ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT-3
PART-1
DIELECTRIC MATERIAL:

Dielectric materials: Properties of Dielectric Materials – Dielectric Constant,

Induced and Permanent Dipoles, Polar and Non-Polar Dielectrics,
Polarization of Dielectric Materials,Types of Polarization- Electronic
Polarizability Derivation- Local Field Derivation- Clausius-Mossotti
Equation- Ferro and Piezo-Electricity (Qualitative), Frequency Dependence
of Dielectric Constant, Applications of Dielectric Materials.

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 Dielectric Materials

• Dielectrics are the materials, which have permanent

electric dipoles or induced electric dipoles under the
applied electric field.
• In dielectrics all the electrons are bound to their
parent molecules.
• There are no free electrons for current conduction.
• At ordinary temperatures, the electrons cannot be
dislodged either by thermal energy or by applied
voltage since these are ionic or covalent bonded
solids.
• All dielectrics are very good electrical insulators.
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• Dielectric properties of a material are specified by a
quantity called permittivity ε, which indicates the easily
polarisable nature of the material.
• Dielectric Constant:The ratio between the permittivity of
the material and permittivity of free space ε0 is called as
relative permittivity εr or dielectric constant of the material
εr = ε/ε0
where ε is the permittivity of material medium.
The dielectric constant of a materials is a measure of
electric stress withstand by the material without passing
electric current

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 Dielectric Materials

• Dielectric Materials – Properties

Electric dipole – It is the measure of separation of
positive and negative charges. For positive charge (+q)
and negative charge (-q) the electric dipole moment
p = q.d
where d is the displacement vector pointing from negative
charge to positive charge.

Electric flux density – The electric flux density D

D= εE (C/m2)
w.k.t E = q1/(4πεR2) then D = εE = q1/(4πR2)
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Electric field strength – The electric field strength
E = F/q (N/C) or (V/m)
The field strength is force acting per unit charge.
Electric Susceptibility χ
It is a dimensionless proportionality constant which
indicates the degree of polarization of dielectric material in
response to the applied electric field. The greater the
electric susceptibility, the greater the ability of the material
to polarize in electric field.
Polarisation P = ε0χE
D = ε0E + P = εE
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 Dielectric Polarisation

• Polarisation in a dielectric material is the creation or

inducement of electric dipoles when the dielectric
material is kept in the electric field.
→ When an electric field is applied to dielectric material,
the positive and negative charges of a molecules are
displaced such that positive charges are displaced in the
direction of the field, whereas the negative charges are
displaced in opposite direction. Thus, local dipoles are
created throughout the material. The created dipole field
or polarisation is opposite to the electric field. Hence, it
oppose the flow of current, which acts as an insulator.
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 Types of Polarisation

Polarisability (α) – The strength of the induced dipole

moment ‘μ’ is directly proportional to the applied electric
field intensity E
μ=αE
Where α is the proportionality constant called as
polarisability of the dielectric material.

Types of polarisation mechanism

a). Electronic polarisation – It is due to displacement of
charge centers of electron cloud and nucleus of an atom
in the presence of an applied electric field.
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b). Ionic Polarisation – It arise due to the displacement
of positive ion and negative ion of a molecule in the
presence of applied electric field.
c). Orientation Polarisation – It is due to the alignment
of dipole moment of a polar molecule in the presence of
applied electric field.
d). Space-Charge Polarisation – It is due to the
accumulation of charges at the electrodes or at the
interface in multiphase dielectrics. It occurs in LiTaO3,
LiNbO3 and certain glasses like Li2O and Na2O.

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 Polar versus nonpolar molecules

Sl. Polar molecules Non-polar molecules

No.
1. These molecules have Do not have permanent electric
permanent electric dipole dipole moment. However, have
moment even in the absence induced dipole moment.
of electric field.
2. There is absorption or There is no absorption or
emission in infrared range for emission in infra-red range.
these molecules.
3. Polar molecules are strongly Non-polar molecules are
temperature dependent. independent of temperature.
4. Ex. HCl, H2O and CO Ex. H2, O2, Br2, C6H6

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 Expression for electronic polarisability

Expression for electronic polarisability

Electronic polarisation is the electric strain produced

in an atom due to the application of electric field.

Let an atom in a dielectric material has the atomic

number of Z and atomic radius is R.

Initially, the charge centers of electron cloud and

nucleus are at the same point. Hence, there is no dipole
moment under zero electric field.
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 Now the atom is kept in electric field, due to repulsive
Lorentz force, the positive nucleus will move towards field
direction. The electrons will move in opposite direction of the
field.

When the nucleus and electron cloud are shifted from their
equilibrium positions an attractive coulomb force is created
and will tend to maintain the original equilibrium position.

However, the Lorentz force will tend to separate the

nucleus and electron cloud of the atom from their equilibrium
position.
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 Results

The value of electronic polarisability αe is proportional

to the volume of the atom and independent of
temperature.

Electronic polarisation is present in all materials and

is a rapid process.

It occurs in d.c and a.c electric field at all frequencies.

At optical frequencies, αe becomes complex and

there is dielectric loss.
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 Local Field (or) Internal Field in a Dielectric

Local Field (or) Internal Field in a Dielectric

Local field (or) internal field in a dielectric is the space

and time average of the electric field intensity acting on
a particular atom or molecule of the dielectric material.

Internal field is mainly originated from the field due to

polarisation which is produced by the applied field and is
not at all connected with the atom or molecule’s own
field.

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 Internal Field of dielectric
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Lorentz method for finding internal field

Let the given dielectric be placed between the plates

of a parallel plate capacitor having uniform electric field
intensity ‘E’.

The internal field acting at atom ‘A’ situated inside the

dielectric be Ei. Assume an imaginary spherical cavity
round the atom ‘A’. The radius of the cavity is large
compared to the radius of the atom.

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Fig: Calculation of E4
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 Fig: Calculation of E4
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 Clausius – Mossotti Equation

Clausius – Mossotti Equation

Clausius – Mossotti equation is treated as an

important equation in dielectrics since it connects the
macroscopic relative permittivity (or) dielectric
constant and microscopic polarisability of a material.

The dielectric constant of a material is measured

using Clausius – Mossotti equation. We can predict the
value of polarisability of the material.

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 Dielectric Loss

• When a dielectric is subjected to a.c. voltage, the

electrical energy is absorbed by that material and is
dissipated in the form of heat.
• The dissipation of energy is called as dielectric loss.
• This dielectric is known as lossy dielectric.

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• When a.c voltage is applied to perfect insulator like
vacuum, there is no absorption of energy.
• The charging current leads the applied voltage by 90o
• However, in lossy dielectric or commercial dielectric
the charging current leads the voltage by less than
90o due to absorption of energy
• The complementary angle δ = 90o – θ is called as
dielectric loss angle.
• The loss angle δ is the measure of power dissipated
in each cycle. Besides, in most dielectric the angle δ
is very small.
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 Dielectric breakdown

• When a dielectric loses its insulation resistance and

allows large current to pass through it, then is said to
be in breakdown.
• The breakdown indicates the failure of dielectric
material.
• Types of dielectric breakdown
– Intrinsic breakdown
– Thermal breakdown
– Electrochemical breakdown
– Discharge breakdown
– Defect breakdown
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 Dielectric strength

• Dielectric strength or breakdown voltage is the

minimum voltage required to produce dielectric
breakdown.
• It is expressed in volt per unit thickness of dielectric
material.

• Properties of good dielectric material

It should possesses high dielectric strength, high
mechanical strength, resistant to fire, high chemical
inertness, low dielectric loss, high thermal conductivity.

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 Ferroelectricity

• Ferroelectricity: refers to the creation of enormous

induced dipole moment in a weak electric field as well
as existence of electric polarisation in the absence of
applied electric field.

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 Properties of ferroelectric materials

• Ferroelectric materials: exhibit electric polarisation

even in the absence of applied electric field.
Ex. BaTiO3, LiNbO3, KDP (KH2PO4), ADP (NH4H2PO4)
and KNbO3
Properties
1. Ferroelectric materials can be easily polarised even
by very weak electric field.
2. They exhibit dielectric hysteresis i.e. lagging of
polarisation behind the applied electric field is called
dielectric hysteresis. Ferroelectricity is a result of
dielectric hysteresis.
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• Ferroelectric materials possess spontaneous
polarisation, which refers to the polarisation that
persists when the applied field is zero.
• They possess permanent electric dipoles, which arise
due to spontaneous polarisation at ferroelectric Curie
temperature.
• Ferroelectric materials exhibits ferroelectricity, when
the temperature T < Tc, where Tc is ferroelectric Curie
temperature. When T > Tc they are converted into
paraelectric materials.

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• They exhibit domain structure similar to ferromagnetic
materials.
• Ferroelectric materials exhibit piezoelectricity and
pyroelectricity.

Piezoelectricity: refers to the creation of electric

polarisation by mechanical stress.

Pyroelectricity: means the creation of electric

polarisation by thermal stress.

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• Piezoelectric materials: are used to make pressure
transducer, ultrasonic transducer and microphones.
• Ex. Quartz, Lithium niobate, Barium titanate, Lead
zirconium titanate, Calcium barium titanate.

• Pyroelectric materials: are used to make high

sensitive infrared detectors.
• Ex. Barium titanate, Triglycine sulphate, Lithium
niobate, Lithium Tantalate and Polyvinyl Fluoride.

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 Frequency dependence of polarisation
process
• Electronic polarisation is extremely rapid and is
complete at any instant of time even in optical range.
It occurs at all frequencies.

• Ionic polarisation is slower and ions do not responds

to visible frequency. Hence ionic polarisation does not
occur at optical frequency.

• Orientational polarisation is slower than ionic

polarisation and occurs only at electrical frequency
which are smaller than IR frequency.
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 Frequency versus polarisation plot

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• Space-Charge polarisation is the slowest process
and occurs only at power frequency (50 to 60 Hz)
Sl. Frequency (Hz) Type of Polarisation
No.

1. 1015 Electronic
2. Upto 1013 Ionic + Electronic
3. 106 to 1010 Orientation +Ionic+Electronic
4. 102 Space-Charge + Orientation + Ionic +
Electronic

Conclusion
At low frequency, the value of total polarisation is very
high and at high frequency the value of total polarisation
is very small.
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 Temperature dependence of polarisation

• Normal temperature will oppose the permanent

dipoles to align in the field direction.

• But higher temperature facilitate the movement of

ions and molecules so that a polarisation process
which is not possible at higher frequency at normal
temperature can occur at higher frequency at
elevated or higher temperature.

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 Types of dielectric materials

• Based on applications dielectric materials are

classified as (i) active dielectric and (ii)passive
dielectric materials

• Active dielectric: The active dielectric materials can

be adapted to generate, amplify, modulate, convert
electric signals and store electrical energy.

• Passive dielectric: Its functions is to obstruct the

flow of electric current. Hence it is used as insulating
material.
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 Applications of Dielectric materials

• Dielectric materials are widely used in energy storage in

capacitors.
• In order to improve the performance of a semiconductor
device, high permittivity dielectric materials are used.
• Vegetable oils (castor oil) is used in high-voltage
capacitors to increase its capacitance value.
• Dielectric materials are used in Liquid Crystal Displays
(LCD).
• Dielectric films such as Barium Strontium Titanate thin
films are used in microwave tunable devices that
provides high tunability and low leakage current.
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 Applications continued..

• In electrical transformers, mineral oils and synthetic oils

are used as a liquid dielectric for insulation purpose as
well as for cooling purposes.
• Electrets, is one of the dielectric material, which acts as
electrostatic equivalent to magnets.

• Passive dielectric materials are widely used for

electrical insulation.
- Solid insulating materials: Mica, Porcelain, Asbestos,
Bakelite, Rubber, PVC, Polyethene, Glass, Cotton, Silk and
Ceramics.

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 Applications continued..

- Liquid insulating materials: Varnish, Transformer oil,

Cable oil, Synthetic transformer oils, Silicon fluids.

- Gaseous insulating materials: Air, Nitrogen, Inert

gases and Sulfur hexafluoride

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Acknowledgement

• http://www.brainkart.com/article/Dielectric-Materials_6
813/

• https://www.yourelectricalguide.com/2018/06/dielectri
c-strength-dielectric-constant-dielectric-loss.html

• https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-dielectric-material-p
roperties-applications/

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 NUMERICALS

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 Dielectric Materials Problems

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 END OF UNIT-3
PART-1

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