CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

MODULE 1
DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION, AND TYPES OF SURVEYS
This module provides a discussion on the concepts, classification, and types of
various surveys method used in the engineering field.

Objectives
 To understand and provide basic knowledge on the concepts,
classification, and definition of various surveys method employed in
the engineering field.

1.1 Surveying
One of the oldest arts practiced by man is surveying. From the earliest
times it has always been necessary to mark boundaries and divide
tracts of land. Through the centuries the uses of surveying have
expanded such that today it is difficult to undertake any type of
engineering construction that does not involve some type of surveying.
Planning and design are based on the results of surveys, and
construction is controlled by surveying. Professionals in the different
fields of engineering as well as geologists, architects, foresters,
agriculturists, and geographers are concerned with surveying as a
means of planning and executing their respective projects.

Surveys cover a wide range un scope and complexity, from staking out
of simple structures or the surveying of small parcels of land to the
extensive and difficult surveys required in the construction of
subdivisions, bridges, highways, canals, dams, railroads, wharves,
missile and rocket launching sites, drainage and irrigation systems, or
the survey of relatively large portions of the earth’s surface. Surveying
is also required for the laying out of industrial equipment, preparing
forestry and geological maps, positioning massive and complex
machinery, in the construction of ships and airplanes, as well as in the
survey and exploration of extraterrestrial bodies such as moon and the
planets.
 In the training of a technical student the study of surveying is an
important part even though he may never actually use it later in
practice. It is one course which trains students to visualize and think
logically, to plan, to work carefully and accurately, and to arrange the
product of these efforts in a neat and orderly manner for record or
presentation. A surveying course will provide the student a worthwhile
general experience and also develop desirable traits and habits
because the nature of the subject with its related field measurements
is such that it will develop habits of accuracy, industry, and reliability.

In addition, the student will learn a great deal about the relative
importance of measurements. He is trained to decide on how accurate
and precise measurements should be made, and acquire essential
habits of checking numerical calculations, measurements, and
observations. All these attributes are expected to add to the stature
and technical competence of a future professional.

Definition of Surveying

All surveying operations have the same basic characteristics – that of

delineating a portion of the earth’s surface or subsurface or of
establishing the position or boundaries of some object upon it. A host
of definitions have been made by different authors, and the following
are listed:

• ” Surveying is the art of determining the positions of points on or near

the earth’s surface by means of measurements in the three elements
of space; namely, distance, direction, and elevation.” – Rayner and
Schmidt.
• “Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances
between objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining
the direction of lines, and of establishing points by predetermined
angular and linear measurements.” – Davis, Foote, Anderson, and
Mikhail.
• “Surveying is the art of making such measurements of the relative
positions of points on the surface of the earth that, on drawing to the
scale, natural and artificial features may be exhibited in their correct
horizontal or vertical relationships.” – Clarke.
• “Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the
art of determining the area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the
length and directions of the boundary lines, the contour of the surface,
and of accurately delineating the whole on paper.” – Webster.
• “Surveying is the science or art of making such measurements as are
necessary to determine the relative position of points above, on, or
beneath the surface of the earth, or to establish such points.” – Breed,
Hosmer, and Bone.

• “Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of

points above, on, or beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing
such points.”
– Brinker and Wolf.

From different definitions given above, it is obvious that surveying

activities during the earlier part of the decade have only been limited
to surveys on or near the surface of the earth. Times, however, have
changed and modern surveying techniques are now applied to space
exploration and in the mapping of extraterrestrial bodies such as the
moon, mars, and in the near future the other planets, stars, and other
heavenly bodies in the universe.

The author believes that the science of surveying is now much wider
and complex in extent, and feels that is should be redefined more
appropriately as, the art and science of determining angular and linear
measurements to establish the form, extent, and relative position of
points, lines, and areas on or near the surface of the earth or on other
extraterrestrial bodies through applied mathematics and the use of
specialized equipment and techniques.
1.2 Plane and Geodetic Surveying
1. Plane Surveying – is that type of surveying in which the earth is
considered to be a flat surface, and where distances and areas
involved are of limited extent that the exact shape of the earth is
disregarded. With regard to horizontal distances and directions, a level
line is considered as mathematically straight, the direction of the
plumb line is assumed to be the same at all points with the limits of
the survey, and all angles are considered to be plane angles.

Plane surveying is of wide scope and application. The different methods of

plane surveying are employed in various surveys undertaken in engineering,
scientific, commercial, architectural, geographic, navigational, and
exploratory work. Since it is the required degree of accuracy which forms the
controlling factor in most surveys, no definite limit can be assigned for the
area up to which a survey may be considered as plane. Unless extreme
accuracy is required, plane surveying is applicable to areas of some
thousands of square kilometers in extent.
 2. Geodetic Surveying – are surveys of wide extent which takes into
account the spheroidal shape of the earth. These surveys employ
principles of geodesy, are of high precision, and the related
calculations involve the solving of equations derived from advanced
mathematics particularly spherical trigonometry, calculus, and some
applications of the theory of least squares.

Geodetic surveys, which are usually of a national character, are mostly

undertaken by government agencies to serve as a basis for the
production of accurate base and topographic maps. The most refined
instruments and method of observation are employed since these
surveys provide reference framework covering a large area of the
earth’s surface. A number of points of known location and elevation
are established to serve as controls for subordinate surveys of lesser
extent which are performed as plane surveys. Elevations of selected
vertical control points are expressed in terms of vertical distances
above or below a reference curved surface usually mean sea level.
The field measurements for most geodetic surveys are primarily
observed by the use of theodolites, tapes, and electronic distance
measuring devices. Recently, newly devised equipment have been
employed such as doppler and inertial surveying systems. These
sophisticated systems are capable of achieving high degrees of
accuracy in short time spans.

1.3 Types of Surveys

1. Cadastral Surveys – are usually closed surveys which are undertaken
in urban and rural locations for the purpose of determining and
defining property lines and boundaries, corners, and areas. These
surveys are also made to fix the boundaries of municipalities, towns,
and provincial jurisdictions.

2. City Surveys – are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the
purpose of planning expansions or improvements, locating property
lines, fixing reference monuments, determining the physical features
and configuration of the land, and preparing maps.

3. Construction Surveys – these are surveys which are undertaken at a

construction site to provide data regarding grades, reference lines,
dimensions, ground configurations, and the location and elevation of
structures which are of concern to engineers, architects, and builders.
 4. Forestry Surveys – A type of survey executed in connection with forest
management and mensuration, and the production and conservation of
forest lands.

5. Hydrographic Surveys – Refer to surveying streams, lakes,

reservoirs, harbors, oceans, and other bodies of water. These surveys
are made to map shore lines, chart the shape of areas underlying
water surfaces, and measure the flow of streams. They are of general
importance in connection with navigation, development of water
supply, and resources, flood control, irrigation, production of
hydroelectric power, subaqueous constructions, and recreation.

6. Industrial Surveys – sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to

the use of surveying techniques in ship building, construction and
assembly of aircraft, layout and installation of heavy and complex
machinery, and in other industries where very accurate dimensional
layouts are required.

7. Mine Surveys – are surveys which are performed to determine the

position of all underground excavations and surface mine structures, to
fix surface boundaries of mining claims, determine the geological
formations, to calculate excavated volumes, and establish lines and
grades for other related mining work.
8. Photogrammetric Surveys – a type of survey which makes use of
photographs taken with specially designed cameras either form
airplanes or ground stations. Measurements are obtained from the
photographs which are used in conjunction with limited ground
surveys.

9. Route Surveys – Involves the determination of alignment, grades,

earthwork quantities, location of natural and artificial objects in
connection with the planning, design, and construction of highways,
railroads, pipelines, canals, transmission lines, and other linear
projects.

10. Topographic Surveys – are those surveys made for determining the
shape of the ground, and the location and elevation of natural and
artificial features upon it. The features shown include such natural
objects as hills, mountains, rivers, lakes, relief of the ground surface,
etc.; and works of man, such as roads, buildings, ports, towns,
municipalities, and bridges.

1.4 Surveying Instruments

Surveying instruments were developed gradually. It is believed that,
an extensive use of surveying instruments came about during the early
days of the Roman Empire. This remarkable engineering ability of
Romans is clearly demonstrated by their extensive construction of
structures and buildings
which continue to exist even up to this modern era. It will be noted
that many surveying instruments and devices evolved from those
which were earlier used in astronomy. The following instruments were
early forerunners of our present-day surveying instruments.

1. Astrolabe – The astrolabe of Hipparchus is considered to be one of

the best known of the measuring instruments that have come down
from ancient times. It was developed sometime in 140 B.C., and
further improved by Ptolemy. The instrument had a metal circle with a
pointer hinged at its center and held by a ring at the top, and a cross
staff, a wooden rod about 1.25 meters long with an adjustable cross-arm
at right angles to it. The known length of the arms of the cross staff allow
distances and angles to be determined by proportion. It was originally
designed for determining the altitude of stars.

2. Telescope – The invention of the telescope in 1607 is generally

accredited to Lippershey. In 1609, Galileo constructed a refracting
telescope for astronomical observation. However, it was only when
cross hairs for fixing the line of sight were introduced, that the
telescope was used in early surveying instruments.

3. Transit – The invention of the transit is credited to Young and Draper

who worked independently from each other sometime in 1830. Both
men were able to put together in one instrument the essential parts of
what has long been known as the universal surveying instrument.

4. Semicircumferentor – An early surveying instrument which was used

to measure and lay off angles, and establish lines of sight by
employing peep sights.

5. Plane Table – One of the oldest types of surveying instruments used

in field mapping. It consists of a board attached to a tripod in such a
way that it can be leveled or rotated to any desired direction.

6. Dioptra – The dioptra which was perfected by Heron of Alenxadria,

was used in leveling and for measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
It consists essentially of a copper tube supported on a standard and
could be rotated in either horizontal or vertical plane. For measuring
horizontal angles, a flat circular disc with graduations in degrees is
sued. An arm containing sighting apertures at either end could be
rotated to any desired position on the disc.
7. Roman Groma – The Roman surveyors used the groma as an
instrument for aligning or sighting points. It consisted basically of
cross arms fixed at right angles and pivoted eccentrically upon a
vertical staff. Plumb lines were suspended from the ends of the arms.
By employing the groma two
lines at right angles to each other could be established on the ground
where it is set up.

8. Libella – The Assyrians and Egyptians are believed to be the first

users of libella. The instrument had an A-frame with a plumb line
suspended from its apex and was used to determine the horizontal.
Archeologists are of the belief that the horizontal foundations of the
great pyramids of Egypt were probably defined by this device.

9. Vernier – The Vernier is a short auxiliary scale placed alongside the

graduated scale of an instrument, by means of which fractional parts
of the smallest or least division of the main scale can be determined
precisely without having to interpolate. It was invented in 1631 by a
Frenchman named Pierre Vernier. Surveying instruments employ either
a direct or retrograde Vernier.

10. Diopter – An instrument developed by the Greeks sometime in 130

B.C., and known to be their most famous surveying instrument. The
diopter was used for leveling, laying off right angles, and for
measuring horizontal and vertical angles. Since the telescope was not
yet invented during the time the diopter was used, peep sights were
employed for sighting and in aligning the device.

11. Compass – The magnetic compass came into wide use during the
13th century for determining the direction of lines and in calculating
angles between lines. It was first introduced for use in navigation. The
compass consists of a magnetized steel needle mounted on a pivot at
the center of graduated circle. The needle continues to point toward
magnetic north and gives reading which is dependent upon the
position of the graduated circle.
12. Gunter’s Chain – The Gunter’s chain which was invented by Sir
Edmund Gunter in 1620, was the forerunner of instruments used for
taping distances. It is 66 ft long and contains 100 links, so that
distances may be recorded in chains and in decimal parts of the chain.
Each part, called a link, is 0.66 ft or 7.92 inches long.

13. Chorobates – This instrument was designed for leveling work. It

consisted of a horizontal straight-edge about 6 meters long with
supporting legs, and a groove 2.5 cm deep and 1.5 m long on top.
Water is poured into the groove and when the bar is leveled so that
water stood evenly in the groove without spilling, a horizontal lone is
established.

14. Merchet – The merchet was device for measuring time and
meridian. It was first used by the Chaldeans in about 4,000 B.C. It
consisted of a slotted
 palm leaf through which to sight and a bracket from which a plumb
bob was suspended. By sighting through the slot and past the plumb
bob string, a straight line could be projected.

1.5 Surveying Measurements

A measurement is the process of determining the extent, size, or
dimensions of a particular quantity in comparison to a given standard.
In surveying, measurements are usually concentrated on angles,
elevations, times, lines, areas, and volumes. Making measurements
and the subsequent computations utilizing them are basic and
essential tasks of a surveyor. The surveyor’s role is primarily to design
a survey, then plan out and execute the required field operations. In
so doing, he designates the type, extent, and procedure of
measurements to be undertaken. The measurements obtained are
then evaluated and adjusted to obtain the desired results.

Any surveying measurement is always subject to the imperfections of

the instrument used in different errors inherent in the process of
obtaining the measurement. There is no such thing as perfect
measuring instrument nor there is a surveyor whose senses are
sufficiently perfect to measure any quantity exactly. The first thing a
student of surveying must learn about measurement is that no exact
value of measured quantity is ever known. Measurements are never
exact and they will always be imperfect no matter how carefully made.
The physical measurements acquired are correct only within certain
limits because errors cannot be totally eliminated.

In surveying, measurements may be made directly or indirectly. To

learn and appreciate the different operations of surveying it is
important for the student to understand the fundamental principles of
making measurements or observations. It is a fact that the best
surveyor is not the one who makes the most accurate and precise
measurements, but the one who is able to choose and apply the
required or appropriate degree of precision.

1. Direct Measurements ¬– A direct measurement is a comparison of

the measured quantity with a standard measuring unit or units
employed for measuring a quantity of that kind. Some common
examples of direct measurements are applying a wire or tape to a line,
determining a horizontal or vertical angle with a transit, or fitting a
protractor between two intersecting lines to determine the intersection
angle.

2. Indirect Measurements – When it is not possible to apply a measuring

instrument directly to a quantity to be measured an indirect
measurement is made. In this type of measurement, the observed
value is determined by its relationship to some other known values.
For example, the total length of
 a line would be an indirectly observed distance if it is determined by a
summation of a series of directly measured short segments. In the
stadia and substense bar method, horizontal and vertical distances are
indirectly obtained since it makes use of optical systems for relating a
short known length to the angle it subtends at the distance to be
determined. There are numerous indirect measurements made in
surveying operations such that it its important for surveyors and
students of surveying to have good working knowledge of trigonometry
and geometry.

1.6 Units of Measurement

The Meter
The international unit of linear measure is the meter. This was
proposed sometime in 1789 by French scientists who hoped to
establish a system suitable for all times and all peoples, and which
could be based upon permanent natural standards. Originally, the
meter was defined as 1/10,000,000 of the earth’s meridional quadrant.

The growing use of the meter led to demands for an international

organization to insure the uniformity and standardization of its defined
length. Several conferences were convened by the French government
for this particular objective. Finally, in May 20, 1875, a treaty was
signed in Paris by representatives of 18 countries, (13 from Europe, 4
from the American continent, and 1 from Middle East) which created a
permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures. As a direct
result of this treaty, the standard for linear measure was established
as the International Meter which was initially based on an iron meter
bar standardized in Paris in 1799. The meter was defined as the
distance between two lines engraved across the surface (near the
ends) of a bar with an X-shaped cross-section, composed of 90 percent
platinum and 10 percent iridium, when the temperature of the bar is 0
degrees Celcius.
The original international meter bar was deposited at the International
Bureau in Serves, near Paris, France. The Bureau took care of the
prototype standards of the meter and was given the task to
periodically compare and calibrate the primary standards of the
participating countries which has grown to 35 members in 1954. The
bureau also carried on research to improve the standards of methods
of measurement.

All through the following years the metric standards made of platinum
and iridium served its purpose well, however, many scientists believe
that the system should eventually be based upon the natural standards
of even greater permanence, and possibly of greater precision. Ideas
were
conceived to adopt a natural standard in lieu of the previous man-
made physical standard. Such a standard would have the advantage of
being reproducible and also immune to possible damage by accident or
by hostile act.

In October 1960, the meter was redefined at the 11th General

Conference on Weights and Measures and agreed upon by 36
countries. The meter is now defined as a length equal to 1,650,763.73
wavelengths of the orange- red lights produced by burning the element
krypton (with an atomic weight of 86) at a specified energy level in the
spectrum. This new definition will enable nations now using the
international system of units to make more accurate measurements
with the meter. It will keep them from having to check and calibrate
their meter bars against the international prototype bar in France since
this new defined length presumably can be reproduced with great
accuracy in a well-equipped laboratory.

International System of Units (SI)

A movement is now underway to standardize and simplify units of
measurements throughout the world. The International Bureau of
Weights and Measure promulgated in 1960 International System of
Units, generally known as SI. The ultimate goal is to modernize the
metric system by introducing a coherent and rational worldwide
system of units. SI units are now adopted by most countries in Europe,
the Middle East, Africa, and in Asia. The United States of America has
started to adopt the International System of Units, although with great
hesitation.

Effective January 1, 1983 the English System was officially phased out
in the Philippines and only the modern metric system was allowed to
be used. Metric conversion or change-over was signed into law on
December 1978 by former President Ferdinand E. Marcos. The metric
system prescribed the use of the International System of Units (SI) as
established by the General Conference on Weights and Measures and
modified by the local Metric System Board to suit Philippine conditions.

Units in SI of major concern to surveying are the meter (m) for linear
measure, the square meter (sq m or m2) for areas, the cubic meter
(cu m or m3) for volumes, and radian (rad) for plane angles. There are
certain units which are not part of SI but are still widely used.
Examples are liter, hectare, knot, day, hour, and minutes. These are
still accepted for use in the Philippines since it is not practical to
abandon them yet. For longer distances the kilometer (km) may be
used and for larger areas hectare (ha) is used. Degrees, minutes, and
seconds are also acceptable for plane angles measured in SI.
Units of Measurement
The usual surveying type of measurement entail both angular and
linear measurements. When using SI, all linear measurements, as
earlier stated, are based upon the meter. Larger and smaller units are
derived from it in decimal steps, and their names are formed by
adding prefixes. In SI a total set of 18 prefixes are used to form
multiples and submultiples of different units. The following are
commonly used prefixes are added to basic names.
Mega 1,000,000
Kilo 1,000
Hector 100
Deca 10
Deci 0.1
Centi 0.01
Milli 0.001
Micro 0.000001
Nano 0.0000000
01

1. Linear, Area, and Volume Measurements – Using the prefixes, the

following linear units are derived:
1 kilometer (km) 1000 meters
1 meter (m) 1000 millimeters
1 millimeter (mm) 1000 micrometers
1 micrometer (um)1000 millimicrometers
1 millimicrometers (mu) 1000 million micrometers
1 meter (m) 10 decimeters
1 decimeter (dm) 10 centimeters
1 centimeter (cm) 10 millimeters

The common units for length are the kilometer, meter, centimeter, and
the millimeter. Length may also refer to other linear dimensions such
as width, depth, thickness, height, or distance. The kilometer is used
for long distances and in measuring the sides of large tracts of land.
For the measurement of objects such as buildings, structures,
residential lots, height of mountains, tides, pipes, and cables, the
meter is used. The centimeter and millimeter are not commonly used
in surveying. They are suitable for small dimensions needed in
laboratories where very precise but minute measurements are
required.

The unit of area in SI is the square meter. For very small areas, square
millimeters or square centimeters is used. Areas of small tracts of
land, floor areas of buildings and structures are measured in square
meters. The hectare (ha), although not an SI unit, is commonly used
for the
measurement of large tract of land such as cities, provinces, sugar
cane plantations, rice fields, and forests. The square kilometers is the
appropriate SI unit for this purpose. The following are the commonly
used relationships: 1 hectare = 10,000 sq. m or 100 Ares, 1 are = 100
sq. m, 1 sq. km = 1,000,000 sq. m or 100 hectares.

2. Angular Measurements – The SI unit for plane angles is the radian.

The radian is defined as an angle subtended by an arc of a circle
having a length equal to the radius of the circle. Obviously, 2π rad =
360 deg, 1 rad = 57 deg 17 min 44.8 sec, or 57.2958 deg, and 0.01745 rad
= 1 deg. The relationship may also be expresses as follows: 1 deg =
(3.1416/180) rad. 1 min = (3.1416/10800) rad, and 1 sec =
(3.1416/648000) rad.

a) Sexagesimal Units – The sexagesimal units of angular measurement

are the degree, minute, and second. The unit of angle used in
surveying is the degree which is defined as 1/360th of a circle. One
degree equals 60 minutes, and 1 minute equals 60 seconds. Division of
seconds are given in tenths, hundredths, and thousandths.

b) Centesimal Units – Many countries in Europe and the Middle East

use the centesimal system where the grad is the angular unit. In this
system the circumference of a circle (360 deg) is divided into 400
grads. The grad is divided into 100 centesimal minutes or 0.9 degrees,
and the minute is subdivided into 100 centesimal seconds or 0 deg 00
min 32.4 sec. Grads are usually expressed in decimals. For example,
194g 45c 82cc is expressed as 194.4582 grads.

Significant Figures
In recording results from values obtained by measurements and in
making computations, it is important to determine which should be
retained as significant figures. By definition, the number of significant
figures is any value includes the number of certain digits plus one digit
that is estimated and, therefore, questionable or uncertain. For
example, if a line is measured with a scale graduated in one meter
increments and recorded as 3.6 meters, the value has two significant
figures – the 3 that is certain and the 6 which is estimated. Any further
estimation made would not be significant. If the same line is again
measured with a scale graduated in tenths of a meter, and recorded
with three significant figures, as 3.65 meters, the 3 and 6 are certain,
whereas the 5 is estimated or uncertain.

The number of significant figures is often confused with the number of

decimal places. Decimal places may have to be used to maintain the
correct number of significant figures, but in themselves they do not
indicate significant figures, some examples are:
1. One Significant Figure

100 9 0.001

400 8000 0.000005

2. Two Significant Figures

24 0.020 0.0024

0.24 0.000065 3.6

3. Three Significant Figures

365 3.65 0.000249

12.3 10.1 0.0120

4. Four Significant Figures

7654 0.0742 0.0000671

2
32.25 15.00 364.0

5. Five Significant Figures

12345 100.00 40.000

0.86740 46.609 155.28

Some general rules regarding significant figures are:

Rule 1 – Zeroes between other significant figures are significant, as,
for example in the following values each of which contains 4 significant
figures: 12.03, 35.06, and 4009.
Rule 2 – For values less than one, zeroes immediately to the right of
the decimal are not significant. They merely show the position of the
decimals such as in the following values which contains three
significant figures: 0.00325, 0.000468, and 0.0230.

Rule 3 – Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers are significant

such as: 169.30, 366.00, and 11.000. These three values all have five
significant figures.

When computations are to be made with values obtained from

measurements, it is important that enough figures be retained to
insure that
the significant figures in the final result are consistent with the
precision of the measurement. Care must also be taken to prevent
picking up figures during computations which lead to final result
containing more significant figures than the precision of the original
measurements. Final results from computations couldn’t be more
precise than the precision of the least precise value used in the
computations.

It is also important that data resulting from measurements are

recorded with the correct number of significant figures. If a significant
figure is dropped in recording a value, the time and effort spent in
attaining a given precision is wasted. If data are recorded with more
figures than those which are significant, a false precision is implied.

In surveying measurements, the proper number of significant figures

should be recorded for every measured value. If this is done, the
precision with which the measurement was made is clearly indicated.
For example, if a length is determined to the nearest hundredth of a
meter as 65.00 m, then it should be recorded as 65.00 m – not 65.0 m
or 65 m. By recording it as 65.0 m, the implication is that the distance
was measured only to the nearest tenth of a meter; if only 65 m is
recorded, the implication is that the distance was measured only to the
nearest meter.

The number of significant figures in a directly observed quantity is

related to the precision or refinement employed in the observation. To
be consistent with the theory of errors, it is essential that measured
values recorded with the correct number of significant figures.

Rounding Off Numbers

Rounding off a value is the process of dropping one or more of the final
digits so that the value contains only the significant figures required for
further computations or portraying the final results. The following
procedures of rounding off values are generally accepted.

1. Digit is Less Than 5 – When the digit to be dropped is less than 5,

the number is written without the digit. Thus, 24.244, rounded to
nearest hundredth, becomes 24.24, correspondingly, to further round
off 24.24 to the nearest tenths, the value becomes 24.2

2. Digit is Greater Than 5 – When the digit to be dropped is greater

than 5, the number is written with the preceding is increased by one.
Thus, 226.276, rounded off to the nearest hundredth becomes 226.28,
correspondingly, 226.28, rounded off to the nearest tenths would be
226.3.

3. Digit is Equal to 5 – When the digit to be dropped is exactly 5, the

nearest even number is used for the preceding digit. Thus 26.175,
rounded off to the nearest hundredth becomes 26.18. Also, 156.285
would be 156.28.

The procedure in rounding off values as illustrated 1 and 2 above are

 standard practice. Apparently, however many differ when the digit to be
dropped is equal to 5 such as in the process of rounding off 156.285. Some
people always take the next higher hundredth (i.e., 156.29) whereas others
invariably use the next lower hundredth (i.e., 156.28). It should be noted
that using the nearest even digit produces better balanced results in a series
of computations. The so-called “computer rule” in rounding off values should
not be applied to measured quantities. The rule was apparently devised for
non-measured values.

Modular Questions
M1-1 Briefly discuss your understanding on the concepts of surveying.

M1-2 Differentiate Plane Surveying from Geodetic Surveying.

M1-3 Enumerate and discuss at least five (5) types of

surveying.

References
La Putt, J.P. (1987). Elementary Surveying (3rd. ed.). Baguio City,
Philippines: Baguio Research & Publishing Center

Disclaimer
This module may contain copyrighted material, the use of which may
not have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner.
However, this module was created and made to serve as a tool for
educational purposes only and will be distributed without any profit.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

MODULE 2
ERRORS AND MISTAKES, PROBABLE ERROR, RELATIVE
PRECISION, AND WEIGHTED OBSERVATION
This module provides a discussion on the governing principles of errors and
mistakes, probable error, relative precision, and weighted observation.

Objectives
 To understand the basic concepts of errors and mistakes, probable error,
relative precision, and weighted observation.

2.1 The Field Notebook

Student Field Practice

In an elementary course, the student acquires certain extent of field

practice. It is not possible, in the ordinary field course in surveying, to
develop the student into an expert instrument man; it is expected,
however, that the course will give the student a working knowledge of
surveying instruments and their uses. In elementary surveying field
work, no long surveys are attempted, but a number of short survey
problems are taken up which in practice might become parts of extended
surveys.

Members of the student field parties should from time to time

alternately assume the various duties involved in the field work. The
ability to hold the rod properly is essential as knowledge of how to
manipulate the different instruments. The use of surveying instruments
require not only a thorough understanding of the basic theories and
principles of surveying but also a fairly extensive amount of field practice.

Surveying Field Notes

Surveying field notes constitute the only reliable and permanent record of
actual work done in the field. If the notes are incorrect or incompletely
done, or the obliterated, much or all of the time, money, and effort in
the
gathering of survey data are wasted. Furthermore, no matter how
carefully the field measurements are made, the survey as a whole may be
useless if some of the measurements are not recorded or if the
meaning of any recorded data is misinterpreted or misunderstood.
There is no phase in a surveyor’s work which is of greater importance,
or which requires more careful attention, than the keeping of field notes.
From the beginning of his studies, the student of surveying should realize
that the quantity of his field work is reflected directly in the manner he
keeps his field record. Before any survey is made, the necessary data to
be collected should be considered carefully and in the field all such
required data should be obtained. The field notes become the official
record of the survey. It is for the reason that notes must be complete,
legible, concise, and comprehensive, and logically arranged according
to recognized practice.

Field notes are usually worked over in the office in some more
advanced form of presentation, such as a map, a report, or a
computation. The notes are then always kept for future reference. Field
notes may be used by another surveyor some years later. It is not
possible to predict to what extent the information gathered on most
surveys may become of value in the future. A need to rerun, extend, or
otherwise become make use of previous surveys may be required for a
related project. In such case it would be most logical that the old field
notes will be only available reference and their value will depend
largely upon the completeness and clarity with which they have been
recorded.

In many engineering applied surveys the field notes are used or referred
to by office personnel who have not seen field site or who are not familiar
with conditions on the project site. They rely entirely only upon what
has end recorded. It is for this reason that notes should be de completely,
clearly, and systematically. To be complete, the notes should show all
data, together with a sufficient interpretation to answer all questions that
may he raised with respect to any given survey. The surveyor should keep
clearly in mind not only the immediate uses of the data but those which
may reasonably be expected to arise at some future time. A completed
record written in a disorderly and confused manner often causes more
mistakes and erroneous information.

The notes should be recorded in the conventional and generally used

format and not according to whims of the field surveyor. The arrangement
of notes usually depends upon departmental or office standards, and
preferences. There are different forms of field notes in use, but in practice
these must be adapted or new forms devised to meet unusual
situations. Field notes are sometimes modified to meet special
conditions. Although several systems of note keeping are in general use,
certain principles apply
to all. The aim is to make the clearest possible notes with the least
expenditure of time and effort. A systematic arrangement of all survey
data is important if the record is to be concise and includes all of the
required information. Accuracy is always aided by methodical
apportionment and classification of data.

It is essential that notes be intelligible to others without verbal

explanations. Another person reading on the notes should be able to
quickly imagine what has been done in the field. The note keeper should
always put himself in the place of one who is not in the field at the time
the survey is made. The field notes must then contain all necessary
information and the data recorded in such a manner that it will allow only
the correct interpretation of gathered data. It is also desirable for
students to have an and expertly designed set of note forms covering
their first field work, to set high standards and save time. The student
should strive to improve each set of notes over the preceding one. He
should avail himself of this opportunity a to develop note keeping
techniques, since it will greatly kept help him not only in surveying but
also in other engineering work, such as recording laboratory
experiments and tests as well as in drafting and preparation of
memoranda may use in executive or professional duties.

Field work observations should be recorded directly in for the notebook at

the time observations are made. Notes made later from memory or copied
from temporary notes may be useful, but they are not field notes.
Students are tempted to scribble on scrap sheets of paper for later
transfer in neat form to the regular field book. This practice defeats
the purpose of a surveying field work course, which is to provide
experience in taking notes under actual job conditions.

In court, field notes may be used as evidence. Original notes are those
taken while measurements are being made. All other sets are coped
and must be so identified. Copied notes may not be accepted in court.
Because of the possibility that the field notes may become court evidence,
many surveyors do not allow erasing in the field book. An erasure
could cause suspicion that the field record was altered after the field
work was finished. Instead, mistakes are crossed out in such manner that
they can still be read, and the correct entry is made while still in the field.

The Field Notebook

In practice the field notebook should be of good quality rag paper, with
stiff board or leather cover made to withstand hard usage, and of
pocket size. Treated papers are available which will shed rain; some of
these can be written on even when wet. Special field notebooks
are sold by
engineering supply companies for particular kinds of notes, such as cross-
sections for earthworks. For general surveying or for students in field work
where the problem to be done are general in character, an excellent
for of notebook has the right-hand page divided into small rectangles
with a red line running up the middle, and has the left-hand page
divided into several columns; both pages have the same horizontal
ruling. Another common form, used in levelling, has both pages ruled in
columns and has wider horizontal spacing than the field book. This is
called levelbook.

The field notebook may be bound in any of three ways; conventional, ring,
or loose-leaf. The ring-type, which consists of many metal rings
passing through perforations in the pages, has the advantage over the
conventional binding that the book opens quite flat and that the covers
can be folded back against each other. Loose-leaf notebooks are more
popularly used. Loose leaves are available in either single or double
sheets.

In some technical schools students are asked to use bond paper instead of
field notes. The use of bond paper has been popular because it is more
readily available than field notebooks aside from its being cheaper.

Types of Notes

The following are the five common types of notes kept in practice.

1. Sketches - A good sketch will help to convey a correct impression.

Sketches are rarely made to exact scale, but in most cases, they are made
approximately to features may be readily shown by conventional symbols.
Special symbols may be adapted for the practical organization or job. The
student should note that a sketch crowded with unnecessary data is often
confusing.

2. Tabulations – A series of numerical values observed in the field are best

shown in a tabulated format. Tabulated form of notes keeping conveys are
required information in a simple and definite manner. Tabular form should
be used whenever possible. This format prevents mistakes, allows easy
checking, saves time, makes the calculation legible to others, and
simplifies the work of the person checking the field notes. However, in
other types of surveys, the data may be of such varying character that
they cannot be advantageously tabulated, but must be shown on a sketch
or sketches.

3. Explanatory Notes – Explanatory notes provide a written description

of what has been done in the field. These are employed to make clear
what the numerical data and sketches fail to do. Usually they are placed
on the right-hand page of the field notebook in the same line with the
numerical data that they explain. If sketches are used, the explanatory
notes are
placed where they will not interfere with other data and as close as
possible to that which they explain.

4. Computations – Calculations or one kind or another form a large part of

the work of surveying. Most surveying-type computations are made
algebraically by the use of simple arithmetical steps and trigonometric
functions. In some instances, graphical solutions using accurately
scaled drawings are used. Electronic hand-held calculators, desk
calculators, or digital computers are now used for calculating values.
The portrayal of calculations should be clear and orderly in arrangement
in order that these will easily be understood by persons other than the
one who made the computations.

5. Combination of the Above – The practice used in most extensive surveys

is a combination of the above types of notes. The surveyor should be able
to determine for himself which type of combination would be most logical
to use in portraying the type of data gathered in the field.

In a simple survey, such as one for measuring the distances between

points, a sketch showing the lengths is sufficient. On extensive surveys
a combination of tabulated numerical values and sketches are used.
Wherever there may be any doubt concerning field conditions, a sketch
accompanies the numerical values. In measuring the length of a line
forward and backward, a tabulation properly arranged in columns is
adequate. The notes for most leveling operations are recorded in
tabular form. The location of reference point may be difficult to identify
without a sketch, but often a few lines of explanation are enough. Bench
marks and other reference points are usually described in notes. Where
many angles and distances are recorded in tabular form. Using these
methods, notes for any surveying operations are greatly simplified and
the field work undertaken becomes perfectly apparent to one who has
a knowledge of surveying.

Information Found in Field Notebooks

It is desirable that the following basic information be included in the

field notebook as a requirement for documentation. It should be noted,
however, that any other important or informative data relevant to the
particular surveying operation may also be included.

1.Title of the Field Work or Name of Project – The official name of the
project or title of the field work should always be identified. The
location of the survey and preferably its nature or purpose should always
be stated.
 2. Time of day and Date – These entries are necessary to document
the notes and furnish the timetable, as well as to correlate different
surveys. From the assigned survey timetable, precision, problems
encountered, and other factors affecting the survey may be referred from.

3. Weather Condition – Temperature, wind velocity, typhoons, storms, and

other weather conditions, such as fog, sunshine, and rain have a
decided effect upon accuracy in surveying operations. An
instrumentman making precise observations is unlikely to perform the
best possible work during extremes in temperature conditions. It is for
these reasons that the details related to the weather play an important
part when reviewing field notes.

4. Names of Group Member and Their Designations – The chief of

party, instrumentman, tapeman, and other members of the survey party
must be identified. This information will be necessary for documentation
purposes and other future reference. From this information, duties and
responsibilities can easily be pinpointed among the survey party.

5. List of Equipment – All survey equipment used must be listed, including its
make, brand, and serial number. The type of instrument used, and its
adjustment, all have a definite effect on the accuracy of a survey.
Proper identification of the particular equipment used aids in isolating
errors in some cases.

If all the above listed information are known, mistakes committed in the
field and which are not discovered until the field work is completed
could be traced to weather conditions or equipment which are out of
adjustment, and a correction can easily be made without having to
redo the whole field work or some portion of it.

As an added requirement, it is important to have a table of contents at the

beginning of the field notebook to allow easy referencing of desired
data. This is advisable when the notebook contains observed and
calculated data covering different survey projects.

2.2 The Field Survey Party

The following is a list of persons who may compose a field survey party.
Their duties and responsibilities are given opposite their respective
designations. The given composition is primarily designed for large scale
surveys which is expected to undertake field surveys covering days or
weeks using either conventional or sophisticated surveying instruments
such as those for surveys using electronic, inertial, and position systems.
In coming up with an organization for a field survey party, the principle of
flexibility must be adapted. The duties and responsibilities of members of a
survey part should not always be fixed but should be modified so as to suit
prevailing work requirements and conditions, problems in field operations,
and the availability and usage of surveying equipment. Hence, for smaller
scale surveys and where conventional surveying equipments are utilized,
the given composition should be reduced to what is deemed preferable
or suitable. The composition, duties and responsibilities given in the
following list should serve as a reference for one who intends to organize a
field survey party.

1. Chief of Party – The person who is responsible for the overall direction,
supervision, and operational control of the survey party. He is also
responsible for its logistical and technical requirements, and problems of a
field survey operations. Prior to the execution of a survey project, he
consults or confers with superiors regarding the project to be
undertaken. He is responsible for submitting survey reports and
records, and sees to it that these are complete, accurate and adheres
to prescribed technical standards and specifications. He prepares cost
estimates of survey projects, and receives and disburses all cash expenses
of the survey party. He may be called upon to act as an expert witness
in court on matters relating to technical description of land and other
surveying matters.

2. Assistant Chief of Party – The person whose duty is to assist the chief of
party in the accomplishment of the tasks assigned to the survey party. He
takes over the duties of the chief of party during the absence of the chief.
He conducts ground reconnaissance and investigates sites of a
proposed project to gather necessary data prior to the start of survey
work. He is primarily responsible for the employment of surveying
equipment, instruments and accessories used in the survey operation. He
prepares field and office reports and survey plane for submission to the
chief of party.

3. Instrumentman – The person whose duty is to set up, level, and operate
surveying instruments such as the transit, engineer’s transit, engineering’s
level, theodolite, sextant, plane table, and alidade, and etc. He sees to
it that instruments to be used in a survey operation are in good
working condition and in proper adjustment. He also assists the
technician in the operation of electronic surveying instrument. He works
in coordination and as a part of an instrument party and exercises
limited supervision over personnel doing manual tasks.

4. Technician – The person who is responsible for use and operation of all
electronic instruments required in a field work operation. It is his duty to
see to it that these equipments are functioning properly, are
regularly
calibrated, and are in proper adjustment. He is also responsible for
establishment of a two-way communication link by radio between
members of the survey party and the home office and, between members
of the survey part where distant stations or long survey lines are involved.

5. Computer – The person whose duty is to perform all computations of

survey data and works out necessary computational checks required in
a field work operation. He is responsible for the utilization of electronic
calculators, pocket or microcomputers, and assists in the operation of
computerized surveying systems or equipment.

6. Recorder – The person whose duty is to keep a record of all

sketches, drawings, measurements and observations taken or needed for
a fieldwork operations. He keeps table of schedules of all phases of
work and the employment of the members of the survey party. He
does clerical tasks related to surveying in the office and undertakes
limited cartographic jobs.

7. Head Tapeman – The person responsible for the accuracy and speed of
all linear measurements with tape. He determines and directs the marking
of stations to be occupied by the surveying instruments and directs the
clearing out of obstruction along the line of sight. He inspects and
compares tapes for standard length prior to their use in taping operations
and is responsible for eliminating or reducing possible errors and mistakes
in taping.

8. Rear Tapeman – The person whose duty is to assist the head tape man
during taping operations and in other related work.

9. Flagman – The person whose duty is to hold the flagpole or range pole
at selected points as directed by the instrumentman. He helps the
tapeman in making measurements and assists the axeman in cutting
down branches and in clearing other obstructions to line of sight. Where
electronic distance measuring instruments are used, he is responsible for
setting up reflectors or targets.

10. Rodman – The person whose primary duty is to hold the stadia or
leveling rod when sights are to be taken on it.

11. Pacer – The person whose duty is to check all linear measurements
made by the tapeman. He assists the tapeman in seeing to it that
mistakes and blunders in linear measurements are either reduced or
eliminated. In addition, the pacer may also perform the job of a
rodman.

12. Axeman/Lineman – The person whose duty is to clear the line of sight
of trees, brush, and other obstructions in wooded country. He is
also
 responsible for the security and safety of the members of the survey party
at the survey site. The axeman is usually provided not only with an axe or
rifle or a sidearm as well. If this member is lawfully authorized to do so. In
some instances, it would be advisable to request military or police
authorities for needed security or hire authorized security guards.

13. Aidman – The person whose duty is to render first aid treatment to
members of the survey party who are involved in snake or insects
bites, accidents, and other cases involving their health, safety, and well
being. In addition, he may be designated as an assistant instrumentman.

14. Utilitymen – The persons whose duties are to render other forms of
assistance needed by the survey party or as directed by the chief of party.
Where a survey vehicle is used, a utilityman is designated as driver. If the
survey party has to camp out for days in the field, utilitymen are
responsible for setting up the camp site and its required facilities. They
prepare and serve meals, and also responsible for the handling and
transporting of surveying equipments, accessories, and supplies. The
laying of concrete monuments, markers, and signals at designated
points are also their responsibility.

2.3 Errors and Mistakes

Errors

An error is defines as the difference between the true value and the
measured value of a quantity. It is a deviation of an observation or a
calculation from the true value and is often beyond the control of the
one performing the operation. Since the true value of a quantity can never
be ascertained by measurements, the exact value of an error, likewise,
can never be determined in any measurement.

Errors are inherent in all measurements and result from sources which
cannot be avoided. They may be caused by the type of equipment
used or by the way in which the equipment is employed. It may also be
caused by the imperfections or the senses of the person undertaking
the measurement or by natural causes. The effects of errors cannot be
entirely eliminated; they can, however, be minimized by careful work
and by applying corrections.

In any surveying operation the surveyor is continuously dealing with errors. If

the work must be performed to exacting standards, he must
understand thoroughly the different kinds of error, their sources and
behavior, magnitude, and effects upon field measurements. It is only then
that he can
intelligently select the instruments to be used and the survey methods to
be employed which will reduce errors to acceptable limits.

Mistakes

Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some

aspect of a surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with
carelessness, inattention, poor judgment, and improper execution.
Mistakes are also caused by a misunderstanding of the problem,
inexperience, or indifference of the surveyor. A large mistake is
referred to a blunder. Mistakes and blunders are not classified as errors
because they usually are so large in magnitude when compared to errors.

Among students of surveying, mistakes which are frequently

committed includes: reading the wrong graduation of the tape,
omitting a whole length of tape, transposition of figures, reading a
scale backward, misplacing a decimal point, incorrect recording of filed
notes, adding a row or column of numbers incorrectly, etc. For example,
a tapeman may read a number on the tape as 6 when it should actually
be 9, or he may read a taped distance as 48.6 m but recorded as 46.8 m
in the field notes. Another example of a mistake is in the recording of a
series of repeated measurements of a line. The tapeman may record
the measurements as follows: 243.85 m, 243.88 m, 234.80 m, 243.86 m,
and 243.85 m. If a cursory inspection is made of the recorded values, it
will be noted that the third value disagrees significantly with the
others. This apparently is because transposition of figures in the process
of recording.

If careful attention is given to the execution of any surveying

operation, mistakes can be avoided. The various types of mistakes,
however, can only be corrected if discovered. Their detection can be
made by systematic checking of all work, making a common sense
estimate and analysis, or by making a duplicate measurement.

Undetected mistakes may produce very serious effects on the final result
of a survey such that the surveyor should exert every possible effort to
minimize their occurrence. When mistakes are discovered, corrections
should immediately be made. It is usually advisable to repeat a
measurement when a mistake is detected. However, if an adequate
number of other measurements of the same quantity are available and
closely agree, the widely divergent results should be discarded.
Mistakes have no place in engineering and surveying works. The effects
of errors can be minimized, but they cannot be entirely eliminated,
whereas mistakes can be detected and removed from recorded
measurements.
Types of Errors
In surveying, errors in measurements are either systematic or accidental.
These are defined in terms of their behaviour to sign and magnitude, and
the conditions prevailing during the measurement.

1. Systematic Errors - This type of error is one which always have the
same sign and magnitude as long as field conditions remain constant
and unchanged. For changing field conditions there is a corresponding
change in magnitude of the error, however, the sign remains constant.

Systematic error will repeat itself in other measurements, still maintaining the
same sign, and thus will accumulate. It is for this reason that this type of error
is also called a cumulative error. For instance, in making a
measurement with a 30-m tape which is 5 cm too short, the same error is
made each time the tape is used. If a full tape length is used six times, the
error accumulates and totals six times the error (or 30 cm) for the total
measurement.

Systematic errors conform to mathematical and physical laws. Such errors

can be computed and their effects eliminated by applying corrections,
employing proper techniques in the use of instruments, or by adopting
a field procedure which will automatically eliminate it. In surveying,
systematic errors occur due to instrumental factors, natural causes,
and human limitations of the observer. This type of error will continue to
persist and impose regular effects in the performance of a survey
operation.

2. Accidental Errors - These errors are purely accidental in character. The

occurrence of such errors are matters of chance as they are likely to
be positive or negative, and may tend in part to compensate or
average according to laws of probability. There is no absolute way of
determining or eliminating them since the error for an observation of
quantity is not likely to be same as for second observation.

Accidental errors are caused by factors beyond the control of the

surveyors and are present in all surveying measurements. They remain
after mistakes and systematic errors have been eliminated. An example
of such an error is the failure of the tapeman to exert the correct amount
of pull on the ends of a tape during measurement. Sometimes he may
exert a pull beyond that which is required, and sometimes less than
what is required. Another example is in the reading of an angle with a
transit. Since the instrumentman cannot read it perfectly, there would
be times when he would read a value which is too large and, in another
attempt, he may read a value which would be too small. These errors
are likely to have either a positive or a negative sign, and tend to
cancel each other or compensate for each other.
In comparison to systematic errors, accidental errors are usually of minor
importance in surveying operations since they are variable in sign and are
of a compensating nature. This characteristic usually tends to balance out
in the final results. Although the total error increases as the number of
measurements increases, the total error becomes proportionally less when
compared with the number of measurements, and the accuracy
becomes greater as the number of measurements increases.

Sources of Errors

The sources of errors in surveying measurements are classified under the

following three groups.

1. Instrumental Errors – These errors are due to imperfections in the

instrument used, either from faults in their construction or from improper
adjustment between the different parts prior to their use. Surveying
instruments just like any other instruments, are never perfect; proper
corrections and field methods are applied to bring the measurements
within certain allowable limits of precision. Moreover, with time and
continuous usage, the wear and tear of the instrument will likely be cause
for errors. Examples of instrumental errors are:

a) Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.

b) Using a levelling rod with painted graduations not perfectly spaced.

c) Determining the difference in elevation between two points with an

instrument whose line of sight is not in adjustment.

d) Sighting on a rod which is warped.

e) Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or level.

2. Natural Errors – These errors are caused by variations in the

phenomena of nature such as changes in magnetic declination,
temperature, humidity, wind, refraction, gravity, and curvature of the
earth. Natural errors are beyond control of man. However, in order to
keep the resulting errors within allowable limits, necessary precautions can
be taken. Methods can also be adapted to suit prevailing conditions.

The surveyor may not be able to totally remove the cause of such errors
but he can minimize their effects by making proper corrections of the
results and using good judgment. Common examples are:

a) The effect of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape.

 b) Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to variations in
magnetic declination.

c) Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the earth’s curvature
and atmospheric refraction.

d) Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown sidewise by

a strong wind.

e) Error in the measurement of a horizontal distance due to slope or

uneven ground.

3. Personal Errors – These errors arise principally from limitations of the

senses of sight, touch, and hearing of the human observer which are
likely to be erroneous or inaccurate. This type of fallibility differs from one
individual to another and may vary due to certain circumstances
existing during a measurement. Some personal errors are constant, some
are compensating, while others may be erratic. Personal errors are
significantly reduced or eliminated as skills are developed in surveying
operations through constant practice and experience. Errors of this type
are also eliminated by employing appropriate checking of procedures
in the taking and recording of measurements. Typical of these errors are:

a) Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of plumb during

sighting.

b) Error in measurement of vertical angle when the cross hairs of the

telescope are not positioned correctly on the target.

c) Making erroneous estimate of the required pull to be applied on a steel

tape during measurement.

2.4 Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy and precision are two terms which are constantly used in
surveying; however, their correct meanings are often misunderstood.
While accuracy may be synonymous with precision, the two should not be
used interchangeably. The surveyor should not always attempt to
measurements which are not accurate but also precise.

Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute

or true value of the quantity measured. It implies the closeness
between related measurements and their expectations. The difference
between the measured value of a quantity and its actual value represents
the total error in the measurement. As the measured value approaches
the actual value,
the magnitude of the total error is decreased, the accuracy of the
measurement increases. Therefore, a measurement is termed less
accurate if it deviates by a significant amount from its expected value, and
it is more accurate if the deviation is relatively small.

The following example illustrates the meaning of accuracy. A line known or

accepted to be 100.000 m long is measured twice with a steel tape.
The first measured value is 100.003 m and the second is 95.995 m. The
first measurement is said to be more accurate than the second
measurement since the error in the measurement is only 0.003 m as
compared to that of the second measurement which is 0.005 m.

Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which

any physical measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to
one another of a set of repeated measurements of a quantity. Thus, if a
set of observations is closely clustered together, the observation is said
to have been obtained with high precision. Since precision relates to the
expertness of manipulation on the part of the observer or to the
capabilities of the instrument used, it requires the use of precise
instruments under ideal conditions employing the best techniques.

A method frequently used to define and distinguish between accuracy

and precision is illustrated in Fig. 4-1. The figures given show possible
groupings of rifle shots upon different targets. In Fig 4-1a, the results
shown were very precise because the rifle shots were clustered close to
each other. However, they were not accurate since the shots were
located some distance from the bull’s eye. It is then apparent that
measurements may be precise but not necessarily accurate if they are
closely grouped together but about a value that is different from the
expectation by a significant amount.

In Fig. 4-1b, the rifleman fired accurately on the target as the rifle shots
were placed relatively close to the bull’s eye. The shots, however, were
not precise as they were slightly scattered with respect to the bull’s
eye. This illustration is used to explain that measurements may be
accurate but not precise if they are well distributed about the expected
value but are significantly dispersed from each other. The result shown in
Fig. 4-c portray rifle shots upon a target which are both precise and
accurate as they were placed within the bull’s eye and very closely
clustered. Using this illustration, we can show that measurements could
be both precise and accurate if they are closely grouped around the
expected value. The results shown in Fig. 4-1d portray rifle shots which
are not accurate and not precise since they were widely scattered all
over the target frame. There is no evident sign of clustering and
nearness of the rifle shots to the bull’s eye.
It is desirable for surveying measurements to be made with high precision.
Unfortunately, however, an increase in precision usually warrants a
directly proportionate increase in the time and effort of the surveyor. It
should then be the responsibility of the surveyor to obtain a degree of
precision which could be as high as can be justified according to the
purpose of the survey.

Theory of Probability

Probability is defined as the number of times something will probably

occur over the range of possible occurrences. It is very much involved in
games of chance, such as throwing dice, tossing a coin, or in various
games using cards. Things do happen randomly or by chance and these
are proven by principles of mathematics commonly referred to as
probability. Different theories of probability are not only applicable to
games of chance; they are also used in scientific and engineering
measurements such as in surveying.

Accidental errors exist in all surveying measurements and their magnitude

and frequency are governed by the same general principles of probability.
In dealing with probability, it is assumed that we refer principally only
to accidental errors and that all systematic errors and mistakes have
been eliminated. In high precision surveys extra effort is made to
eliminate systematic errors. The precision of measured quantity is
dependent upon the accidental error it contains.

The theory of probability is useful in indicating the precision of results only in

so far as they are affected in accidental errors. It does not, however, in
any way determine the magnitude of systematic errors which may also
be present. The theory assumes an infinite number of occurrences of
all possible events; however, it may be applied with good results to a
limited
 but fairly large number of observations. To form a judgment of a probable
value or the probable precision of a measured quantity, it is necessary
to rely upon this theory.

The theory of probability is based upon the following assumptions relative

to the occurrences of errors:

1) Small errors occur more often than large ones and that they are
more probable.

2) Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less probable;

for normally distributed errors, unusual large ones may be mistakes rather
than accidental errors.

3) Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal
frequency; that is, they are equally probable.

4) The mean of an infinite number of observations is the most probable

value.

By applying the principles of probability, measurements containing

accidental errors could be adjusted. The most probable value of a set
of observations could then be determined and inherent discrepancies
are eliminated from such measurements. It must be understood, however,
that the results of such adjustments are not the true values, but are
the most probable values which could be derived from the given
measurements.

In this lesson, only the simpler applications of the laws of probability will
be considered. A thorough understanding of it may be obtained by the
study of the method of least squares.

2.5 Most Probable Value

From the theory of probability, a basic assumption is that the most

probable value (mpv) of a group of repeated measurements made
under similar conditions is the arithmetic mean or the average. Most
probable value refers to a quantity which, based on available data, has
more chances of being correct than has any other value.

Since the true values of measured quantities must remain forever

unknown, it is possible to obtain by measurements only approximations of
true values. Therefore, if a given quantity is measured more than one
time, resulting in more than one value, not all the derived values are
correct. There is only
 one correct value that should be considered and it is determined by using
the following equation:
∑𝑥 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = x̅ = =
𝑛 𝑛

Where mpv or x̅ is the most probable value of the quantity measured, ∑ 𝑥

is the sum of the individual measurements, and n is the total number
of observations made. The above equation is derived from the principle
of least squares, which is based on the theory of probability.

In the case of related measurements taken under identical conditions

where the sum should equal a mathematically exact quantity, the most
probable values are the observed values corrected by an equal part of
the total error. Such a situation would only be possible in the case of
angles about a point or angles in a geometric figure. The correction is
not in proportion to the magnitude of the individual measurements but
to the number of related measurements. It is also a different case for
related measurements taken under identical conditions when the sum
should equal to a single measurement. Here, the most probable values
are obtained by dividing the discrepancy (i.e., the difference between
two measured values of the same quantity) equally among all the
measurements, including the sum. If the correction is subtracted from
each of the related measurements, it is added to the measurement
representing their sum, and vice versa.

Determination of the most probable value from a series of measurements

is the principal use of the theory of probability.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

E2-1 MOST PROBABLE VALUE. A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students
to measure a distance between two points marked on the ground. The
students came up with the following six different values: 250.25, 250.15,
249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and 251.22 meters. Assuming these values are
equally reliable and that variation results from accidental errors,
determine the most probable value of the distance measured.

Solution:
∑𝑥 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = x̅ = =
𝑛 𝑛
 ∑𝑥 250.25 + 250.15 + 249.90 + 251.04 + 250.50 + 251.22
= = 𝟐𝟓𝟎. 𝟓𝟏 𝒎
𝑛 6
E2-2 MOST PROBABLE VALUE. The angles about a point Q have the following
observed values. 130°15’20’’, 142°37’30’’, and 87°07’40’’. Determine the
most probable value of each angle.

Solution:

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛:

𝜃1 = 130°15′20′′
𝜃2 = 142°37′30′′
𝜃3 = 87°07′40′′
𝑛 = 3 (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠)

𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑:

𝑆𝑢𝑚 = 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃3 = 130°15′20′′ + 142°37′30′′ + 87°07′40′′ = 360°00′30′′

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 360° − 360°00′30′′ = −30′′

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 30′′
=− = −10′′
𝑛 3
𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

𝜃1′ = 𝜃1 ± 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 130°15′20′′ − 10′′ = 𝟏𝟑𝟎°𝟏𝟓′𝟏𝟎′′

𝜃2′ = 𝜃2 ± 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 142°37′30′′ − 10′′ = 𝟏𝟒𝟐°𝟑𝟕′𝟐𝟎′′
𝜃3′ = 𝜃3 ± 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 87°07′40′′ − 10′′ = 𝟖𝟕°𝟎𝟕′𝟑𝟎′′

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘:

𝜃1′+𝜃2′+𝜃3′=130°15′10′′+142°37′20′′+87°07′30′′=360°00′00′′
2.6 Residual
 The residual, which is sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as
the difference between any measured value of a quantity and its most
probable value or:

𝑣 = 𝑥 − x̅

Where v is the residual in any measurements, x is a measurement made

of a particular quantity, and x̅ is the most probable value of the
quantity measured. Residuals and errors are theoretically identical. The
only difference is that the residuals can be calculated whereas errors
cannot because there is no way of knowing true values. For a
particular set of measurements, it is important to compare the
residuals with the average value for those residuals. When very large
residuals are detected they are usually discarded and the required
calculations are continues only with the remaining ones.

2.7 Most Probable Error

The probable error is a quantity which, when added to or subtracted from

the most probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50
percent chance that the true value of measured quantity lies inside (or
outside) the limits thus set.

If errors are arranged in order of magnitude, it will be possible to

determine the probable error. This is the error that would be found in the
middle place of the arrangement, such that one half of the errors are
greater than it and the other half are less than it.

The value of the probable error is calculated with the use of the
following formulae which derived from the method of least squares.

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745 ∑ 𝑣2
√𝑛 − 1

∑ 𝑣2
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√
𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)
Where:

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠

 𝑃𝐸𝑚 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
∑ 𝑣2 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

The determination and use of the probable error in surveying is primarily

to give an indication of the precision of a particular measurement. It is
often an approximate value and is not mathematically exact since only
a few repeated measurements are usually made and the conditions of
measurement are not rigidly controlled. For example, if 235.50 m
represents the mean or most probable value of several measurements
and 0.10 m represents the probable error of the mean value, the
chances are even that the true value lies between 235.40 m and
235.60 m, as it is also probable that the true value lies outside of the
limiting values. Note that the lower and upper limits are determined by
correspondingly subtracting and adding 0.10 m to 235.50 meters. To
express the probable limits of precision for this particular case, the
quantity should be written as:

235.50 ± 0.10 𝑚

The sign or direction of the probable error is not known and therefore
no correction can be made. It does not specify the magnitude of the
actual error, nor does it indicate the error most likely to occur. The
probable error is not a subjective guess. It is a logical estimate based
upon the methods and equipment used, upon the experience of the
observers, and upon the field conditions existing during the measurement.

2.8 Relative Precision

The sign or direction of the probable error is not known and therefore
no correction can be made. It does not specify the magnitude of the
actual error, nor does it indicate the error most likely to occur. The
probable error is not a subjective guess. It is a logical estimate based
upon the methods and equipment used, upon the experience of the
observers, and upon the field conditions existing during the measurement.

The total amount of error in a given measurement should relate to the

magnitude of the measured quantity in order to indicate the accuracy
of a measurement. In surveying measurements, ratio of the error to
the measured quantity is used to define the degree of refinement
obtained.
 Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a
fraction having the magnitude of the error in the numerator and the
magnitude of measured quantity in the denominator. It is necessary to
express both quantities in the same units, and the numerator is reduced
to unity or 1 in order to provide an easy comparison with other
measurements. For example, if for a particular measurement the
probable error of the mean is
0.10 m and the most probable value of the measurement is 235.50 m, the
relative precision (RP) would be expressed as 0.10/235.50 or 1/2355, also
written as 1:2355.

2.9 Weighted Observations

It is not always possible to obtain measurements of equal reliability under

similar conditions. Many surveying measurements are made under
different circumstances and conditions and therefore have different
degrees of reliability.

The problem often encountered is how to combine these

measurements and determine the most probable values. For a situation it
is necessary to estimate the degree of reliability (or weight) for each of
the measurement before they are combined and the most probable
values are determined.

The assignment of relative weight to different measurements is usually

based upon the judgment of the surveyor, the number of
measurements taken for a particular quantity, and assuming that the
weights are inversely proportional to the square of the probable errors.
Among experienced surveyors, the assignment of weights to observed
values is often a matter of judgment. In some instances, weights are
assigned on the basis of weather conditions prevailing at the time of
measurements were made. A measured length obtained on a bright early
morning could be considered as more reliable than one measured on a
cold and rainy day. This method of assigning weights will require good
judgment and can only be expected of more experienced surveyors. In
the case of repeated measurements, if a quantity is measured, for
example, in two repetitions by group A and four repetitions by group B,
then the measurement taken by group B should be given twice the weight
of the measurement of group A. This means that the measurement of
group B is regarded as twice as reliable as that of group
A. The assignment of weights is purely relative. For this stated example, any
 weights in the ratio of 2 to 1 may be assigned instead of 2 and 1. For
instance, the weights may be 1and ½, 4 and 2, or 16 and 8.

Interrelationship of Errors

In some instances, it is required to determine how the final result is

affected when a computation involves quantities that are subject to
accidental errors. Two commonly applied principles of the theory of errors
involve the summation of errors and the product of errors. These
principles are given to provide the student a better understanding of the
propagation of errors.

1. Summation of Errors – If several measured quantities are added, each

of which is affected by accidental errors, the probable error of the sum is
given by the square root of the sum of the squares of the separable
probable error arising from the several sources or:

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±√𝑃𝐸12 + 𝑃𝐸22 + 𝑃𝐸32 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝐸𝑛2

Where:

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚

𝑃𝐸1, 𝑃𝐸2, 𝑒𝑡𝑐. = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑

2. Product of Errors – For a measured quantity which is determined as the

product of two other independency measured quantities such as 𝑄1and
𝑄2 (with their corresponding probable errors), the probable error of the
product is given by the following equation:

𝑃𝐸𝑝 = ±√(𝑄1𝑥𝑃𝐸2)2 + (𝑄2𝑥𝑃𝐸1)2

Where:

𝑃𝐸𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡

𝑄1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄2 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑃𝐸1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐸2 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

E2-3 PROBABLE ERROR – The following values were determined in a series of tape
measurements of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and
1000.46 meters. Determine the following:
 a) Most probable value of the measured length.
b) Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean.
c) Final expression for the most probable length.
d) Relative precision of the measurement.

Solution:

𝑛=6
∑ 𝑋 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + 𝑋4 + 𝑋5 + 𝑋6

∑ 𝑋 = 1000.58 + 1000.40 + 1000.38 + 1000.48 + 1000,40 + 1000.46 = 6002.70 𝑚

∑𝑋 6002.70 𝑚
x̅ = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎
𝑛 6
𝑣1 = (𝑋1 − x̅ ) = 1000.58 − 1000.45 = +0.13
𝑣2 = (𝑋2 − x̅ ) = 1000.40 − 1000.45 = −0.05
𝑣3 = (𝑋3 − x̅ ) = 1000.38 − 1000.45 = −0.07
𝑣4 = (𝑋4 − x̅ ) = 1000.48 − 1000.45 = +0.03
𝑣5 = (𝑋5 − x̅ ) = 1000.40 − 1000.45 = −0.05
𝑣6 = (𝑋6 − x̅ ) = 1000.46 − 1000.45 = +0.01

∑ 𝑣 = 0.00

𝑣12 = (+0.13)2 = 0.0169

𝑣22 = (−0.05)2 = 0.0025
𝑣32 = (−0.07)2 = 0.0049
𝑣42 = (+0.03)2 = 0.0009
𝑣52 = (−0.05)2 = 0.0025
𝑣62 = (+0.01)2 = 0.0001

∑ 𝑣2 = 𝑣12 + 𝑣22 + 𝑣32 + 𝑣42 + 𝑣52 + 𝑣62

∑ 𝑣2 = 0.0169 + 0.0025 + 0.0049 + 0.0009 + 0.0025 + 0.0001 = 0.0278

𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠:

Measured Length (X) Residual (v = X - 𝐱̅ ) Square of Residual (v2)

1000.58 m +0.13 0.0169
1000.40 m -0.05 0.0025
1000.38 m -0.07 0.0049
 1000.48 m +0.03 0.0009
1000.40 m -0.05 0.0025
1000.46 m +0.01 0.0001
∑ 𝑋 = 6002.70 ∑ 𝑣 = 0.00 ∑𝑣2 = 0.0278

∑ 𝑣2 0.0278
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745√ = ±0.6745√ = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎
(𝑛 − 1) (6 − 1)
∑ 𝑣2 0.0278
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√ = ±0.6745√ = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒎
𝑛 (𝑛 − 1) 6(6 − 1)
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 1000.45 𝑚 ± 0.02 𝑚
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 50 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠
𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 1000.43 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1000.47 𝑚, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 1000.45 𝑚.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜, ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑎 50 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒.
0.05 𝟏
𝑅𝑃𝑠 𝑃𝐸𝑠 = =
=
𝑚𝑝𝑣 1000.45 𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎

E2-4 WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. Four measurements of a distance were

recorded as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22, and 284.20 meters and given weights of
1, 3, 2, and 4, respectively. Determine the weighted mean.

Solution:

Measured Length (x) Assigned Weight (w) P = x(w)

284.18 m 1 284.18
284.19 m 3 852.57
284.22 m 2 568.44
284.20 m 4 1136.80
Sums ∑ 𝑤 = 10 ∑ 𝑃 = 2841.99

∑𝑃 2841.99
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = = 𝟐𝟖𝟒. 𝟐𝟎 𝒎
∑𝑤 10
E2-5 WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. The length of a line was measured repeatedly
on three different occasions and the probable error of each mean value
was computed with the following results:

1st Set of Measurements 1201.50 ± 0.02 m

2ND Set of Measurements 1201.45 ± 0.04 m
3rd. Set of Measurements 1201.62 ± 0.05 m

Determine the weighted mean of three sets of measurements.

Solution:

Measurement Measured Probable (E)2 W = Relative P = X(RW)

Value (X) Error (E) 1/E 2 Weight
(RW)
A 1201.50 m ± 0.02 m 0.0004 2500 6.25 7509.38
B 1201.45 m ± 0.04 m 0.0016 625 1.56 1874.26
C 1201.62 m ± 0.05 m 0.0025 400 1.00 1201.62
Sums 8.81 10585.26

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝐴 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 1.00 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑠

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑊), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠:

∑𝑃 10585.26
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 𝒎
∑ 𝑅𝑊 8.81
E2-6 SUMMATION OF ERRORS. The three sides of a triangular – shaped land is
given by the following measurements and corresponding probable errors:
a = 162.54 ± 0.03 m, b = 234.26 ± 0.05 m, and c = 195.70 ± 0.04 m.
Determine
the probable error of the sum and the most probable value of the
perimeter.

Solution:
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 162.54 + 234.26 + 195.70 = 592.50 𝑚
 𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±√𝑃𝐸12 + 𝑃𝐸22 + 𝑃𝐸32 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝐸𝑛2

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±√ (0.03)2 + (0.05)2 + (0.04)2 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟕 𝒎

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 592.50

± 0.07 𝑚. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 592.43 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 592.57 𝑚

Modular Questions

M2-1 MOST PROBABLE VALUE. The observed interior angles of a triangles are A
= 35°14’37’’, B = 96°30’09’’, and C = 48°15’05’’. Determine the
discrepancy for the given observation and the most probable value of
each angle.

M2-2 MOST PROBABLE VALUE. Measurement of three horizontal angles about a

point P are: APB = 12°31’50’’, BPC = 37°29’20’’, and CPD = 47°36’30’’. If the
measurement of the single angle APD is 97°37’00’’, determine the
most probable values of the angles.

M2-3 WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. If is desired to determine the most probable

value of an angle which has been measured at different times by different
observers with equal care. The values observed were as follows:
74°39’45’’ (in two measurements), 74°39’27’’ (in four measurements),
and 74°39’35’’ (in six measurements).

M2-4 PRODUCT OF ERRORS. The two sides of a rectangle lot were measured
with certain estimated probable errors as follows: W = 253.36 ± 0.06 m,
and L =
624.15 ± 0.08 m. Determine the area of the lot and the probable error in the
resulting calculation.

References
La Putt, J.P. (1987). Elementary Surveying (3rd. ed.). Baguio City, Philippines:
Baguio Research & Publishing Center

Disclaimer
This module may contain copyrighted material, the use of which may
not have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner.
 However, this module was created and made to serve as a tool for
educational purposes only and will be distributed without any profit.

Modular Questions
M1-1 Briefly discuss your understanding on the concepts of surveying.

Surveying is the study and craftmanship of determining direct and angular measurements of
earth through the utilization of specific strategy, equipment and applied mathematics. This is to
build up the relative situation, degree and structure of lines, regions and focuses close or on
earth’s surface and extraterrestrial bodies.

M1-2 Differentiate Plane Surveying from Geodetic Surveying.

Plane surveying is the method involved with surveying by expecting that the earth is flat while
geodetic surveying is a course of surveying by thinking about the circular and curve state of the
earth. Plane surveying additionally utilizes ordinary instruments like theodolite, chain and
estimating tape while geodetic surveying utilizes current innovation and more exact instruments
like GPS.

M1-3 Enumerate and discuss at least five (5) types of surveying.

1. Cadastral Surveys – These are typically closed overviews which are attempted in
provincial and metropolitan areas to characterize and determine property limits and lines,
regions and corners. Additionally, these surveys are made to fix the limits of provincial,
regional and town wards.

2. Hydrographic Surveys – Refer to reviewing seas, harbors, reservoirs, lakes, streams and
different waterways. These reviews are made to measure the progression of streams,
plan shore lines and outline the state of regions underlying water surfaces.

3. Industrial Surveys – It alludes to the utilization of studying strategies in establishment and

design of complex and weighty machines, transport development and construction, and in
different ventures where exceptionally precise dimensional formats are required. In some
cases, it is known as optical tooling.

4. Photogrammetric Surveys – It is a sort of survey which utilizes photos taken with uniquely
designed cameras either from ground stations or planes. Measurements are gotten from
the photos which are utilized in relation to restricted ground overviews.

5. Topographic Surveys – These studies are made for determining the state of the ground,
and its fake and regular elements’ elevation and area. The components shown
incorporate works of man and normal objects like streets, structures, towns, ports,
regions, and scaffolds.

How to solve the angles?

You just only multiply the given by how many times that it is measured. Then you
just only add angle to angle, mins to mins and second to second.
Length conversion
Millimeter (mm) > 1,000,000
= Kilometer (km) > 1

1.
The following data were recorded in a measurement of line J-K;

540.55, 542.55, 542.07, 541.22, 543.77, 542.79 m.

a) Determine the value of MPV

 542.158 m

b) What is the Probable Error for Singular Measurement?

 +- 0.776 m

c) What is the Probable Error for the Mean?

 +- 0.311 m

2.
A civil engineer wants to determine the horizontal length of two points, X and Y.
He used Gunter’s Chain as his measuring device and the links covered by line XY
is exactly 48 Links. What is the length of the line?

 31.68 ft

3.
The following were recorded data of a line GH which were recorded by three
surveying groups:

Group 1: 41.16 m – Measured 5 times

Group 2: 38.22 m – Measured 4 times
Group 3: 42.11 m – Measured 3 times

Determine the value of the weighted mean

 40.4175 m

4.
Round off 3565.2575 to the nearest tenths

 3565.3

5.
The following data were recorded in a measurement of line J-K;
 540.55, 542.55, 542.07, 541.22, 543.77, 541.52 m.

a) Determine the value of MPV

 541.947 m

6.
Convert 220 degrees into gradians

 244.444

7.
The probable error of the mean of 6 observation is +-0.043 m and the most
probable value of the measurement is 880 m. Compute the relative precision.

 1/20,465.12

8. The following sides of a rectangle and its probable errors are: 120.40 m +-
0.07 m and 360,50 m +- 0.08 m, respectively. Compute the probable errors of
the sum of the sides of the rectangle.

 +- 0.106 m

9.
The following were recorded data of a line GH which were recorded by three
surveying groups:

Group 1: 41.16 m – Measured 5 times

Group 2: 38.22 m – Measured 4 times
Group 3: 42.11 m – Measured 3 times

Determine the value of the weighted mean

 39.9125 m

10.
A civil engineer wants to determine the horizontal length of two points, X and Y.
He used Gunter’s Chain as his measuring device and the links covered by line XY
is exactly 49 Links. What is the length of the line?

 32.34 ft