compounds:

1. Molecule – is formed when two or more atoms
chemically combined to form a structure that
behaves as an independent unit.
2. Compound – is a substance resulting from the
chemical combination of two or more different types
of atoms.

Dissociation:
1. Dissociate –
(with reference to a molecule) to split into separate
smaller atoms, ions, or molecules, especially
reversibly.
2. Electrolytes – is a substance that produces an
electrically conducting solution when dissolved in a
polar solvent, such as water. The dissolved
electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which
disperse uniformly through the solvent.
 3.4 MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL concentration to an area of lower concentration of that
MEMBRANE substance.
(Note: cell membrane is selectively permeable) 15. Active transport - is a carrier-mediated process that
1. Solution - is generally composed of one or more moves substances across the cell membrane from regions
substances, called solutes, dissolved in the of lower concentration to those of higher concentration
predominant liquid or gas, which is called the against a concentration gradient. (Includes: Diffusion,
solvent. Osmosis, and Facilitated diffusion.)
16. Passive transport - is a movement of ions and other
2. Solutes – (Water) the minor component in a
atomic or molecular substances across cell membranes
solution, dissolved in the solvent.
without need of energy input. (Includes: Active transport,
3. Solvent – (Atom) is a substance that dissolves a
Secondary active transport, Endocytosis, and Exocytosis.)
solute, resulting in a solution.
17. Secondary active transport - involves the active transport
4. Diffusion - is the net movement of molecules or
of one substance, such as Na+, across the cell membrane,
atoms from a region of high concentration to a
establishing a concentration gradient.
region of low concentration as a result of random
motion of the molecules or atoms.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis:
5. Concentration gradient - is the difference in the
18. Endocytosis - is the uptake of material through the cell
concentration of a solute in a solvent between two
membrane by the formation of a vesicle
points divided by the distance between the two
19. Receptor-mediated endocytosis - also called clathrin-
points. Is said to be steeper when the concentration
mediated endocytosis, is a process by which cells absorb
difference is large and/or the distance is small.
metabolites, hormones, proteins and in some cases
6. Leak Channels - allow Na+ and K+ to move across the
viruses by the inward budding of the plasma membrane
cell membrane down their gradients (from a high
(invagination).
concentration toward a lower concentration). With
the combined ion pumping and leakage of ions, the 20. Phagocytosis (cell-eating) - is often used for endocytosis
cell can maintain a stable resting membrane when solid particles are ingested. A part of the cell
potential. membrane extends around a particle and fuses so that
the particle is surrounded by the membrane.
7. Gate channels - limit the movement of ions across
the membrane by opening and closing.
21. Pinocytosis (cell-drinking) - is distinguished from
Osmosis: phagocytosis in that much smaller vesicles are formed,
8. Osmosis – is the diffusion of water (a solvent) and they contain liquid rather than particles.
across a selectively permeable membrane, such as 22. Exocytosis - is a form of active transport and bulk
the cell membrane, from a region of higher water transport in which a cell transports molecules out of the
concentration to one of lower water cell by expelling them through an energy-dependent
concentration. process.
9. Lysis - refers to the breaking down of the
membrane of a cell, often by viral, enzymic, or
osmotic mechanisms that compromise its
integrity. A fluid containing the contents of lysed
cells is called a lysate.
10. Isotonic - it has the same concentration of solutes
as another solution across a semipermeable
membrane.
11. Hypertonic - usually has a higher
concentration of solutes and a lower
concentration of water relative to the cytoplasm of
the cell. Water moves by osmosis from the cell into
the hypertonic solution, resulting in cell shrinkage
12. Crenation - is the contraction of a cell after exposure
to a hypertonic solution, due to the loss of water
through osmosis.

Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanism:

13. Carrier molecules - are usually proteins bound to a
nonprotein group; they can undergo oxidation and
reduction relatively easily, thus allowing electrons
to flow through the system. There are four types of
carrier: flavoproteins (e.g. FAD), cytochromes, iron–
sulphur proteins (e.g. ferredoxin), and ubiquinone.
14. Facilitated diffusion - is a carrier-mediated
transport process that moves substances across the
cell membrane from an area of higher
3.5 ORGANELLES cell, hold organelles in place, and enable the cell to change
1. Nucleus - contains genetic material of cell (DNA) shape.
and nucleoli; site of RNA synthesis and ribosomal  Microtubule - supports cytoplasm; assists in cell division
subunit assembly, located near the center of the and forms components of cilia and flagella.
cell.  Intermediate filaments - are fibrils formed from protein
 Nuclear envelope - also known as the nuclear sub- units that are smaller in diameter than microtubules
membrane, is made up of two lipid bilayer but larger in diameter than microfilaments.
membranes which surrounds the nucleus, and in 9. Centrioles - facilitate the movement of chromosomes
eukaryotic cells it encases the genetic material. during cell division.
 Nuclear pores - complexes allow the transport of  Centrosome - is a specialized zone of cytoplasm close to
molecules across the nuclear envelope. the nucleus, where microtubule formation occurs. It
 Chromosomes - are thread-like structures in contains two centrioles, which are normally oriented
which DNA is tightly packaged within the perpendicular to each other.
nucleus. DNA is coiled around proteins called 10. Cilia - move substances over surfaces of certain cells and
histones, which provide the structural support. project from the surface of cells.
 Chromatin - is a complex of DNA and proteins 11. Flagella - have a structure similar to that of cilia but are
that forms chromosomes within the nucleus of much longer, and they usually occur only one per cell. It
eukaryotic cells. propel sperm cells.
 Nucleoli (sing. nucleolus, little nucleus) - are 12. Microvilli - are specialized extensions of the cell membrane
diffuse bodies with no surrounding membrane that are supported by microfilaments and increase surface
that are found within the nucleus. area of certain cells.
 Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) - molecule in
cells that forms part of the protein-synthesizing
organelle known as a ribosome and that is
exported to the cytoplasm to help translate the
information in messenger RNA (mRNA) into
protein.
2. Ribosome – it is where protein is synthesizing.
3. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of
membranes forming sacs and tubules that
extends from the outer nuclear membrane into
the cytoplasm.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum - has many
ribosomes attached; site of protein synthesis
(rough ER).
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - site of
lipid synthesis; sex hormones
participates in detoxification (smooth
ER).
4. Golgi apparatus – BANK/STORAGE of Protiens
modifies protein structure and packages proteins in
secretory vesicles.
5. Secretory vesicle - contains materials produced in
the cell; formed by the Golgi apparatus; secreted by
exocytosis then transport it.
6. Lysosome – BREAKDOWN OLD CELL are membrane-
bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus.
They contain a variety of enzymes that function as
intracellular digestive systems.
 Peroxisomes - are small, membrane-bound vesicles
containing enzymes that break down fatty acids,
amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide.
7. Mitochondrion – MERALCO or POWERHOUSE of the
CELL. Site mosaic of aerobic respiration and the
major site of ATP synthesis.
 Cristae - is a fold in the inner membrane of a
mitochondrion. The name is from the Latin for crest
or plume, and it gives the inner membrane its
characteristic wrinkled shape, providing a large
amount of surface area for chemical reactions to
occur on.
8. Cytoskeleton - consists of proteins that support the
3.6 WHOLE-CELL ACTIVITY
Gene Expression & Transcription:
1. Gene expression - is the process by which
information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a
functional gene product.
2. Gene - is a sequence of nucleotides (making a word)
that provides a chemical set of instructions for
making a specific protein. Each DNA molecule
contains many different genes.
3. Transcription - is the first step of gene expression,
in which a particular segment of DNA is copied into
RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase. Both DNA
and RNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of
nucleotides as a complementary language.
 Codons - is a sequence of three DNA or RNA
nucleotides that corresponds with a specific amino
acid or stop signal during protein synthesis. DNA
and RNA molecules are written in a language of four
nucleotides; meanwhile, the language of proteins
includes 20 amino acids.
4. Translation - is the process in which ribosomes in
the cytoplasm or ER synthesize proteins after the
process of transcription of DNA to RNA in the cell's
nucleus.
 Anticodon - is a sequence of three bases that are
complementary to a codon in the messenger RNA.
During translation, the bases of the anticodon form
complementary base pairs witht the bases of the
codon by forming the appropriate hydrogen bonds.
 Peptide bond - is an amide type of covalent chemical
bond linking two consecutive alpha- amino acids
from C1 of one alpha-amino acid and N2 of another
along a peptide or protein chain.
 Polypeptide chain - is a single linear chain of many
amino acids, held together by amide bonds. A
protein consists of one or more polypeptides (more
than about 50 amino acids long). An oligopeptide
consists of only a few amino acids (between two and
twenty).
5. Messenger RNA - is the single-stranded
intermediate molecule that transfers the genetic
information from DNA in the nucleus to the
cytoplasm, where it serves as a template in the
formation of polypeptides.
6. Transfer RNAs - is a type of RNA molecule that helps
decode a messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence into a
protein. tRNAs function at specific sites in the
ribosome during translation, which is a process that
synthesizes a protein from an mRNA molecule.
Cell Cycle:  Centromere - is the specialized DNA sequence of a
1. Interphase - is the phase of the cell cycle in which a chromosome that links a
typical cell spends most of its life. During this phase, pair of sister chromatids. During mitosis, spindle fibers
the cell copies its DNA in preparation for mitosis. attach to the centromere via the kinetochore.
2. Cell division - is the formation of daughter cells from a 2. Metaphase - the chromosomes align in the center of the
single parent cell. cell in association with the spindle fibers.
3. Diploid - Having two sets of chromosomes or double 3. Anaphase - the chromatids separate to form two sets of
the haploid number of chromosomes in the germ cell, identical chromosomes. The chromosomes, assisted by
with one member of each chromosome pair derived the spindle fibers, move toward the centrioles at each
from the ovum and one from the spermatozoon. The end of the cell. The cytoplasm begins to divide.
diploid number, 46 in humans, is the normal 4. Telophase - the chromosomes disperse, the nuclear
chromosome complement of an organism's somatic envelopes and the nucleoli form, and the cytoplasm
cells. continues to divide to form two cells.
4. Haploid describes a cell that contains a single set of (Note: Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins.
chromosomes. The term haploid can also refer to the The chromosomes have unraveled to become chromatin.
number of chromosomes in egg or sperm cells, which Cell division has produced two daughter cells, each with
are also called gametes. In humans, gametes are DNA that is identical to the DNA of the parent cell.)
haploid cells that contain 23 chromosomes, each of
which a one of a chromosome pair that exists in 7. Differentiation - The process by which cells develop with
diploid cells. specialized structures and functions.
8. Apoptosis - is a form of programmed cell death that occurs
(Note: Of the 23 pairs, 1 pair is the sex chromosomes, in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to
which consist of 2 X chromosomes if the person is a female characteristic cell changes and death.
or an X chromosome and a Y chromosome if the person is
a male. The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called
autosomes.)

5. Autosomes - are homologous pairs, which transfer

genetic information from the parents to the offspring.
Each pair of chromosome contains all the genes that
are responsible for the existence of the life.
6. Mitosis - is a process where a single cell divides into
two identical daughter cells (cell division). During
mitosis one cell? divides once to form two identical
cells. The major purpose of mitosis is for growth and
to replace worn out cells.
Mitosis is divided into four stages:
1. Prophase - the chromatin condenses into
chromosomes. Each chromosome consists of two
chromatids joined at the centromere. The
centrioles move to the opposite ends of the cell,
and the nucleolus and the nuclear envelope
disappear.
 Chromatid - is one of two identical halves of a
replicated chromosome. The chromosome
consists of two identical structures called sister
chromatids, which are joined at the centromere.
 3. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium – is special type
CHAPTER 4: Tissues of simple epithelium, it
4.1 TISSEUS AND HISTOLOGY consists of one layer of cells, with all the cells attached to
1. Tissue – is a group of cells with similar structure and the basement membrane.
function that have similar extracellular substances (Note: “Pseudo” means false, so this type of epithelium
located between them. appears to be stratified but is not.)
2. Histology – is the study of the microanatomy of cells,
tissues, and organs as seen through a microscope. Three types of epithelium based on shapes:
1. Squamous (w>h) – cells are flat or scale like.
The four basic tissue types are: 2. Cuboidal (w=h) – cells are cube-shaped about as wide as
they are tall.
4.2 EPITHELIAL TISSUE 3. Columnar (w<h) – cells tend to be taller than they are
1. Epithelium or Epithelial Tissue – a covering or lining wide.
tissue and protects surfaces, both outside and inside the
body. (Note: In most cases, an epithelium is given two names. The
(Note: Included under he classification of epithelial tissue first name indicates the number of layers, and the second
are the exocrine and endocrine glands.) indicates the shape of the cells at the free surface.)
Characteristics: Major types:
1. Mostly composed of cells. 1. Simple Squamous Epithelium - is a single layer of thin,
2. Covers body surfaces. flat cells. Some substances easily pass through this thin
3. Distinct cell surfaces. layer cells, but other substances do not.
4. Cell and matrix connections. Structure: Single layer of flat, often hexagonal cells; the
5. Nonvascular. nuclei appear as bumps when viewed in cross section
6. Capable of regeneration. because the cells are so flat.
Functions: Function: Diffusion, filtration, some secretion, and some
1. Protecting underlying structures. protection against friction.
2. Acting as a barrier. Location: Lining of blood vessels and the heart, lymphatic
3. Permitting the passage of substances. vessels, alveoli of the lungs, portions of the kidney
tubules, lining of serous membranes of body cavities
4. Secreting substances.
(pleural, pericardial, peritoneal).
5. Absorbing substances.
2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium – is a single layer of cube like
Classification of Epithelia: cells that carry out active transport, facilitated diffusion
(Note: Epithelial tissues are classified primarily according cell, or secretion. They also have greater secretory
to the number of cell layers and the shape of the capacity than simple squamous epithelial cells.
superficial cells.) Structure: Single layer of cube-shaped cells; some cells
have microvilli (kidney tubules) or cilia (terminal
Three major types base on the number of cell layers in bronchioles of the lungs).
each: Function: Secretion and absorption by cells of the kidney
1. Simple Epithelium – consists of single layer of cells, tubules; secretion by cells of glands and choroid
with each cell extending from the basement plexuses; movement of particles embedded in mucus out
membrane to the free surface. of the terminal bronchioles by ciliated cells.
(Note: often lines the lumen of ducts, vessels, and Location: Kidney tubules, glands and their ducts, choroid
cavities.) plexuses of the brain, lining of terminal bronchioles of
2. Stratified Epithelium – consists of more than one layer the lungs, and surfaces of the ovaries.
of cells, but only the basal layer attaches the deepest 3. Simple Columnar Epithelium – is a single layer of tall, thin
layer to the basement membrane. cell. The large size of these cells enables them to perform
complex functions, such as secretion.
 Structure: Single layer of tall, narrow cells; some cells glands. Consists of more than one layer of cuboidal
have cilia (bronchioles of lungs, auditory tubes, epithelial cells.
uterine tubes, and uterus) or microvilli (intestines). Structure: might be square, round and hexagonal in
Function: Movement of particles out of the shape. They have equal dimensions on all sides. When
bronchioles of the lungs by ciliated cells; partially a cross section of it is viewed under the microscope, t
responsible for the movement of oocytes through the usually appears as a double or triple layer of round, flat
uterine tubes by ciliated cells; secretion by cells of the cells packed together.
glands, the stomach, and the intestine; absorption by Function: it’s primarily function includes protection,
cells of the intestine. support, secretion, and absorption. Its function also
Location: Glands and some ducts, bronchioles includes sweat secretion, riding in sperm production
of lungs, auditory tubes, uterus, uterine tubes, and secretion of ovarian hormones.
stomach, intestines, gallbladder, bile ducts, and Location: Sweat glands and ducts; egg producing
ventricles of the brain. vesicles, or follicles, of the ovaries; and sperm
4. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium - secretes producing ducts, or seminiferous tubules, of the testis,
mucus, which covers its free surface. Structure: Single and the salivary glands.
layer of cells; some cells are tall and thin and reach the 7. Stratified Columnar Epithelium – consists of more
free surface, and others do not; the nuclei of these cells than one layer of epithelial cells, but only the surface
are at different levels and appear stratified; the cells cells are columnar. Structure: in simple terms, the
are almost always ciliated and are associated with upper and lowermost layer of cells are columnar in
goblet cells that secrete mucus onto the free surface. shape. The middle layer contains cuboidal cells.
Function: Synthesize and secrete mucus onto the free Function: Secretion and protection.
surface and move mucus (or fluid) that contains Location: conjunctiva of the eye, in parts of the
foreign particles over the surface of the free surface pharynx, anus, the uterus, and the male urethra and
and from passages. Location: Lining of nasal cavity, vas deferens. It is also found in the lobar ducts in
nasal sinuses, auditory tubes, pharynx, trachea, and salivary glands.
bronchi of lungs. 8. Transitional Epithelium - is a special type of stratified
5. Stratified Squamous Epithelium – forms a thick epithe- lium that can be greatly stretched.
epithelium because it consists of several layers of cells. Structure: Stratified cells that appear cuboidal when
Structure: Several layers of cells that are cuboidal in the organ or tube is not stretched and squamous when
the basal layer and progressively flattened toward the the organ or tube is stretched by fluid.
surface; the epithelium can be nonkeratinized (moist) Function: Accommodates fluctuations in the volume of
or keratinized; in nonkeratinized stratified squamous fluid in an organ or a tube; protects against the caustic
epithelium, the surface cells retain a nucleus and effects of urine.
cytoplasm; in keratinized stratified epithelium, the Location: Lining of urinary bladder, ureters, and
cytoplasm of cells at the surface is replaced by a superior urethra.
protein called keratin, and the cells are dead. (Note: Urothelium (or uroepithelium) - is an example of
Function: Protects against abrasion, forms a barrier transitional epithelium. It is the type of epithelium that
against infection, and reduces loss of water from the lines much of the urinary tract including the renal pelvis, the
body. ureters, the bladder, and parts of the urethra.)
Location: Keratinized - outer layer of the skin;
nonkeratinized - mouth, throat, larynx, esophagus, Structural and Functional Relationships:
anus, vagina, inferior urethra, and corneas. 1. Free Surfaces – most epithelia have this that is not in
6. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium – is relatively rare and is contact with other cells and faces away from underlying
found in sweat gland ducts, ovarian follicular cells, and tissues.
the salivary 2. Microvilli - are cylindrical extensions of the cell
membrane that increase the free surface area.
3. Cilia - propel materials along the free surface of cells. 2. Apocrine secretion – involves the release of secretory
4. Goblet cells - specialized mucus-producing cells. products as pinched-off fragments of the gland cells.
3. Holocrine secretion – involves the shedding of the entire
(Note: Cells have structures that holds one cell to one cells.
another or to the basement membrane.) Three structures
functions: 4.3 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. Mechanically bind the cells together. 1. Connective Tissue – is a diverse primary tissue type that
2. Help form a permeability barrier. makes up part of every organ in the body. It is also
3. Provide a mechanism for intercellular comprised of cells, protein fiber, and an extracellular
communication. matrix.
Functions:
5. Desmosomes - are mechanical links that bind cells 1. Enclosing and separating other tissues.
together. 2. Connecting tissues to one another.
6. Hemidesmosomes – are half desmosomes that anchor 3. Supporting and moving parts of the body.
cells to the basement membrane. 4. Storing compounds.
7. Tight junctions - bind adjacent cells together and form 5. Cushioning and insulating.
permeability barriers. It prevents the passage of 6. Transporting.
materials between epithelial cells because they 7. Protecting.
completely surround each cell, similar to the way a belt
surrounds the waist. Cells of Connective Tissue:
8. Gap junctions - are small channels that allow small (Note: The name of the cell identifies the cell functions by
molecules and ions to pass from one epithelial cell to means of one of the following suffixes: -blast, -cyte, or –
an adjacent one. clast.)
 Blast – create the matrix.
Glands:  Cytes – maintain it.
1. Gland – are composed primarily of epithelium, with a  Clast – break it down.
supporting network of connective tissue and it is a (Note: Osteoblasts from bone, Osteocytes maintain it,
secretory organ that secretes substances onto a Osteoclasts break it down. Fibroblasts are cells that form
surface, into a cavity, or into the blood. fibrous connective tissue, and Fibrocytes maintain it.
2. Exocrine Glands - Glands with ducts. Chondroblasts from cartilage, Chondrocytes maintain it.)
3. Simple glands - with ducts that have no branches.
4. Compound glands - with ducts that have many 2. Macrophages - are large white blood cells that are
branches. capable of moving about and ingesting foreign
5. Endocrine Glands – these are some glands become substances, including microorganisms, in the connective
separated from the epithelium of their origin and have tissue.
no ducts (Note: the cellular products of endocrine 3. Mast cells - are nonmotile cells that release chemicals,
glands, which are called Hormones.) such as histamine, that promote inflammation.
 Tubular – glands with secretory regions shaped as
tubules (small tubes). Extracellular Matrix:
 Acinar or Alveolar – shaped in saclike structures. 1. Ground substance – consists of nonfibrous molecule
and it is the shapeless background against which cells
(Note: Exocrine glands can also be classified according to and collagen fibers can be seen when using a light
how products leave the cell.) Common types of secretion: microscope.
1. Merocrine Secretion – is used by water producing  Proteoglycans – are large molecules that consist of
sweat glands and the exocrine portion od the pancreas. a protein core attached to many long
It also involves the release of secretory products by polysaccharides and resemble the limbs of pine
exocytosis. trees, with proteins forming the branches and
polysaccharides forming the pine needles.
2. Protein Fibers
3. Collagen Fibers - which resemble microscopic ropes, Location: Widely distributed throughout the body;
are flexible but resist stretching. substance on which epithelial basement membranes
4. Reticular Fibers - are very fine, short collagen fibers that rest; packing between
branch to form a supporting network. glands, muscles, and nerves; attaches the skin to
underlying tissues
5. Elastic Fibers - have a structure similar to that of coiled
metal bed springs; after being stretched, they can  Adipose Tissue - consists of adipocytes, or fat cells, which
recoil to their original shape. contain large amounts of lipid for energy storage. Unlike
6. Matrix Ground Substance – the ground substance that other connective tissue types, adipose tissue is
consist of non-fibrous molecules and shapeless. composed of large cells and a small amount of
extracellular matrix, which consists of loosely arranged
(Note: The two main types of connective tissue are collagen and reticular fibers with some scattered elastic
embryonic and adult connective tissue.) fibers.
Structure: Little extracellular matrix surrounding cells;
Classification of Connective Tissue: the adipocytes, or fat cells, are so full of lipid that the
cytoplasm is pushed to the periphery of the cell.
Function: Packing material, thermal insulator, energy
storage, and protection of organs against injury from
being bumped or jarred.
Location: Predominantly in subcutaneous areas,
mesenteries, renal pxelves, around kidneys, attached to
the surface of the colon, mammary glands, and in loose
connective tissue that penetrates into spaces and
crevices.
 Reticular Tissue - forms the framework of lymphatic
tissue, such as in the spleen and lymph nodes, as well as
in bone marrow and the liver.
Structure: Fine network of reticular fibers irregularly
arranged.
Function: Provides a superstructure for
lymphatic and hemopoietic tissues.
Location: Within the lymph nodes, spleen, bone
marrow.
2. Dense Connective Tissue - has a relatively large number
of protein fibers that form thick bundles and fill nearly
1. Loose Connective Tissue - consists of relatively few all of the extracellular space. There are two major
protein fibers that form a lacy network, with numerous subcategories of dense connective tissue:
spaces filled with ground substance and fluid. Three  Dense Regular Collagenous Connective Tissue
subdivisions of loose connective tissue are: - has an extracellular matrix consisting mostly of
 Areolar Connective Tissue - has extracellular matrix collagen fibers.
consisting mostly of collagen fibers and a few elastic Structure: Matrix composed of collagen fibers running in
fibers. somewhat the same direction in tendons and ligaments;
Structure: A fine network of fibers (mostly collagen collagen fibers run in several directions in the dermis of
fibers with a few elastic fibers) with spaces between the skin and in organ capsules.
the fibers; fibroblasts, macrophages, and lymphocytes Function: Withstand great pulling forces exerted in the
are located in the spaces. direction of fiber orientation due to great tensile
Function: Loose packing, support, and nourishment for strength and stretch resistance.
the structures with which it is associated. Location: Tendons (attach muscle to bone) and ligaments
(attach bones to each other); also
 found in the dermis of the skin, organ capsules, and the  Fibrocartilage - has more collagen than does hyaline
outer layer of many blood vessels cartilage, and bundles of collagen fibers can be seen in
 Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue - has abundant the matrix.
elastic fibers among its collagen fibers. Structure: Collagen fibers similar to those in hyaline
Structure: Matrix composed of collagen fibers and cartilage; the fibers are more numerous than in other
elastin fibers running in somewhat the same direction cartilages and are arranged in thick bundles.
in elastic ligaments; elastic fibers run in connective Function: Somewhat flexible and capable of
tissue of blood vessel walls. withstanding considerable pressure; connects structures
Function: Capable of stretching and recoiling like a subjected to great pressure.
rubber band with strength in the direction of fiber Location: Intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis, and
orientation. articular disks (e.g., knees and temporomandibular.
Location: Elastic ligaments between the vertebrae and  Elastic cartilage - contains elastic fibers in addition to
along the dorsal aspect of the neck (nucha) and in the collagen and proteoglycans. The elastic fibers appear as
vocal cords; also found in elastic connective tissue of coiled fibers among bundles of collagen fibers. Elastic
blood vessel walls. cartilage is able to recoil to its original shape when bent.
3. Cartilage - is composed of chondrocytes, or cartilage The external ear, epiglottis, and auditory tube contain
cells, located in spaces called lacunae within an elastic cartilage.
extensive matrix. Structure: Similar to hyaline cartilage, but matrix also
contains elastin fibers.
(Note: Collagen in the matrix gives cartilage flexibility and Function: Provides rigidity with even more flexibility
strength. Cartilage is resilient because the proteoglycans of than hyaline cartilage because elastic fibers return to
the matrix trap water, which makes the cartilage relatively their original shape after being stretched.
rigid and enables it to spring back after being compressed. Location: External ears, epiglottis, and auditory tubes.
Cartilage provides support, but if bent or slightly 4. Bone - is a hard connective tissue that consists of living
compressed, it resumes its original shape. Cartilage heals cells and a mineralized matrix. Osteocytes (osteo, bone),
slowly after an injury because blood vessels do not or bone cells, are located within lacunae. The two types
penetrate it.) of bone are:
 Spongy Bone – has spaces between trabeculae, or plates,
There are three types of cartilage: of bone and therefore resembles a sponge.
 Hyaline cartilage - is the most abundant type of  Compact Bone – is more solid, with almost no space
cartilage and has many functions. It covers the ends of between many thin layers of mineralized matrix.
bones where they come together to form joints. Structure: Hard, bony matrix predominates; many
Structure: Collagen fibers are small and evenly osteocytes (not seen in this bone preparation) are
dispersed in the matrix, making the matrix appear located within lacunae; the matrix is organized into
transparent; the chondrocytes are found in spaces, or layers called lamellae. Function: Provides great strength
lacunae, within the firm but flexible matrix. and support and protects internal organs, such as the
Function: Allows growth of long bones; provides brain; bone also provides attachment sites for muscles
rigidity with some flexibility in the trachea, bronchi, and ligaments; the joints of bones allow movements.
ribs, and nose; forms strong, smooth, yet somewhat Location: All bones of the body.
flexible articulating surfaces; forms the embryonic 5. Blood - is unique because the matrix is liquid, enabling
skeleton. blood cells to move through blood vessels. Some blood
Location: Tendons (attach muscle to bone) and cells even leave the blood and wander into other tissues.
ligaments (attach bones to each other); also found in Structure: Blood cells and a fluid matrix.
the dermis of the skin, organ capsules, and the outer
layer of many blood vessels.
 Function: Transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, 1. Nervous tissue - forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
hormones, nutrients, waste products, and other It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many
substances; protects the body from infections and is body activities. Structure: A neuron consists of
involved in temperature regulation. dendrites, a cell body, and a long axon; neuroglia, or
Location: Within the blood vessels; white blood cells support cells, surround the neurons.
frequently leave the blood vessels and enter the Function: Neurons transmit information in the form of
interstitial spaces. action potentials, store information, and integrate and
evaluate data; neuroglia support, protect, and form
5.4 MUSCLE TISSUE specialized sheaths around axons.
1. Muscle Tissue - main characteristic is its ability to Location: In the brain, spinal cord, and ganglia.
contract, or shorten, making movement possible.  Action potentials - the ability of nervous tissue cells to
Muscle contraction results from contractile proteins communicate with one another and with the cells of
located within the muscle cells. other tissues by means of electrical signals.
 Neuron (nerve cell) - is responsible for conducting
(Note: Muscle cells are sometimes called muscle fibers action potentials. It is composed of three parts:
because they often resemble tiny threads. They are often - Cell Body - contains the nucleus and is the site of
branched and connected to one another by intercalated general cell functions.
disks. The intercalated disks, which contain specialized gap - Dendrites & Axons - are nerve cell processes
junctions, are important in coordinating the contractions of (extensions). Dendrites usually receive stimuli
the cardiac muscle cells.) leading to electrical changes that either increase or
decrease action potentials in the neuron’s axon.
The three types of muscle tissue are:
1. Neuroglia - are the support cells of the nervous system;
 Skeletal Muscle - is what we normally think of as they nourish, protect, and insulate the neurons.
“muscle”. It is the meat of animals and constitutes
about 40% of a person’s body weight. As the name 5.6 TISSUE MEMBERS
implies, skeletal muscle attaches to the skeleton and 1. Tissue Membrane - is a thin sheet or layer of tissue that
enables the body to move. Skeletal muscle is described covers a structure or lines a cavity. Most membranes
as voluntary (under conscious control) because a consist of epithelium and the connective tissue on which
person can purposefully cause skeletal muscle the epithelium rests.
contraction to achieve specific body movements.
There are four tissue membranes in the body:
Structure: Skeletal muscle cells or fibers appear
1. Skin or Cutaneous Membrane - is the external membrane.
striated (banded); cells are large, long, and cylindrical,
It is composed of stratified squamous epithelium and dense
with many nuclei.
connective tissue.
Function: Movement of the body; under voluntary
control.
Three major categories of internal membranes are:
Location: Attached to bone or other connective tissue.
2. Mucous membranes - consist of various kinds of epithelium
 Cardiac Muscle - is the muscle of the heart; it is
resting on a thick layer of loose connective tissue. They line
responsible for pumping blood. Cardiac muscle is
cavities that open to the outside of the body, such as the
under involuntary (unconscious) control, although a
digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts. Many, but
person can learn to influence the heart rate by using
not all, mucous membranes secrete mucus. The functions
techniques such as meditation and biofeedback.
of mucous membranes include protection, absorption, and
Structure: Cardiac muscle cells are
secretion.
cylindrical and striated and have a single nucleus; they
3. Serous membranes - consist of simple squamous epithelium
are branched and connected to one another by
resting on a delicate layer of loose connective tissue. Serous
intercalated disks, which contain gap junctions.
membranes line the trunk cavities and cover the organs
Function: Pumps the blood; under
within these cavities. Serous membranes secrete serous
involuntary (unconscious) control.
fluid, which covers the surface of the membranes.
Location: In the heart.
 Serous Fluid – the fluid secreted by the serous membranes
 Smooth Muscle - forms the walls of hollow organs
which lubricates the surface of the serous membranes.
(except the heart); it is also found in the skin and the
4. Synovial membranes - are made up of only connective
eyes. Smooth muscle is responsible for a number
tissue. They line the inside of joint cavities (the space where
of functions, such as moving food through the
bones come together within a movable joint).
digestive tract and emptying the urinary bladder.
 Synovial fluid – produce by the synovial membranes which
Structure: Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each
makes the joint very slippery, thereby reducing friction and
end, are not striated, and have a single nucleus.
allowing smooth movement within the joint.
Function: Regulates the size of organs, forces fluid
through tubes, controls the amount of light
entering the eye, and produces “goose bumps” in
the skin; under involuntary (unconscious) control.
Location: In hollow organs, such as the stomach
and intestine; skin and eyes.

5.5 NERVOUS TISSUE

 4.7 TISSUE DAMAGE AND INFLAMATION 5.8 TISSUE REPAIR
1. Inflammation - occurs when tissues are damaged. For 1. Tissue repair - is the substitution of viable cells for dead
example, when viruses infect epithelial cells of the cells. Tissue repair can occur by regeneration or by
upper respiratory tract, inflammation and the fibrosis.
symptoms of the common cold are produced. Tissue Repair can occur by:
 Regeneration - the new cells are the same type as those
(NOTE: Inflammation produces five major symptoms: that were destroyed, and normal function is usually
redness, heat, swelling, pain, and disturbance of restored. Regeneration is accomplished primarily by:
function. Although unpleasant, the processes producing Stem cells - are self-renewing, undifferentiated cells that
the symptoms are usually beneficial.) continue to divide throughout life. With each division,
there is a daughter stem cell and a second cell that can
RUBOR = REDNESS
undergo differentiation.
DOLOR = PAIN TUMOR =
 Fibrosis – replacement of a new type of tissue develops
SWELLING CALOR =
that eventually causes scar production and the loss of
HEAT
some tissue function.
FUNCTION LAESA (RUDOLF VIRCHOW) = LOSS OF
2. Clot - contains the thread- like protein fibrin, which
FUNCTION
binds the edges of the wound together and stops the
2. Chemical Mediators - are released or activated in bleeding.
the injured tissues and adjacent blood vessels. 3. Scab – this is form when the surface of the clot dries,
which seals the wound and helps prevent infection.
(Note: The mediators include histamine and
4. Granulation tissue - a delicate, granular- appearing
prostaglandins.)
connective tissue that consists of fibroblasts, collagen,
3. Edema - or swelling of the tissues results when and capillaries.
water, proteins, and other substances from the
blood move into the tissues.
4. Neutrophil - a phagocytic white blood cell that
fights infections by ingesting bacteria. Neutrophils
die after ingesting a small number of bacteria.
5. Pus - the mixture of dead neutrophils, other cells,
and fluid that can accumulate.
6. Chronic or prolonged inflammation - results when
the agent responsible for an injury is not removed or
something else interferes with the healing process.
Infections of the lungs or kidneys usually result in a
brief period of inflammation followed by repair.
However, prolonged infections, or prolonged
exposure to irritants, can result in chronic
inflammation.
 1. Stratum Basale – is the deepest stratum of the epidermis.
CHAPTER 5: Integumentary System It consists of cuboidal or columnar cells that undergo
5.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM mitotic divisions about every 19 days. As the daughter
1. Integumentary System - consists of the skin and cells are formed, they are pushed upward, becoming part
accessory structures, such as hair, glands, and nails. of the nest stratum.
Integument means covering, and the integumentary 2. Stratum Spinosum – is noted for its multilayer of distorted
system is one of the more familiar systems of the body to (“Spined”) cells. The cells become distorted as they are
everyone because it covers the out- side of the body and is pushed up from the deeper stratum basale and look
easily observed. somewhat “spiny” when stained and prepared for
Functions: microscopy.
 Protection
 Sensation (Note: Stratum basale and stratum spinosum are sometimes
 Vitamin D production called Stratum Germinativum.)
 Temperature regulation
3. Stratum Granulosum – is superficial to stratum spinusom.
 Excretion
It contains flattened cells pushed up from the deeper
starta. As the cells are pushed up through this stratum,
5.2 SKIN
they form the protein granules that gives it the name
1. Skin – is the primary organ of the integumentary
granulosum.
system and is the largest organ of the body.
4. Stratum Lucidum – is a very thin layer presents only in
2. Subcutaneous Tissue – it where the skin rests, which is
thick skin. The Thick skin is found only in high-wear areas,
a layer of connective tissue and is not part of the skin.
such as the palms and soles. The more flexible thin skin is
Two major tissue layers of the skin: found over most other areas of the body. This stratum’s
1. Epidermis – is the most superficial layer of skin. It is a name comes from the fact that it is translucent, allowing
light to pass through it easily.
layer of epithelial tissue that rests on the dermis. is a
stratified squamous epithelium; in its deepest layers, 5. Stratum Corneum - is the most superficial stratum of the
new cells are produced by mitosis. epidermis. It consists of dead squamous cells filled with
keratin. Keratin gives the stratum corneum its structural
 Dandruff – the excessive sloughing of stratum corneum
strength. The stratum corneum cells are also coated and
cells from the surface of the scalp.
surrounded by lipids, which help prevent fluid loss
 Callus - In skin subjected to friction, it is called the
through the skin. is composed of 25 or more layers of dead
number of layers in the stratum corneum greatly
squamous cells joined by desmosomes.
increases, producing a thickened area.
 Corn - Over a bony prominence, the stratum corneum (Note: Keratin gives the stratum corneum its structural
can thicken to form a cone-shaped structure. strength.)
 Keratinization - process during their movement which
the cells change shape and chemical composition. 2. Dermis - is composed of dense collagenous connective
tissue containing fibroblasts, adipocytes, and
(Note: Although keratinization is a continuous process, macrophages. Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles,
the Epidermis is divided into distinct histological regions, glands, and lymphatic vessels extend into the dermis.
or strata meaning layers that can be seen in the  Cleavage lines - are tension lines, in the skin, and the skin
epidermis.) is most resistant to stretch along these lines.
Layers:
 Stretch marks - are lines develop when a person increases
in size quite rapidly.
 Dermal papillae – projections in the upper part of the
dermis, which extend toward the epidermis. It also
contains many blood vessels.
(Note: The dermal papillae in the palms of the hands, the to increase melanin production. The result is a suntan.)
soles of the feet, and the tips of the digits are arranged in  Albinism - is a recessive genetic trait that causes a
parallel, curving ridges that shape the overlying epidermis deficiency or an absence of melanin. Albinos have fair
into fingerprints and footprints. The ridges increase skin, white hair, and unpigmented irises in the eyes.
friction and improve the grip of the hands and feet.)  Melanocytes – produces melanin, which are irregularly
shaped cells with many long processes that extend
 Intradermal Injection - is administered by drawing between the epithelial cells of the deep part of the
the skin taut and inserting a small needle at a shallow epidermis.
angle into the dermis; an example is the tuberculin  Melanosomes - a vesicle that packages the melanin from
skin test. the Golgi apparatus of the melanocytes, which move into
 Subcutaneous Injection - is achieved by pinching the the cell processes of the melanocytes.
skin to form a “tent” and inserting a short needle into  Cyanosis - a decrease in the blood O2 content produces a
the adipose tissue of the subcutaneous tissue; an bluish color of the skin.
example is an insulin injection.  Jaundice – Yellow skin.
 Intramuscular Injection - is accomplished by inserting
a long needle at a 90-degree angle to the skin into a 2. Carotene - is lipid-soluble; when consumed, it
muscle deep to the subcutaneous tissue. accumulates in the lipids of the stratum corneum and in
Intramuscular injections are used for most vaccines the adipocytes of the dermis and subcutaneous tissue. It
and certain antibiotics. is also a yellow pigment found in plants such as squash
and carrots.
(Note: The dermis contains many sensory nerve ending.
Sensation such as heat, cold, touch, and pressure are 5.3 SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE
mediated by the dermal nerve endings.) 1. Subcutaneous tissue – it sometimes called Hypodermis,
There are two regions of the dermis: attaches the skin to the underlying bone and muscle and
1. Reticular layer – is a thick region of irregularly supplies it with blood vessels and nerves.
arranged protein fibers. Most of the fibers are - Is a loose connective tissue, including adipose tissue
collagenous, but a few are made of elastin. that contains about half the body’s stored lipids,
2. Papillary layer – is the bum by superficial portion of although the amount and location vary with age, sex,
the dermis attached to the epidermis. and diet.
- Adipose tissue in the subcutaneous tissue functions
(Note: The bumps, called papillae (meaning “nipples”), as padding and insulation, and it is responsible for
from regular rows in the thick skin but are rather some of the differences in appearance between men
irregularly arranged in the skin.) and women as well as between individuals of the
same sex.
Skin Color:
(Note: Factors that determine skin color include pigments 5.4 ACCESSORY SKIN STRUCTURES Hair:
in the skin, blood circulating through the skin, and the 1. Hair – in humans, it is found everywhere on the skin,
thickness of the stratum corneum.) except on the palms, the soles, the lips, the nipples, parts
The two primary pigments are: of the genitalia, and the distal segments of the fingers
1. Melanin - is the group of pigments primarily and toes.
responsible for skin, hair, and eye color. Most 2. Hair Follicle – It is where hair arises, an extension of the
melanin molecules are brown to black pigments, but epidermis that originates deep in the dermis.
some are yellowish or reddish. It also provides 3. Hair Shaft – portion that has been pushed out of the
protection against ultraviolet light from the sun. follicle that protrudes above the surface of the skin,
(Note: Exposure to ultraviolet light—for example, in whereas the root and hair bulb are below the surface.
sunlight— stimulates melanocytes 4. Hair Root – portion of each hair within the follicle.
5. Cortex – a hard portion that surrounds a softer 6. Nail Matrix and bed - are epithelial tissue with a stratum
center, the medulla. basale that gives rise to the cells that form the nail.
6. Medulla – a soft portion in the center covered by the 7. Lunula - can be seen through the nail body as a whitish,
cortex. crescent- shaped area at the base of the nail.
7. Cuticle - a single layer of overlapping cells that holds (Note: Cell production within the nail matrix causes the nail
the hair in the hair follicle and covers the cortex. to grow.)
8. Hair Bulb – it is where the hair is produce, which rest
5.5 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
on the hair papilla.
9. Hair Papilla – is an extension of the dermis that Protection: The integumentary system performs many
produces into the hair bulb and contains blood
protective functions.
vessels.
1. Reduction in body water loss.
10. Growth stage – it is formed by mitosis of epithelial
2. Acts as a barrier that prevents microorganisms and other
cells within the hair bulb. These cells, like the cells of
foreign substances from entering the body.
the stratum basale in the skin, divide and undergo
3. Protects underlying structures against abrasion.
keratinization.
4. Melanin absorbs ultraviolet light and protects underlying
11. Resting stage - growth stops and the hair is held in the
structures from its damaging effects.
hair follicle.
5. Hair protection.
12. Arrector pili muscle – it is a strap of smooth muscle
6. The nails protect the ends of the fingers and toes from
sells that is attached to each hair follicle, which can
damage and can be used in defense.
contract and cause the hair to become perpendicular
to the skin’s surface.
Sensation:
(Note: Many sensory are associated with the skin. Although
Glands: The skin has 2 major glands
hair does not have a nerve supply, sensory receptors around
1. Subaceous gland – are simple, branched acinar glands
the hair follicle can detect the movement of a hair.)
most are connected by a duct to the superficial part
of a hair follicle.
Vitamin D Production:
 Sebum – a fatty substance that is produce in the
1. UV light causes the skin to produce a precursor molecule
subaceous gland.
of vitamin D.
2. Sweat glands - also known as sudoriferous or
2. The precursor molecule is carried by the blood to the liver
sudoriparous glands, from Latin sudor, meaning
where it is enzymatically converted.
'sweat', are small tubular structures of the skin that
3. The enzymatically converted molecule is carried by the
produce sweat.
blood to the kidneys where it is converted again to the
active form of vitamin D.
There are two kinds of sweat glands:
4. Vitamin D stimulates the small intestine to absorb
1. Eccrine sweat glands - are simple, coiled, tubular
calcium and phosphate for many body functions.
glands and release sweat by merocrine secretion.
2. Apocrine sweat glands - are simple, coiled, tubular
Excretion:
glands that produce a thick secretion rich in organic
(Note: In addition to water and salts, sweat contains small
sub- stances.
amounts of waste products, such as urea, uric acid, and
ammonia. Even though the body can lose large amounts of
Nails:
sweat, the sweat glands do not play a significant role in the
1. Nail - is a thin plate, consisting of layers of dead
excretion of waste products.)
stratum corneum cells that contain a very hard type
of keratin.
2. Nail body - the visible part of the nail.
3. Nail root - part of the nail covered by skin.
4. Cuticle or Eponychium - is stratum corneum that
extends onto the nail body. The nail root extends
distally from the nail matrix.
5. Nail bed – is located distal to the nail matrix.
Heat Exchange in the skin: weeks, and no scarring results. However, if the burn goes
deep into the dermis, the wound appears red, tan, or
white; can take several months to heal; and might scar.
2. Full-Thickness or Third-Degree burns - the epidermis and
the dermis are completely destroyed, and recovery
occurs from the edges of the burn wound. It appears
white, tan, brown, black, or deep cherry red.

Burn Healing:
In all second-degree burns, the epidermis, including the
stratum basale where the stem cells are found, is damaged.

The epidermis regenerates from epithelial tissue in hair

follicles and sweat glands, as well as form the edges of the
wound.

Deep partial-thickness and full-thickness burns take a long

time to heal, and they form scar tissue with disfiguring and
debilitating wound contractures.

Treatment of burns:
In a procedure called a split skin graft, the epidermis and
part of the dermis are removed from another part of the
body and placed over the burn.

5.6 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM AS A When it is not possible or practical to move skin from one
DIAGNOSTIC AID part of the body to a burn site, physicians sometimes use
Diagnostic Aid: artificial skin or graft from human cadavers.
(Note: The integumentary system is useful in diagnosis  Debridement - the removal of dead tissue from the burn,
because it is observed easily and often reflects events helps prevent infections by cleaning the wound and
occurring in other parts of the body. Rashes and lesions in removing tissue in which infections could develop.
the skin can be symptoms of problems elsewhere in the  Venous thrombosis - the development of a clot in a vein,
body.) is another complication of burns. Blood normally forms
a clot when exposed to damaged tissue, such as at a burn
5.7 BURNS site, but clotting can also occur elsewhere, such as in
1. Burns - is injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold, friction, veins, where clots can block blood flow, resulting in
chemicals, electricity, or radiation. tissue destruction.
Burns are classified according to their depth:
1. Partial-thickness burns - part of the stratum basale 5.8 SKIN CANCER
remains viable, and regeneration of the epidermis 1. Skin cancer - is the most common type of cancer that is
occurs from within the burn area, as well as from the mainly caused by UV light exposure. Fair- skinned people
edges of the burn. Partial-thickness burns are divided are more prone, prevented by limiting sun exposure and
into first- and second- degree burns. using sunscreen.
 First-degree burns - involve only the epidermis and
are red and painful. They can be caused by sunburn or
brief exposure to very hot or very cold objects, and
they heal without scarring in about a week.
- Edema – or swelling, is the abnormal accumulation of
fluid in certain tissues within the body.
 Second-degree burns - damage both the epidermis
and the dermis.If dermal damage is minimal,
symptoms include redness, pain, edema, and blisters.
Healing takes about 2
Types of Skin Cancer:
1. Basal cell carcinoma - the most frequent type, begins
with cells in the stratum basale and extends into the
dermis to produce an open ulcer. This is removed by
surgery.
2. Squamous cell carcinoma - develops from cells
immediately superficial to the stratum basale. This
may cause death.
3. Malignant melanoma - is a rare form of skin cancer
that arises from melanocytes, usually in a preexisting
mole. This may also cause death.

5.9 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM AS A DIAGNOSTIC AID

Aging in the integument:
Blood flow decreases and skin becomes thinner due to
decreased amounts of collagen.

Decrease activity of sebaceous and sweat glands make

temperature regulation more difficult.

Loss of elastic fibers cause skin to sag and wrinkle.