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THEORIES  
PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY
What Is Personality?
By 
Kendra Cherry 



 Reviewed by 
David Susman, PhD 
on August 12, 2020
What Is Personality?
The word personality itself stems from the Latin word persona, which refers to a theatrical mask worn
by performers in order to either project different roles or disguise their identities.
At its most basic, personality is the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that
make a person unique. It is believed that personality arises from within the individual and remains
fairly consistent throughout life.

While there are many different definitions of personality, most focus on the pattern of
behaviors and characteristics that can help predict and explain a person's behavior.
Explanations for personality can focus on a variety of influences, ranging from genetic explanations
for personality traits to the role of the environment and experience in shaping an individual's
personality.

Characteristics of Personality
So what exactly makes up a personality? Traits and patterns of thought and emotion play important
roles as well as the following fundamental characteristics of personality:

 Consistency: There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially,

people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.
 Psychological and physiological: Personality is a psychological construct, but research
suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.
 Behaviors and actions: Personality not only influences how we move and respond in our
environment, but it also causes us to act in certain ways.
 Multiple expressions: Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen
in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social interactions.

 The "Big Five" Personality Traits

How Personality Develops

There are a number of theories about how personality develops, and different schools of thought in
psychology influence many of these theories. Some of these major perspectives on personality include
the following.
Type Theories
Type theories are the early perspectives on personality. These theories suggested that there are a
limited number of "personality types" that are related to biological influences, including:

 Type A: perfectionist, impatient, competitive, work-obsessed, achievement-oriented,

aggressive, stressed
 Type B: low stress, even-tempered, flexible, creative, adaptable to change, patient, tendency
to procrastinate
 Type C: highly conscientious, perfectionists, struggle to reveal emotions (positive and
negative)
 Type D: feelings of worry, sadness, irritability, pessimistic outlook, negative self-talk,
avoidance of social situations, lack of self-confidence, fear of rejection, appearing gloomy,
hopelessness
Trait Theories
Trait theories tend to view personality as the result of internal characteristics that are genetically based
and include:

 Agreeable: cares about others, feels empathy, enjoys helping others

 Conscientiousness: high levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control, goal-directed
behaviors
 Eager-to-please: accommodating, passive, and conforming
 Extraversion: excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of
emotional expressiveness
 Introversion: quiet, reserved
 Neuroticism: experiences stress and dramatic shifts in mood, feels anxious, worries about
different things, gets upset easily, struggles to bounce back after stressful events
 Openness: very creative, open to trying new things, focuses on tackling new challenges

 The Trait Theory of Personality

Psychodynamic Theories
Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud and
emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind on personality. Psychodynamic theories include
Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stage theory and Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.
Behavioral Theories
Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the
environment. Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, often ignoring the role
of internal thoughts and feelings. Behavioral theorists include B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson.
Humanist
Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in developing
a personality. Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Applications in Psychology
Research on personality can yield fascinating insights into how personality develops and changes over
the course of a lifetime. This research can also have important practical applications in the real world.
For example, personality assessments are often used to help people learn more about themselves and
their unique strengths, weaknesses, and preferences. Some assessments might look at how people rank
on specific traits, such as whether they are high in extroversion, conscientiousness, or openness.
Other assessments might measure how specific aspects of personality change over the course of
development. Such personality assessments can also be used to help people determine what careers
they might enjoy, how well they might perform in certain job roles, or how effective a form
of psychotherapy has been.1
Personality type can also have a connection to your health, including how often you visit the doctor
and how you cope with stress. Researchers have found that certain personality characteristics may be
linked to illness and health behaviors.2
 How Personality Type Can Impact Physical and Mental Health

A Word From Verywell

Understanding the psychology of personality is much more than simply an academic exercise. The
findings from personality research can have important applications in the world of medicine, health,
business, economics, technology, among others. By building a better understanding of how
personality works, we can look for new ways to improve both personal and public health.

The Big Five Personality Traits

By 
Kendra Cherry 



 Medically reviewed by 
Steven Gans, MD 
Updated on July 13, 2020
Print 

Verywell / Catherine Song 

Table of Contents
 Overview
  Openness
 Conscientiousness
 Extraversion
 Agreeableness
 Neuroticism
 Universality
 Influential Factors

Many contemporary personality psychologists believe that there are five basic dimensions of

personality, often referred to as the "Big 5" personality traits. The five broad personality traits
described by the theory are extraversion (also often spelled
extroversion), agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism.

Trait theories of personality have long attempted to pin down exactly how many personality
traits exist. Earlier theories have suggested a various number of possible traits,
including Gordon Allport's list of 4,000 personality traits, Raymond Cattell's 16 personality
factors, and Hans Eysenck's three-factor theory.

However, many researchers felt that Cattell's theory was too complicated and Eysenck's was
too limited in scope. As a result, the five-factor theory emerged to describe the essential traits
that serve as the building blocks of personality.

Verywell / Joshua Seong

What Are the Big Five Dimensions of

Personality?
Today, many researchers believe that there are five core personality traits.1 Evidence of this
theory has been growing for many years, beginning with the research of D. W. Fiske (1949)
and later expanded upon by other researchers including Norman (1967), Smith (1967),
Goldberg (1981), and McCrae & Costa (1987).

The "big five" are broad categories of personality traits. While there is a significant body of
literature supporting this five-factor model of personality, researchers don't always agree on
the exact labels for each dimension.

You might find it helpful to use the acronym OCEAN (openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) when trying to remember the big five traits.
CANOE (for conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion) is
another commonly used acronym.

It is important to note that each of the five personality factors represents a range between two
extremes. For example, extraversion represents a continuum between extreme extraversion
and extreme introversion. In the real world, most people lie somewhere in between the two
polar ends of each dimension.
These five categories are usually described as follows.

Openness
This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight.1 People who are high in this
trait also tend to have a broad range of interests. They are curious about the world and other
people and eager to learn new things and enjoy new experiences.

People who are high in this trait tend to be more adventurous and creative. People low in this
trait are often much more traditional and may struggle with abstract thinking.

High
 Very creative
 Open to trying new things
 Focused on tackling new challenges

 Happy to think about abstract concepts

Low
 Dislikes change
 Does not enjoy new things
 Resists new ideas
 Not very imaginative
 Dislikes abstract or theoretical concepts

Conscientiousness
Standard features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse
control, and goal-directed behaviors.1 Highly conscientious people tend to be organized and
mindful of details. They plan ahead, think about how their behavior affects others, and are
mindful of deadlines.

High
 Spends time preparing
 Finishes important tasks right away
 Pays attention to detail
 Enjoys having a set schedule
Low
 Dislikes structure and schedules
 Makes messes and doesn't take care of things
 Fails to return things or put them back where they belong
 Procrastinates important tasks
 Fails to complete necessary or assigned tasks

Extraversion
Extraversion (or extroversion) is characterized by excitability, sociability, talkativeness,
assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional expressiveness.1 People who are high in
extraversion are outgoing and tend to gain energy in social situations. Being around other
people helps them feel energized and excited.

People who are low in extraversion (or introverted) tend to be more reserved and have less
energy to expend in social settings. Social events can feel draining and introverts often
require a period of solitude and quiet in order to "recharge."

High
 Enjoys being the center of attention
 Likes to start conversations
 Enjoys meeting new people
 Has a wide social circle of friends and acquaintances
 Finds it easy to make new friends
 Feels energized when around other people
 Say things before thinking about them
Low
 Prefers solitude
 Feels exhausted when having to socialize a lot
 Finds it difficult to start conversations
 Dislikes making small talk
 Carefully thinks things through before speaking
 Dislikes being the center of attention
 How Extroversion in Personality Influences Behavior

Agreeableness
This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and
other prosocial behaviors.1 People who are high in agreeableness tend to be more cooperative
while those low in this trait tend to be more competitive and sometimes even manipulative.

High
 Has a great deal of interest in other people
 Cares about others
 Feels empathy and concern for other people
 Enjoys helping and contributing to the happiness of other people
 Assists others who are in need of help
Low
 Takes little interest in others
 Doesn't care about how other people feel
 Has little interest in other people's problems
 Insults and belittles others
 Manipulates others to get what they want

Neuroticism
Neuroticism is a trait characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability.1
Individuals who are high in this trait tend to experience mood swings, anxiety, irritability,
and sadness. Those low in this trait tend to be more stable and emotionally resilient.

High
 Experiences a lot of stress
 Worries about many different things
 Gets upset easily
 Experiences dramatic shifts in mood
 Feels anxious
 Struggles to bounce back after stressful events
Low
 Emotionally stable
 Deals well with stress
 Rarely feels sad or depressed
 Doesn't worry much
 Is very relaxed

Are the Big Five Traits Universal?

McCrae and his colleagues have also found that the big five traits are also remarkably
universal. One study that looked at people from more than 50 different cultures found that the
five dimensions could be accurately used to describe personality.

Based on this research, many psychologists now believe that the five personality dimensions
are not only universal; they also have biological origins. Psychologist David Buss has
proposed that an evolutionary explanation for these five core personality traits, suggesting
that these personality traits represent the most important qualities that shape our social
landscape.

What Factors Influence the Big Five

Traits?
Research suggests that both biological and environmental influences play a role in shaping
our personalities. Twin studies suggest that both nature and nurture play a role in the
development of each of the five personality factors.2

One study of the genetic and environmental underpinnings of the five traits looked at 123
pairs of identical twins and 127 pairs of fraternal twins. The findings suggested that the
heritability of each trait was 53 percent for extraversion, 41 percent for agreeableness, 44
percent for conscientiousness, 41 percent for neuroticism, and 61 for openness. 

Longitudinal studies also suggest that these big five personality traits tend to be relatively
stable over the course of adulthood. One study of working-age adults found that personality
tended to be stable over a four-year period and displayed little change as a result of adverse
life events.
Studies have shown that maturation may have an impact on the five traits. As people age,
they tend to become less extraverted, less neurotic, and less open to the experience.
Agreeableness and conscientiousness, on the other hand, tend to increase as people grow
older.

A Word From Verywell

Always remember that behavior involves an interaction between a person's underlying
personality and situational variables. The situation that a person finds himself or herself plays
a major role in how the person reacts. However, in most cases, people offer responses that are
consistent with their underlying personality traits.

These dimensions represent broad areas of personality. Research has demonstrated that these
groupings of characteristics tend to occur together in many people. For example, individuals
who are sociable tend to be talkative. However, these traits do not always occur
together. Personality is complex and varied and each person may display behaviors across
several of these dimensions.

THEORIES   
PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY
How Your Personality Type Affects Your
Health
By 
Kendra Cherry 
 Reviewed by 
Amy Morin, LCSW 





on August 30, 2020
Print 

DrAfter123/Getty Images
Table of Contents
 Type A
 More Laid Back
  People-Pleasers
 Worrywarts
 Distressed
 Introverts
 What It All Means
 A Word From Verywell

Could your personality type be harming you, or is your personality actually helping you live a
longer life? Our personalities play such an important role in determining our behaviors and
habits, so it is little wonder that personality type has a connection to your health. Everything
from how often you visit the doctor to how you deal with stress is connected to your
personality.

Philosophers, physicians, and researchers have long tried to find connections

between personality and physical health. During the time of the ancient Greeks, Hippocrates
and Galen suggested that there were four humors (or personality types) and that each was
connected to susceptibilities for certain physical or mental illnesses.

Interest in the topic persists to this day and research has found that personality traits can be
important health predictors. Researchers have found that the personality traits exhibited
during childhood are linked to later health and are tied to other key health markers including
overall longevity.1

So how is your health impacted by your personality? Take a closer look at a few common
personality types to discover what the possible health implications might be.

Type A
The classic type A personality is often characterized as hard-driving, controlling, and
perfectionistic. People who exhibit characteristics of this personality type tend to be more
competitive, impatient, tense, assertive, and even aggressive.

Type A's are often seen as hard-driving workaholics who will do anything to get ahead. They
often feel a need to dominate, both at work and in personal interactions, and may derive their
feelings of self-worth and self-concept from their perceived achievements.

This personality type has been a subject of interest since it was first described in the 1950s
and research has associated it with a number of negative health outcomes.

Some studies have shown a relationship between the Type A personality type and
hypertension, increased job stress, and social isolation.2

Older studies suggested that there was a connection between the Type A personality type and
heart disease, but subsequent research has complicated these findings by failing to confirm
the link.3 Type As do tend to experience more hostility, a characteristic that has been tied to
an increased risk of heart disease.
The initial research conducted more than 40 years ago suggested that Type A personalities
were at a 7-fold increased risk of developing coronary artery disease. But more recent studies
suggest that the real culprit behind the increased risk of heart disease is likely related to anger
and hostility. So what can you do to reduce your health risks if you have a Type A
personality?

 Understand what you can change. Even if personality type is linked to increased
health concerns, some have suggested that there may be little patients and doctors can
do to mitigate these risks. However, some experts suggest that personality change is
possible and that even if you don't necessarily change your personality, there are steps
that patients can take to minimize the potential health consequences of their overall
personality type.
 Focus on the negative traits. If you tend to have some of the more negative features
of the type A personality, such as a tendency to be stressed out, hostile, and socially
isolated, explore things that you can do to lower your chances of developing
hypertension and other health problems.
 Practice coping and stress management. Effective stress-management techniques
can help you learn how to better cope with daily life stress. Learning how to manage
feelings of anger and hostility can also help. And looking for ways to improve
your social connections can help improve your well-being both now and in the future.

More Laid Back

People with a laid-back personality, often referred to as a Type B personality, tend to be
much more relaxed and easy-going than their Type A counterparts. In contrast to Type As,
Type Bs are typically less stressed and less competitive.

These individuals are apt to be more focused on performing tasks for the enjoyment of doing
so rather than being so driven by a need to achieve, win, or dominate. That isn't to say that
Type Bs do not value accomplishment. They work steadily toward their goals but also enjoy
the process and experience less stress if they do not win.

People with the Type B personality type may also be more attracted to careers and hobbies
that are more laid back and creativity centered, such as becoming an artist, writer, actor, or
therapist. There are still health implications associated with the Type B personality. If you are
Type B:

 Maintain healthy behaviors. Being laid-back might mean taking a more

lackadaisical approach to your health. Being relaxed can be great, but don't slack on
your healthy habits.
 Focus on the positive. For Type Bs, the news is mostly good. If you have this
personality type, you probably have a lower risk of developing health issues related to
anxiety. You tend to enjoy life, are pretty good at coping with stress, and likely have a
good quality of life. All of these factors may mean that you are less likely to
experience negative health outcomes that are linked to stress, anger, and anxiety.

People-Pleasers
People with an "eager to please" personality type tend to be accommodating, passive,
and conforming. This personality type can have its health upsides and downsides. On one
hand, they're eager to please nature means that they are more likely to follow their doctor's
orders.

Because of their passive nature, people pleasers may be more likely to feel hopeless or
helpless in the face of a negative health event.

They may also be less likely to seek help when something is wrong, instead feeling that they
don't want to be a burden or inconvenience to others. When faced with a diagnosis, they may
simply throw in the towel and assume that nothing they do will make much of a difference.
So what can you do to protect your health if you tend to be a people-pleaser?

 Focus on your needs. People-pleasers sometimes place their own well-being last.
Being conscientious of others can be a positive trait, but be sure to take time for your
own health as well.
 Take an active role in your health. In can be easy to fall into thinking that your
health is out of your hands, but taking a more internal locus of control may help you
feel more in control of your current and future health. Instead of focusing on the
external influences that affect your health, pay attention to the things that you can
change through your own actions.

Worrywarts
If you tend to have a neurotic personality, you may respond to feelings of loss, frustration,
and other stresses with negative emotions. Experiencing intense emotional reactions to
relatively minor life challenges is common. Researchers have found that this trait can be a
predictor of a variety of physical and mental disorders, including overall life longevity.4

One research review found that those who were higher in neuroticism and lower in other Big
Five personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness), particularly
those lower in conscientiousness, tended to be less healthy than their less-neurotic peers.5
Those who are high in neuroticism may also be more likely to experience physical health
problems such as cardiovascular disease, irritable bowel syndrome, and asthma.

Neuroticism has been associated with generalized anxiety disorder, depression, panic

disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and substance use.

Are there any strategies you can follow to help minimize the possible health risks of a
neurotic personality?

 Use preventative strategies. Being a worrywart can have health risks, but the upside
of better understanding your personality is that you can take steps to engage in
preventative care.
 Control your worry. Excessive worrying can be troubling, so finding ways to control
your thoughts and replace negative emotions with more positive ones is
important. Strategies such as distraction, talking to a friend, and relaxation techniques
can all be helpful if you find yourself overcome with neurotic feelings.
Distressed
The type D personality was first introduced in 1996 and is characterized by "distressed" traits
such as being more prone to negative emotions and a lack of self-expression. Stress,
depression, anxiety, anger, and loneliness are also associated with the Type D personality. It
can also come with serious health consequences.

So what are the possible health implications of having a Type D personality? One study
suggested that people with Type D personalities are at a four-fold risk of death compared to
those with other personality types.6

According to another study published in the journal Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and

Outcomes, people with this personality type are at a three-fold increased risk of heart
problems, including heart failure.2

Approximately 20% of American adults have the Type D personality, with an estimated 50%
of patients with heart problems exhibiting characteristics of this distressed personality type.

So what should you do to help mitigate the potential health risks of having a Type D
personality?

 Talk to your doctor. Some experts hope that screening heart patients for these traits
would allow doctors to connect those at risk with behavior and cognitive counseling.
 Practice good stress management techniques. Self-help approaches such as
practicing good stress management techniques and reframing events to focus on more
positive emotions may also be helpful.

Introverts
One study found that people who tend to be more extroverted, conscientious, and agreeable
also tend to be healthier.7 This is due, in part, to the fact that people who exhibit higher levels
of these traits also tend to be more likely to communicate more effectively with their doctors.

A 2009 study found that social support was linked to physical health outcomes including
healthier behaviors, better coping skills, and observance to medical routines.8 Doctors and
other health experts have long understood that quality social support and connections can
have an important protective effect on both physical and mental health. So what can you do if
you are not an extrovert?

 Build social support. Even if you tend to have a more introverted personality,

seeking out strong social support is one way to help lower potential health risks
associated with your personality type. Lack of social support has been linked to a
variety of ailments including decreased immunity and an increased risk of heart
disease.

What It All Means

While research indicates that personality type clearly plays a role in health and well-being,
certain ailments are more likely to be influenced by psychological characteristics. Heart
disease, for example, is more strongly linked to personality type than cancer.

So why does personality have an impact on health? Why are certain traits so tied to certain
ailments? The answers are not clear, but one potential explanation is that personality impacts
behavior and lifestyle choices.

People who are more conscientious may be more likely to make healthier choices while those
who are high in neuroticism may be less likely to seek medical help or have weaker social
support systems.

Just because you tend to have a certain personality type does not doom you to a future of
acquiring certain ailments.

As with many things, your individual risk of developing a health problem can depend upon a
variety of factors beyond your personality, including genetics, environment, lifestyle, and
behaviors.

Understanding your personality might be a great way to help determine what sort of health
choices or changes you need to focus on making. By being aware of the potential hazards you
may face, you can work with your health care professional to come up with a plan to
minimize the dangers.

A Word From Verywell

Research clearly shows a connection between personality and health. If you believe that your
personality, mental state, or behaviors are causing illness or worsening your current
symptoms, talk to your doctor for advice on possible treatments which may
involve psychotherapy, medication, or self-care.