FUNDAMENTALS OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Introduction

Remote Sensing can be broadly defined as the collection of information about an

object or physical phenomena without being in physical contact with the object or
phenomenon. Aircraft and satellites are the most common platforms from which remote
sensing observations are made. Aerial photography is the original form of remote sensing
and has wide applications in topographical mapping, engineering, environmental studies and
exploration for oil and minerals. In the early stages of development, aerial photographs
were obtained from balloons and kites. Later, with the development of airplane (1903) and
specifically during the World War (1914 to 1918), aerial photography received more atten-
tion in the interest of military intelligence.

In India, aerial photographs have been in use since 1920 for aerial surveys and for
interpretation in specific fields such as geology. Attempts were also made to use
terrestrial photographs obtained from photo-theodolites for survey purposes around 1899.
Photogrammetric methods for mapping were introduced in the 1948 with the advent of
multiplex stereo plotting instrument. Later, such equipment was further augmented with
the acquisition of modern stereo plotting instruments during the period from 1954 to 1956.
Since then, Survey of India (the national mapping agency) has kept itself abreast of the
technological changes in the fields of photogrammetric mapping and aerial photography.

The present discussion confines itself to aerial remote sensing only i.e. aerial
photography.

Aerial Photography

Aerial photography is defined as the science of obtaining photographs from the air
using various platforms, mostly aircraft, for studying the surface of the earth. The sun
provides the source of energy (electromagnetic radiation or EMR) and the photosensitive
film acts as a sensor to record the images. Variations in the gray tones of the various
images in a photograph indicate different amounts of energy reflected from the objects as
recorded on the film.

The earth's atmosphere, which contain various particles and molecules of gases and
water vapor, attenuates the incoming as well the outgoing energy/radiation (scattering)
after interaction (reflectance, transmittance and absorption) with the object and thus
reduces the contrast between different images formed on the photographic film.
Therefore, the quality of aerial photography largely depends upon the atmospheric
conditions prevailing at that time. Different filter/lens combinations can, however, be used
to eliminate some of the atmospheric effects in black and white photography by making use
of a yellow (minus blue) filter to reduce the effects of haze. The problem becomes more
complex in the case of colour photography. Other factors that influence aerial photography
are as follows.

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Scale
Scale is the ratio of distances between two images on an aerial photograph and the
actual distance between the same two points/objects on the ground, in other words the
ratio f/H (where f is the focal length of the camera lens and H is the flying height above
the mean terrain). Due to variations in flying height, the scales of different photographs
may vary. Scale may also vary because of the effects of tilt and relief displacements.

Camera/Film/Filter Combinations In order to extract the maximum information from

aerial photograph, the image should be of the highest quality. To ensure good image quality,
modern distortion-free cameras are used. Some of the latest versions have image motion
compensation devices to eliminate or reduce the effects of forward motion. Depending
upon the requirements, different lens/focal length/film/filter combinations can be used.

Flight Direction

As a rule, aerial photography is flown in strips to cover the designated area. For
convenience in handling, it is advisable to keep the number of strips to minimum. The flight
direction of the strips is therefore kept along the length of the area. This direction may
be any suitable direction along a natural or man-made feature and should be clearly
specified.

Time/Season of Photography

The time of aerial photography is very important, as long, deep shadows tend to
obscure details, where as small shadows tend to delineate some details effectively and are
generally advantageous in improving the interpretational values of a photograph. Based on
experience, aerial photography should be flown when the sun's elevation is 30 degrees above
the horizon, or three hours before and after the local noontime.

The choice of the most suitable season depends on factors such as seasonal
variations in light reflectance, seasonal changes in the vegetation cover and seasonal
changes in climatological factors. The purpose for which aerial photography is flown also
dictates the season. For example, for photogrammetric mapping, geological or soil survey
purposes, the ground should be as clearly visible as possible.

Atmospheric Conditions

As mentioned before, the presence of particles (smoke or dust) and molecules of

gases in the atmosphere tends to reduce contrast because of scattering, especially by the
heavier particles; therefore the best time for photography is when the sky is clear, which
normally in India is from November to February. The presence of dust and smoke during
the pre monsoon summer months and of clouds during the monsoon months forbids aerial
photography during these periods.

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Stereoscopic Coverage

To examine the earth's surface in three dimensions, aerial photography is normally

flown with a 60 % forward overlap and a 25 % side lap, to provide full coverage of the area.
This is an essential requirement from the photogrammetric mapping point of view to obtain
data both on planimetry and heights using the stereoscopic principle of observation in 3-D
and measurement techniques with stereo plotting instruments. Stereoscopic viewing also
helps in interpretation, as the model is viewed in three dimensions.

Applications of Aerial Photography

Mapping

The application of aerial photography in photogrammetric mapping is an established

procedure all over the world. It has been found to be fast, accurate, indispensable in
inaccessible areas and cost effective in the long run, as initially the establishment of a
photogrammetric survey/mapping unit involves capital expenditure due to the cost of
photogrammetric instruments and other ancillary equipment.

Interpretation

Photo interpretation has revolutionalised the methods of data collection in various

disciplines. It greatly reduces the fieldwork and thereby the cost. The information is
reliable and acceptance for most studies such as in the fields of geology, water resources,
geomorphology, hydrogeology, forestry and ecology, soil surveys, and urban and regional
planning.

Map Substitute

In a situation where there are no adequate large-scale maps available, aerial

photographs can serve as map substitutes in the form of photomaps. In the case of
relatively flat terrain, these photomaps can be produced by rectification to remove the
effects of tilt distortion and scale correction. This method has been found to be three to
four times faster than conventional mapping by photogrammetric methods. In the case of
hilly terrain, such photomaps (orthophoto maps) can be produced by the orthophoto
technique, which has also proved to be faster than conventional mapping. In some urgent
situations, simple mosaics prepared from aerial photographs can substitute for maps.

Classification of Aerial Photography

There are different criteria to classify aerial photographs depending upon the scale,
tilt, coverage, film and spectral coverage/response. This classification can be defined as
follows:

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Scale

* Large scale: between 1:5,000 and 1:20,000

* Medium scale: between 1:20,000 and 1:50,000
* Small scale: smaller than 1:50,000 (Scale classification may differ from country to
Country)

Tilt

* Vertical: when the tilt is within ± 3° (nearly vertical)

* Oblique : Low oblique (horizon does not appear but tilt is more than 3° )
High oblique (horizon appears)
* Horizontal or terrestrial : camera axis is kept horizontal.

Angular Coverage

* Narrow angle : angle of coverage less than50°

* Normal angle : angle of coverage of 60°.
* Wide angle : angle of coverage of 90° .
* Super-wide angle : angle of coverage of 120°

Film

* Black and white panchromatic.

* Black and white infrared.
* Colour
* Colour infra-red/false colour

Spectral Coverage/Response

* Multispectral: Depending upon the number of spectral bands.

As indicated above, a wide variety of photographic data products are available for
mapmakers, interpreters and resources scientists from which they can derive data relevant
to their specific needs. A thorough knowledge of the characteristics of these data
products is therefore imperative to derive the maximum benefits and to optimize the work
procedures.

Photographic Products

In all aerial photographic tasks, the images are recorded on film negatives, which
are seldom used for mapping or interpretation. Positive prints or
transparencies/diapositives prepared from the film negatives are used for photogrammetric
mapping as well as for interpretation work. The criteria for good positive prints are that
the prints should represent the actual response and reproduce all the details in the negative
in a manner that permits easy recognition.

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 The positive materials in use are paper, film, and glass plates. Positive
transparencies, which are also called diapositives, are better as, they record all the details
present in the negatives. Diapositives are therefore used when high precision and quality
are the goals. Paper prints are, however, so much easier to handle that they are always
used for photo interpretation and field checking. The different types of photographic data
products are detailed below.

• Negatives on film (polyester based): previously on glass plates also.

• Diapositives/transparencies on film

• Contact prints on photographic paper of various grades and types. Such photographic
papers are available in grades of soft, medium and hard, and are used to obtain contact
prints of optimum contrast from the original film negative. For example, if the original
negative is of high contrast, a soft paper is used to prepare the contact prints.
Similarly, photographic paper is also available in various thickness and surface qualities
(matte or glossy) for use in different stages of mapping and interpretation.

• Enlargements obtained on film or photographic paper for specific uses.

• Colour/false colour prints. Positive prints can also be prepared on colour

films/paper/transparencies from original colour negative films for use in interpretation.
Likewise, such prints/transparencies can also be obtained from colour infra-red/false

• colour films. However, the processing of such films requires special processing
facilities.

• Multispectral photographs on film or photographic paper. In the case of multispectral

photographs from an I2S camera, it is possible to obtain colour composites or false
colour composites by the combination/superimposition of different spectral bands: for
example, the blue, green and red bands can be combined in special projection
instrument to obtain true colour composites. If the idea is only to view them,
colour/false colour composites can be obtained from special instruments such as Mini
Addcol Viewer.

Obtaining Aerial Photography

As per the existing policy of the Government of India, all types of aerial
photographs are classified documents (secret or restricted), depending upon the location
and its strategic importance. The Surveyor General of India coordinates all activities
relating to the execution of aerial photographic tasks for all civilian needs. The
coordinating authority performs the following functions :

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• Design and issue of the specifications for photographic tasks.
• Layout and priorities, clearance from various agencies and distribution of tasks among
the three flying agencies.
• Flight planning and evaluation for suitability of the executed tasks.
• Distribution of photographs to the indenter.
• Accounting for the above.

Flying Agencies

As the coordinating agency does not have its own flying facilities, the flying
operations for aerial photography are carried out by the Indian Air Force; the Air Survey
Company, Dum Dum, Calcutta and the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad.

Cost of Aerial Photography

The cost of aerial photography in India depends upon the flying agency carrying out
the operation; the scale of the aerial photography; the area covered. Cost also depends
whether the prints are supplied from fresh or existing photography.

In the case of Indian Air Force, the cost depends upon the number of actual flying
hours and the type of aircraft used: as such , the cost can not be worked out in advance.

In the case of Air Survey Company, the cost is Rs. 75.20 per square mile (Rs. 29/-
per square km) for 1:40,000 scale (1990 price - the cost is now under revision). For other
scales, a linear conversion can be made; for example at 1:5,000 scale the cost is (40/5) X
75.2 = Rs. 601.60 per square mile and at 1:60,000 scale the cost is (40/60) X 75.20 = Rs.
50.15 per square mile.

In the case of the NRSA, the cost varies from scale to scale and by the distance of
the area from their headquarters. As such, the cost must be worked out separately for
each task.

Handling of Aerial Negatives

The greatest sources of dimensional change in aerial negatives are humidity and
thermal expansion/contraction. Ideally, negatives should be kept at the same temperature
and relative humidity that existed at the time of exposure. The recommended relative
humidity is 50 to 60 per cent, and temperatures should be 70o F with +/- 3o F tolerance.
In order to ensure dimensional stability, it is advisable to control the temperature of the
aerial camera while in operation so as to be close to normal room temperature.

It is also recommended that negative rolls be stored for future use in controlled
conditions of temperature and humidity as mentioned above. While working with negatives,
their surfaces should be kept free from dust, grease, scratches and fingerprints. These
precautions will help in obtaining good quality data products on reproduction as and when
required.

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Specifications of Aerial Photography

For planning fresh photography, the purpose of the photography and scale are the
main considerations. However, while defining these specifications, the following factors
should be kept in view. Unless otherwise specified, the overlaps should be kept 60 per cent
in the forward direction and 25 per cent in the lateral direction. For special tasks and
terrains, the overlaps can be increased to 80 percent in the forward direction and 50 to 60
per cent in the lateral direction, especially in steep hilly areas and in city centers with high-
rise buildings.

• Camera lens : depending on the type of photography required.

• Film/filter combination : depending on the type of photography required.
• Shutter speed : depending on the scale, type of aircraft, its speed and film
speed/aperture (between 1/100 to 1/1,000 seconds).
• Image motion : to be kept within tolerable limits (i.e. 20 um on the negative scale) by
the proper combination of shutter speed/aperture and speed of aircraft
• Camera frame : stable mounts
• Platforms : ceiling height, stability in flying and speed limits.
• Auxiliary data : as required
• Processing : depending on the film type and the requirements of the data products.

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 AERIAL CAMERAS

Basic requirements of aerial photographs

The most important uses of aerial photographs are for production of base maps and
for application of photo-interpretation techniques for natural resources survey for geology,
soil survey and forestry purposes. In order to be useful for above purposes, aerial
photography should fulfill the following requirements :

a) the photography should provide a faithful image of even the minute’s detail,

b) the definition of photography should be clear,

c) the photography should be distortion free and continuous,

d) the tilt and crabs are within tolerable limits.

Optical aspects of aerial camera

In aerial survey owing to the movements of the camera relative to the ground, short
exposure time and the necessity for bright photography, the aerial camera should fulfill the
following requirements :

a) A large relative aperture of the taking lens to produce bright and clear photographs.

b) The photographs produced are geometrically accurate with a high degree of sharpness
and good definition over large angular field.

c) The camera lens should be free from following lens aberrations.

I. Spherical aberration - Occurs when rays from various zones of a lens focus at
different places along the axis; this results in an object point being imaged as a
blurred circle. It is caused by the spherical shape of the lens surfaces. It is
decreased as the lens aperture is reduced.(Fig.1).

II. Coma - is a comet-shaped blur of light formed around image points off the axis. It
is partly due to spherical aberration of oblique rays.

III. Astigmatism - is an aberration, which causes a point object off the axis to be
imaged as two mutually perpendicular short lines, located at different distances
from the lens. One of these is radial and other tangential with respect to centre of
the field.(Fig.2).

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IV. Curvature of the field - The surface of the best definition is located midway
between the two radial and tangential surfaces as explained in (iii) above and its
departure from flatness is termed `curvature of the field.' (Fig.2).

V. Chromatic aberration - results when rays of various wavelengths of different

colours focus at different distances from the lens. Lateral chromatic aberration is
a difference in image magnification for various colours caused by chromatic
aberration of oblique rays (Fig.3).

d) The camera lens is free from lens distortion. Radial lens distortion is
the linear
displacement of an image point radially to or from the centre of the image field - a
positive value being considered away from the centre. Tangential lens distortion is a
small displacement in the image plane perpendicular to radial lines from the centre
of the field and is caused due to either lack of precision in centering of the various
lens elements or to improper mounting of the lenses. A lens exhibiting distortion will
image a square positioned perpendicularly and symmetrically with reference to the
optical axis as a pincushion or barrel since the various zones of the image
correspond to different focal length values and consequently varying image scale
(Fig. 4).

e) The definition is good. Definition concerns the ability of a lens to record fine
details and
can be expressed as maximum number of lines pair per millimeter that can just be
seen as separate lines in the image. Normally, a resolving power of 45 lines pair per
mm is considered satisfactory.

Aerial cameras

The aerial cameras should be of a good quality. Its optical unit holding the lens,
fiducial marks and edges, which define the focal plane, should be of a rigid mechanical
structure. The main types of aerial cameras are given in Table 1.

Components of Aerial Cameras

The major components of an aerial camera are : Lens, lens cone, shutter and
diaphragm, camera body, drive mechanism, film magazine, focal plane and film flattening
device (Fig.5.).

The lens should be distortion-free and of high resolution. The lens surfaces should
have anti-reflection coatings.

The lens cone support the lens and retain it at a predetermined distance and
position from the film or plate negative, and serves to include direct light from striking the

9
film or plate. The interior of the lens cone should be black and fitted with baffles so as to
reduce the reflection of flare light.

The shutter and diaphragm of an aerial camera functions as a light value and
regulates the amount and period of time that light is permitted to pass through the lens and
expose the film or plate. The shutter should be of the between the lens type.

Fig. 1 Spherical aberration Fig. 2 Astigmation ( Dotted curves)

and curvature of field ( solid
curve )

Fig. 3 Chromatic aberration Fig. 4 Effect of lens

distortion

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 Fig. 5 An aerial camera
( a= film, b= pressure plate, c= focal plane frame, d= lens, e= filter)

11
The camera body houses the camera drive mechanism, driving motor, operating handles and
levers, electrical connections and switches and other accessories which may be
necessiciated by specified requirements.

The camera derive mechanism is the power unit and power distributor for the entire
camera. The electric motor causes the many cams gear and shafts of the camera to move.
By means of rods and couplings, the power is routed to the shutter and the film magazines.
When a cycle is completed, the camera drive receives and electrical or mechanical impulse,
operates the shutter, and thus exposes the sensitized material.

The film magazine is first of all a container of film. Besides this it contains a
driving mechanism, which receives power from the camera drive mechanism and thereby
shifts the film after each exposure has been made. In addition, the magazine contains a
means of holding the film flat in the focal plane while the exposure is being made.

The focal plane of an aerial camera is the plane in which all light rays through the
lens cone come to a focus. A frame bound the focal plane, which determine the size of the
negative. In order to provide a means for placing the emulsion of the film in the exact focal
plane, a metal plate known as locating back is used in modern aerial cameras.

The film flattening is usually accomplished in modern aerial cameras by a vacuum

system. The locating back has grooves in which there are small holes which leads to a
central vacuum connections and hold the film firmly against the focal plane frame.

Camera mounting

It is advisable to keep the maximum relative motions between image and film, arising
from angular vibrations during the longest exposure, below a value of 0.002 mm. For a good
camera mounting, the centre of support should be near the centre of gravity, the mount
should be near the centre of gravity, the mount should feel soft and yield easily to hand
pressure, with its natural frequency not higher than 5 cycles per second, and damping
should be somewhat under damped.

Intervalometer

The use of an intervalometer, which controls the automatic exposure of the camera
at, specified distance intervals, along the flight line result in correct forward overlap. The
determined exposure interval is set on the intervalometer, which is then regulated by
electric or mechanical impulses with varying flying speeds and flying heights.

Crab compensation

Another important requirement is that the camera must be able to be turned into
its mount to compensate for crab. The crab is determined through simple sighting devices

12
and is eliminated by turning the camera ;through the `angle of crab' and thus uniform
overlap over the entire breadth of the photograph is ensured.

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 TABLE I
DETAILS ABOUT CAMERAS

SL. CAMERA TYPE OF ANGU- FOCAL PIC- SHUTTER FILM NO. OF OVER-LAPS SHORT- REMARKS
NO. TYPE & LENS LAR LENGTH TURE TYPE & LENGTH EXPO- IN FLIGHT EST
MAKE COVE- SIZE SPEED USED SURE DIREC- SEQUE-
RAGE PER ROLL PER TION NCE OF
(m) LENGTH POSSIBLE PICTURE
1. Wild RC 5 a)Normal 60o 210 18x18 Spring type 60 280 20,60,70,80 3..5 Lens fully corrected for visible
(a) angle 1/100 spectrum (400 nm to 750 nm)
90o 115 18x18 1/200 60 280 -do- -do- -do-
b)Wide angle
2. Wild Wide angle 90o 115 18x18 1/300 60 280 -do- -do-
RC 8
3. Wild RC9 Universal 90o 115 23x23 Rotary 60 235 -do- -do-
wide angle shutter with
continuous
setting from
1/100 to
1/00
4. Wild RC Wide angle 90o 152 23x23 Rotary 60 or 120 230 or 20,25,30 1.6
10 F/5.6 shutter 460 50,55,60
1/100 to 65,70,75 Lens corrected for the visible and
1/1000 80,85,90 infrared sectors of spectral range
5, Zeiss Wide angle 93o 153 23x23 Rotating 120 470 20 to 90 2.0 (500 nm to 900 nm) and with
RMK’A disc type continuously appropriate light filters
from 1/100
to 1000
continuously
6. Multiband 76o 153 8.9x8.9 Focal plane 76 - - 2.0 Can be used for photography on
I2S (2 type A, B) Panchromatic, infrared, colour and
1/140 to false colour infrared films.
1/350-A
1/350 to
1/980-B

The older types of cameras of Eagle IX type of British make, which have been used largely in the past, are also available. These cameras
have lenses, which show distortions, which are appreciable, and the image quality is also not good as with modern cameras. The focal
length available is 6”, 10”, 12” and 20”.

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 PROCESSING OF BLACK AND WHITE, COLOUR, BLACK AND WHITE
INFRARED AND COLOUR INFRARED FILMS, FILM DENSITY AND
CHARACTERISTICS CURVES

A real image formed by an optical system, may be recorded permanently by situating

a photographic film in the image plane. After the appropriate processing and printing, a two
dimensional impression of the scene is obtain.

BASIC BLACK & WHITE PHOTOGRAPHY

A light sensitive emulsion consisting of a suspension of microscopic silver halides

crystals in a gelatin binder is coated on a piece of flexible polyester to produce a black and
white film.

How a picture is formed

1. Light reaching the sensitive layer through the camera lens during the exposure causes
an invisible change in the silver halides.

2. When the emulsion is treated with a developer those grains of silver halides, which have
been affected by light, are reduced to black metallic silver. The developer has no
effect on the grains in areas that have received no light during the exposure.

3. The grains that are not affected by the developer would blacken if exposed to light and
so a fixing solution is used to dissolve these unexposed, undeveloped grains without
effecting the permanent image in black silver.

4. The film is then washed to remove all unwanted chemicals. And so a negative is made in
which the various brightness of the original are recorded as corresponding degrees of
blackness.

5. To obtain a picture in which the various brightness correspond to those of the original
scene, this negative is printed by passing light through it onto a paper coated with a
silver halides emulsion.

6. The paper is then developed, fixed and washed as in the case of the negative.

Physical properties of the developed image

The degree of darkening of the film on development is expressed by a logarithm

number, which is called Density. The higher the density, the darker is the film. In case of
film, we are only interested in transmission density. Following relation is used for defining
photographic density.

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 Illumination (OUT)
Transmittance = ------------------ X 100 percent
Illumination (IN)

Illumination (IN)
Opacity = -----------------
Illumination (OUT)

Density = Logarithm of Opacity

Characteristic Curve

The relation between exposure, development and the density of corresponding

negative is represented by a characteristic curve. It is also known as H and D curve, D log E
curve or response curve.

In the characteristic curve, densities are plotted against the logarithm of the
exposure to which they correspond. The characteristic curve of all photographic films or
papers has general S shape as shown in the figure 6. The shape of the curve will vary on the
following conditions.

a) Type of emulsion (speed, contrast, B&W or colour etc.)

b) Type of developer (contrast, chemical constitution etc.)
c) Time of development
d) Temperature of developer
e) Dilution of the developer
f) Method of agitation (manual or automatic processing)

The lower part of the curve AB is known as the Toe region and the upper part CD is
known as the shoulder region. The central part BC is known as straight-line region and
tangent of its angle with the log. Exposure axis is known as Gamma or contrast of the
emulsion. Straight-line region is the best region of the film response. The aim of correct
exposure is to utilize the straight-line region of the characteristic curve.

Speed/Sensitivity

Speed is one of the most important sensitometric properties of photographic

material intended for aerial photography and also for general-purpose photography.
Knowledge of speed value permits the proper settings of shutter speed and aperture
number for correct exposure of a film. The general sensitivity of a film describes its
ability to produce a density change on exposure to light. The less light required to produce
a certain measurable density response, the higher is the sensitivity/speed of the emulsion.
Speed of the film is directly proportional to the size of the silver halides grains.

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 Speed of a film is specified by arithmetical numbers in American and British
standards (ASA/BS) and by logarithmic numbers in German Standard (DIN). The formula
to compute these speed number is :-

0.8
ASA/BS = ----
Em

DIN = 10 log (1/Em)

Here Em is the exposure in Lux seconds corresponding to the point M obtained on

the characteristic curve for a density value of 0.1 above base plus fog density.

In case of under exposure, we have loss of information in the lowlight areas we have
loss of information in highlight areas for over exposure.

Printing from negatives

There are two methods of photo printing.

a) Contact printing : The negative film and the positive printing paper is kept in perfect
contact and exposed to light without a lens. Size of the positive print is of the same
size of original negative.

b) Projection printing : The negative image is projected through a lens on the positive
paper and the size of the positive print is of the desired magnification.

For preparing good quality positive prints from B&W negatives of varying density
range or contrast we use positive papers of different grade such as hard, medium, soft etc.

BASIC COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY

In the spectrum of light (see fig.7), the most obvious colours are blue, green, red
and spectral yellow. For convenience, in colour photography, the spectral yellow is ignored
(it is a very narrow band of wavelengths) and it is said that the spectrum is divided into
three major bands, each being one third of the total :

BLUE (400 to 500 nm)

GREEN (500 to 600 nm) and
RED (600 to 700 nm)

and that WHITE LIGHT contains equal quantities of these three. All systems of 'true'
colour photography in use today are based on three facts. They are

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1) All the colours and wavelengths of light that the human eye can see can be matched by
mixtures of only three suitably choosen colours called YELLOW, MAGENTA & CYAN.
Each of these absorbs one third of all the wavelengths in white light while transmitting
the other two thirds. See figure 7.

Fig. 6 Characteristic curve and aerial film speed

Fig. 7 Visible spectrum with transmission and absorption characteristics of

filters

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for additive and subtractive colors.
Because each colour absorbs the one third of the spectrum that it does not transmit,
each is sometimes called a MINUS COLOUR. That is

YELLOW is called MINUS BLUE because it absorbs Blue

MAGENTA is called MINUS GREEN because it absorbs Green

CYAN is called MINUS RED because it absorbs Red.

The three colours BLUE, GREEN & RED, each being one third of the total spectrum are
called PRIMARY COLOURS whilst each of the other colours, YELLOW, MAGENTA &
CYAN are called secondary or COMPLEMENTARY COLOURS.

YELLOW is complementary to BLUE (Yellow absorbs blue)

MAGENTA is complementary to GREEN (Magenta absorbs green)

CYAN is complementary to RED (Cyan absorbs red)

The three complementary colours are used to match all of those in nature, obviously
anything, which was yellow, magenta or cyan is easy to match and (figure 8) shows how
blue, green and red are made. White is the absence of any colour whilst black is a
mixture of the maximum possible quantity of all three, grays are matched by mixtures
of equal quantities of yellow, magenta and cyan but not at the maximum possible
strength. The correct proportions of each of the complementary colours can match any
other colour that occurs in nature.

The other two important facts, which are used in colour photography, are :

2) It is possible, in effect, to make three different emulsions, each sensitive to one third
of the spectrum and to use then all at the same time, that is one emulsion is sensitive to
blue light (400 - 500 nm) another is sensitive to Green light (500 to 600 nm) whilst the
last is sensitive to Red light (600 to 700 nm).

3) In the processing of the colour film or paper, it is possible to produce a different dye in
each emulsion layer and each dye may be in the form of an image complementary in
colour to the sensitivity of the emulsion layer in which it is formed.

That is, the Blue sensitive layer gives a Yellow dye image.

the Green sensitive layer gives a Magenta dye image.

the Red sensitive layer gives a Cyan dye image.

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 This system is called CHROMOGENIC development. In respect of point 3 above,
the three layers will only be sensitive to Blue, Green and Red, and the dye images produced
will only be Yellow, Magenta and Cyan respectively in a 'true' colour film. In a 'false' colour
film, there will not necessarily be three emulsion layers, the emulsion layers may not be
sensitive to Blue, Green and Red but possibly to other bands of the visible spectrum or even
to invisible radiations such as infrared, nor will the dye images produced necessarily be
complementary to the sensitivities of the emulsion layers in which they are formed.

Construction of a colour film

The sources of all contemporary colour photographic systems depends not only on
the facts that various emulsions can be made sensitive to well defined spectral bands and
that dye images can be produced later in those emulsion layers by chromogenic development,
but also on the facts that all the emulsion layers are exposed at the same time and that the
images formed in them are exactly registered. In other words, the image of a point in one
layer will be exact coincidence with the image of the same point in all the other layers. The
three (usually) emulsion layers and the three images formed cannot be physically separated
from each other.

A `true' colour film consists, then, of three light-sensitive emulsion layers coated
upon a film base, each emulsion being sensitized to one of the primary colours and capable
of producing the corresponding complementary colour during processing, the dye image
which is produced by chromogenic development in each of the three emulsion layer will
absorb the primary colour to which that layer was originally sensitive.

This system is used for both types of film, negative and reversal, giving
respectively, negative and positive images, figure 9 shows the cross-section of the true
colour film.

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BLUE SENSITIVE EMULSION gives YELLOW DYE IMAGE

yellow layer

GREEN SENSITIVE EMULSION gives MAGENTA DYE IMAGE

RED SENSITIVE EMULSION gives CYAN DYE IMAGE

FILM BASE FILM BASE

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Figure 9 - Cross-section of a true colour film

In figure 9, the layer between the Blue and Green sensitive emulsion layers was not
explained. It is a yellow layer which is necessary to absorb blue light and prevent it from
reaching the lower two emulsions because they are also sensitive to blue light. As was

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stated earlier, all photographic emulsions are inherently sensitive to blue and in a colour
film, this sensitivity is suppressed by making sure that no blue light reaches the Green and
Red sensitive emulsion layers. The yellow filter layer is destroyed during processing.

Fig. 8: Color triangle showing the relationship among additive (+) and
subtractive (-) primary colors.

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Fig. 9: Cross sections of positive and negative color films showing how images
are formed on the three emulsion layers.

Colour film type

It has already been mentioned that there are two types of colour film, negative and
reversal, giving negative and positive image respectively. The two types of film are
constructed in an identical way but their emulsions are slightly different, it is the
processing of the film, which controls the final image depending upon whether it is negative
or positive. The best images can only be produced however, if a film is made to be
processed only to a negative or is made to be processed only to a positive, it is not possible
to make just one film that can be processed successfully to either a negative or a positive.
This has been attempted in the past (Kodak `Ek-tachrome `MS' `Aerographic' film) but by
the most modern standards, the quality achieved was inadequate.

In other words, manufacturers make and sell two different types of colour films for
negative or positive images, they are known as negative or reversal films. It is possible to
buy `true' colour films as either negative or reversal material but the most widely used
`false' colour (Kodak `Aerochrome' Infrared) is available only for reversal processing to
give positive images. Of the other `false' colour films, Kodak Water Penetration Colour
films is a reversal film, the G.A.F. Blue-sensitive Colour Film is also for reversal processing
whilst the Russian films which are quite well known but no longer available (Spectrozonal)
were made in two types, one to give negatives, the other to give positives by reversal
processing.

Colour reproduction

The next four diagrams show

fig.10 the reproduction of colour by an aerial colour negative

film

fig.11 the reproduction of colour by a 'true' colour reversal

film

fig.12 the reproduction of colour by Kodak 'Aerochrome'

Infrared 'false' colour film

fig.13 the reproduction of colour negative by colour printing

paper.

Choice of film type

Colour photographs made with reversal film are usually sharper, contain more detail
and have better colour reproduction, (in true colour photography). BUT, the film actually
used in the aerial camera is the same film that is processed to give the final diapositive, it

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is the same film that is exposed in the air, which is finally used, by the interpreter or the
photogrammetrist. This is a poor situation because if a diapositive is damaged or destroyed,
it can only be replaced by re-flying the photographic mission. It is possible to make paper
prints or duplicate diapositives from original transparencies but the techniques, which must
be used, are difficult and the material is expensive as

Fig. 10: The colour negative - positive process

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24
Fig. 11: The substantive reversal process

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Fig. 12: Reproduction of colours by Kodak Aero chrome Infrared False
colour film

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 Fig. 13: The silver - dye - bleach process

compared with the costs of making similar products from colour negatives - and in some
areas of the world, the adequate materials may not be available. It is therefore better to
take the original aerial photographs on colour negative film. Although a diapositive made
from a negative will not be as good as an original diapositive but will be very similar to a
duplicate diapositive. The reasons for the changes in quality are that, as with black and
white techniques, there is always a slight loss of resolution and detail each time the
photographic process is used but, in colour photography, each time the process is used, the
colour itself also becomes worse. It is obvious, then that the user of colour aerial
photography has some difficult choices to make. It is better to use colour negative film for
large-scale aerial photography to avoid the overall blue cast due to effect of scattering of
lower wavelengths. And for small scale aerial photography IR colour aerial films are suitable.
If all photography is carried out with reversal films, both true and false colour, then the
optimum quality will not be achieved and some production will be very slow or even
impossible. There are no straightforward solutions to these problems. Aerial photography
should be based on utilization to fulfill the desired results of mapping/interpretation.

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Equipment for colour aerial photography

So far, nothing has been written in these notes about the characteristics of the
cameras and accessories, which should be used for colour aerial photography. The reasons
for this is that there are no differences in the cameras required - any modern aerial
camera with lenses suitable for both panchromatic and infrared black and white
photography will also be suitable for colour work. The one big difference in the taking of
colour photographs is that in true colour work, it is not permissible to use a yellow filter to
reduce the effects of haze. But, because much of the haze radiation is short wavelength, it
is both possible and desirable to fit the camera with an `ultraviolet absorbing' filter which
transmits virtually all visible light but absorbs the unwanted ultraviolet radiation. Figure 14
shows the transmission curve of a typical filter that might be used. Another aspect of
importance, in any use of colour film, for any purpose, is that the exposure of the film must
be correct, it is not possible to compensate for under - or over-exposure during the
processing of the film. Correct exposure is absolutely essential for colour reversal films.

Should colour photography be used?

If the use of colour film is considered, it is unlikely to totally replace black and
white film but may be in addition. The image quality is still not quite as good as that of
black and white photography and this is one reason why it is sometimes said to be desirable
to take colour photographs at a larger scale. Haze also has a detrimental effect on `true'
colour photography that cannot be minimized by the use of a `minus-blue' filter. These
facts make it desirable to produce colour photography at the largest possible scale for
optimum quality and information content.

For reasons of cost, economy and time consumption, it may be advisable therefore,
to cover the total survey area by black and white photography and then to add colour
photography for those parts where this might have particular advantages. Colour is
especially useful when results in black and white do not show sufficient differentiation
between important details and where colour differences are clear and relevant to the
investigation being carried out.

The much higher costs of aerial photography are not caused just by the higher
prices of colour film, these are only a very small fraction of the total expenditure on a
photographic mission, they are caused much more by organizational and time consumption
problems, not the least of which is the necessity of waiting for really clear atmospheric
conditions. The instances in which colour aerial photography can be the best means of
solving particular survey problems are limited but are becoming decreasingly so as new and
better materials and methods become available. If colour photography gives better
information, then the time and the money spent to produce it can be well justified.

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