Module:1

Wave Propagation

Dr. Biswajit Dwivedy

School of Electronics Engineering

VIT University, Vellore, India
Propagation Modes
✓ The communication between transmitter and receiver can occur in
various modes, that can be classified as ‘Surface waves’, ‘Space waves’
and ‘Sky waves’.
✓ Based on the frequency range and applications, either of these modes
can be used for radio wave propagation

Frequency Dominant Mechanism Typical Services

< 500kHz Surface wave Submarine communication, global
navigational aids
500 kHz– Surface wave for short AM broadcast radio, air
1.5MHz and Sky wave for long navigational aids
distances
1.5MHz– Sky wave Short wave (including amateur)
30MHz communication over long distances
> 30MHz Space wave Television, FM radio, GPS, wireless
LAN and internet, WiFi, mobile
1 (cell)
Modes of Propagation
Surface Wave
Surface Wave : The communication between transmitter and receiver
by wave propagation along the surface of earth. Surface wave is a
sub-classification of a ground wave. It is dominant below 500 kHz.

➢ This mode uses the earth which can be considered as a partial

conductor of finite conductivity.
➢ The field from the transmitter hits the ground, and gets reflected. This
reflected wave is once again reflected by the atmosphere towards
earth. This cumulative action generates a ground current that travels
2 from transmitter to receiver
 Surface Wave
➢ In wave propagation at low frequencies, the antenna is vertically
polarized as horizontally polarized antennas have to be placed at
impractical heights from ground in order to avoid shorting of
wave to earth
➢ The electric field can be written as E =
120  ht hr I s
d
Where ht , hr are the heights of transmitting and receiving antennas, d is
the distance between antennas and Is is the antenna current
➢ If the distance d is very large, then there is reduction in the above
field strength due to ground attenuation A and atmospheric
absorption

➢ For a short vertical monopole grounded antenna with a radiated

power PT is
3
Surface Wave
➢ The attenuation factor A is found as A = A0 − (A0 − A90 )sin b
➢ Where the various terms are given as
2 + 0.33 p 2 +170 p
A0 = A90 =
2 + p + 0.6 p 2 2 + 210 p + 310 p 2
➢ Where p is the normalized distance from the transmitter and b is
phase angle given as
Vertical polarization Horizontal polarization

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Surface Wave
➢ The normalized distance p ignores diffraction and ground
permittivity. Taking those factors into account, the maximum
distance the wave can propagate over the ground is given as
100
d max = 1
km
f 3 (MHz)

Problems

1. A 50 kW transmitter employs a vertical grounded half-wave antenna

with a directivity of 1.41 as compared to a short dipole. If the
transmitter frequency is 1 MHz, find the field, given r = 15 and  =
10-3 mhos/m

5
 Space Wave
Space Wave : When the communication between transmitter and
receiver is a combination of free space and ground reflection, then
such a transmission is called space wave. It is observed over 30 MHz
and hence finds numerous applications
2ht hr
➢ We have seen when calculating plane earth loss that r2 − r1 =
d
Where ht , hr are the heights of transmitting and receiving antennas, d is
the distance between them

r1

ht hr
r2
1 Dr. Yogesh Kumar Choukik
d
Space Wave
➢ The previous equation considered the earth to be flat and hence
we wrote the distance between transmitter and receiver as d.
➢ This assumption is good for line-of-sight (LOS) propagation, but
when transmitter and receiver are invisible (non LOS) to each other
d12 + r 2 = (r + h t)2 d 22 + r 2 = (r + h r)2
Where d1, d2 are distances between transmitter and receiver to the
horizon respectively and r is the radius of earth

d1 d2

ht hr

2 Dr. Yogesh Kumar C

Space Wave
➢ The line of sight distance can be written as
d 2 = d12 + d 22 = (2r + ht )ht + (2r + hr )hr
➢ Which can be reduced further since rht >> ht2 or rhr >> h 2r
d 2 = 2rht + 2rhr 
➢ For the radius of earth equal to 6371 km, the maximum distance over
which the line of sight communication can be possible is

➢ Curvature effect : Now let us consider the earth’s curvature

d d
h h
Actual ray r h h+h
path R 0
3 r
0 0
Space Wave
➢ The variable r is the effective radius of the earth, which is
slightly greater than the actual radius of earth, which will account
for the greater path the ray has to travel along the curvature
r'
K=
r
➢ From the figures, we can write
1 1 1
= −
r' r R
➢ We can write the effective earth’s radius, and effective radius of LOS
communication as
r 1
r' = K=
r r
1− 1−
R R
4
Space Wave
➢ For a standard atmosphere, the 1/R term is 0.0410-6 /meter.
Substituting this into equation of K gives
1 4
K= =
1− 6.371106  0.0410−6 3
➢ From which we can write the effective radius of the earth as
4
r' = r
3
➢ The maximum distance for the Line-of-Sight propagation can be
modified as
d = 4.12( )
ht (m) + hr (m) km

➢ If the heights of the transmitting and receiving antennas are given in

feet, then the LOS distance is given in miles as

5
 Space Wave
➢ The electric field at the receiver end for tropospheric (space
wave) propagation can be written as

➢ Duct Propagation : Usually, the dielectric constant of standard

atmosphere reduces with height where air density is essentially zero.
But in practical scenario, the air is turbulent and contains layers
having different temperature and water vapour levels. These
conditions give rise to a phenomena called super refraction or duct
propagation.

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Space Wave
➢ The modified refractive index due to super refraction is
h
N= +
r
Where  is the actual refractive index, h is the height at which the super
refraction occurs and r is the radius of earth

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Sky Wave
Sky Wave (Ionospheric Wave) : When the communication between
transmitter and receiver is established by reflection of the rays from
the ionosphere, such waves are called sky waves or ionospheric
waves

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Sky Wave
➢ When communication beyond the horizon is required, then sky
wave propagation is suitable. Over the years, its use has
considerably reduced due to development in satellite
communication. But the study of the effects of ionosphere is
still relevant as it affects waves that cross this layer of
atmosphere before it reaches satellites
➢ The various layers of atmosphere can be classified as

9 Dr. Yogesh Kumar Choukiker

Sky Wave
➢ Ionosphere roughly extends from 80 – 400 km above earth. Due
to radiation from Sun, the atmosphere above earth is ionised
giving rise to this layer.
➢ Beyond 400 km the atmospheric density is so low that there is
hardly any ionisation. Below 80 km, the atmospheric density is
so high that as soon as atoms are dissociated, there are immediate
recombinations.

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Sky Wave
➢ Ionisation during night is limited mostly to regions F1 and F2,
while regions D & E almost disappear

e- density is low
because of
recombinations
11
Sky Wave

12
Sky Wave

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Sky Wave
➢ When an EM ray enters ionosphere, free electrons (which are
lighter than the ions) respond to the incident electric field. This
leads to refraction of the ray. The refractive index can be written
as
81N
 = 1−
f2
Where f is the frequency of the wave in Hz and N is the electron density
per cubic meter
➢ When the fraction in the square root becomes > one, i,e,
f 2  81N   = jx
Which means to say that the refractive index is imaginary.
The physical significance is that the wave attenuates at the above
condition.
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Sky Wave
➢ Now let us consider ionosphere made up of many layers

2
1

15
Sky Wave
➢ Ray bends away from the normal as refractive index decreases

16
Sky Wave
➢ Applying Snell’s law of refraction to the previous condition

➢ Which gives the condition that the ray be returned to earths surface as

➢ The angle of incidence is crucial as it can decide if the ray escapes

into space or returns to earth. For a vertical incidence, we have i = 00
81N
sin i = 0 =  = 1−
f2
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Sky Wave
➢ The frequency corresponding to the condition of vertical
incidence is called critical frequency
fc = 9 Nmax

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Sky Wave
➢ The previous approximation of vertical incidence is only when
the transmitter and receiver are adjacent to each other or placed
very near to each other. Else we seldom use vertical incidence.
➢ At larger angles of incidence (i >> 00), higher frequencies can be
transmitted. For a given angle of incidence, the maximum frequency
that can be reflected back to earth is called Maximum Usable
Frequency (MUF). We know that
81N
sin i = 1−
f2
➢ Using the equation of critical frequency in the above

fc2
sin i = 1− 2
f MUF
➢ From which the maximum usable frequency is 𝒇𝑴𝑼𝑭 = 𝒇𝒄 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒊
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Sky Wave
➢ There are limitations imposed on the sky wave propagation due
to earth’s curvature

➢ The angle of
curvature in terms of
radius r and virtual
height h is


r

➢ Similarly the maximum

range of sky wave
propagation is given as
r
d = 2r cos−1
20 r +h
Sky Wave
➢ The range is also called skip distance and can be written in terms
of fMUF as

➢ The range or distance between the antennas can also be written as

2h
d=
tan 
Where  is the angle of elevation of the beam
➢ Alternately, rearranging the above equation gives the fMUF in terms of
range (skip distance) and virtual height h as

Optimum working frequency

is then 85 % of fMUF
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 Problems

1. The transmitting and receiving antennas with respective heights of

49 m and 25 m are installed to establish communication at 100 MHz
with a transmitted power of 100 W. Determine LOS distance and
received signal strength

2. A radio communication link is to be established via ionosphere.

Take maximum virtual height to be 100 km at the mid point of the
path. Assume critical frequency to be 2  106 Hz and distance
between stations to be 600 km. Find Maximum usable frequency
and angle of elevation of the beam

3. Calculate the frequency at which a wave must propagate through

D-region with a refractive index of 0.5 and electron density of
3.24  104 electrons/m3
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Problems

4. A television transmitter antenna has a height of 169 m and that of

the receiving antenna is 16 m. What is the range for space wave
propagation. What is the radio horizon in this case.

5. The observed critical frequencies of E and F layers at Katpadi at a

particular time are 2.5 MHz and 8.4 MHz respectively. Calculate the
maximum electron concentrations of the layers

6. A VHF communications is to be established with 35 W transmitter

at 90 MHz. Find the distance upto which LOS communication
may be possible if the height of the transmitting and receiving
antennas are 40 m and 25 m respectively. Also determine the field
strength at the receiving end.

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A radio communication link is to be established via ionosphere. Take
maximum virtual height to be 100 km at the mid point of the path.
Assume critical frequency to be 2  106 Hz and distance between
stations to be 600 km. Find Maximum usable frequency and angle of
elevation of the beam
A VHF communications is to be established with 35 W transmitter at 90
MHz. Find the distance upto which LOS communication may be
possible if the height of the transmitting and receiving antennas are 40
m and 25 m respectively. Also determine the field strength at the
receiving end.