Grammar Troublespots eMOl lam eae lt ella) Grammar Troublespots helps students identify and correct Re etre Meee ms ae UCM Ll COMIC LOU LS write. It is the ideal aid for writing teachers preparing students for college-level writing, It can either be used in class or assigned as self-study material to indivicualize grammar instruction for writing students. eat = Concise, clear grammar explanations = Varied, challenging exercises AU Ts Mee UUme nee Li eM cL eck) « Writing assignments = Editing flowcharts PCr smc « A unit on how to cite sources in academic essays About the author Ann Raimes is a leading authority on grammar and seccnd language writing. She is the author of numerous articles and hooks, including el Magee ia eel eereo MO elisa eS a ealal el Wee elm fa eM eed ost ONE 8 ML Lee on UL Me Mem ome etm M acer a al Cae fetal TeolPael WAeINUe ss aol Chae Ol About the third edition DUR eumm Ard mee ax see eR mC en LaLa Every unit has heen reworked, the hook has been reorganized and redesigned, and many new features have heen added. There is also a significant new focus on the troublespots that students will encounter Pm omelet CAMBRIDGE LAE Sod Pee teetttGrammar Troublespots A Guide For Student Writers Ann Raimes ea @) CAMBRIDGE i) UNIVERSITY PRESS Third EditionPUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ku, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, wy 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, vic 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarcon 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa httpsvvwwcambridge.org © Cambridge University Press 2004 This hook is in copyright. Subject fo statutory exception and (o the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, Ro reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. The publisher has used its best endeavors to ensure that the URLs for websites referred to in this book are correct and active al the time of going to press. lity for the websites and can make no guarantee that a site will remain live or that the content is or will remain appropriate. However, the publisher has no responsi First published 2004 Printed in the United States of America ‘Typeset in New Aster and Lucida Sans A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-it-Publication data is available, ISBN 0521-53286-8 Art direction and book design: Adventure House, NYC Layout services: Page Designs InternationalContents Introduction iv Acknowledgements v Troublespot 1 Basic Sentence Structure Troublespot 2 Sentence Building 9 Troublespot 3 Sentence Boundaries 19 Troublespot4 = Punctuation 26 Troublespot 5 Verbs and Auxiliaries 32 Troublespot6 Verb Tense System 41 Troublespot 7 Present Verb Tenses 47 Troublespot 8 — Past Verb Tenses 56 Troublespot 9 Active and Passive Voice 64 Troublespot 10 Modal Auxiliaries 73 Troublespot 11. Nouns and Quantity Words 81 Troublespot 12 Subjeci-Verb Agreement 90 Troublespot 13 Articles 98 Troublespot 14 Pronoun and Pronoun Reference 106 Troubtespot 15 Adjectives and Adverbs 114 Troublespot 16 Infinitive, -ing, and Past Participle Forms 123 Troublespot 17 Prepositions and Phrasal Verbs 132 Troublespot 18 Relative Clauses 142 ‘Troublespot 19 Conditions and Wishes 150 Troublespot 20 Quoting, Reporting, and Citing Sources 156 References 167 Appendix 168 Answer Key 171 Index 185Introduction To the Instructor This third edition of Granunar Troublespots: A Guide for Student Writers, like its predecessors, can be used in at least two ways: * Students can use it independently as they edit their writing assignments. * You can assign it as a classroom text in a course primarily devoted to writing. In either case, you can help your students use the book effectively by working through a few Troublespots in class, discussing the explanations, doing the exercises, setting the writing assignments, and then working with the flowcharts to examine the writing produced. Using the flowcharts with their writing will help students establish habits of rereading, closely examining text, asking questions about what they have written, and considering ways to correct errors. Grammatical vocabulary is introduced for editing purposes but is kept simple: for example, subject, noun, verb, article, clause, singular and plural. Once students have become familiar with the limited grammatical vocabulary and worked their way through some sample Troublespots, they are then able to use the book independently or as you refer them to specific Troublespots. The Third Edition You will find many changes in the third edition, in response to instructors’ feedback: * The book has been redesigned. * Two Troublespots have been combined; some have been renamed; and the order of the Troublespots has been changed slightly. * Each Troublespot begins with an introduction. * More exercises have been added, so that every grammar explanation has some exercise material following it. * There is an increased focus on the grammar of written discourse and many exercises are drawn from passages of expository prose. * Cautionary notes appear with A\ to warn students of a particularly likely error that they might make. * A writing assignment appears in each Troublespot, so that students can immediately apply the flowchart questions that follow to their own written work.To the Student Grammar Troublespots offers you help with some “troublesome” areas of English grammar that might cause you difficulties in your writing. It is not intended to be a complete review of English grammar, nor is it intended to cover everything you need to know to correct all errors in a piece of writing. Rather, the book concentrates on rules, not exceptions, so it will help you apply general principles. It will also aid you in finding ways to examine your own writing in terms of grammatical accuracy. In Grammar Troublespots you will discover explanations for some conventions of standard written English — areas of the language that operate systematically according to rules. These explanations are accompanied by exercises (an Answer Key is included in the back of the book) and by flowcharts that give you specific questions to ask as you evaluate your own writing. By focusing your attention directly on the problem area, these questions will help you find and correct your own errors, either independently or with the help of an instructor. Sometimes such focusing is precisely what a writer needs in order to find — and correct — errors. After you have done the exercises in this book and worked through the editing advice, you should catch many of the grammar errors in your writing. However, experienced writers also often seek advice, so make sure to use the resources around you. Seek help: from.a classmate, from your instructor, or from a dictionary. Certainly a dictionary such as the Cambridge Dictionary of American English (Cambridge University Press, 2000) is an invaluable tool for checking not only spelling but also irregular plural forms, verb forms, and idioms. Throughout the book, a sentence preceded by an asterisk (*) indicates an example sentence that is not acceptable in standard edited English. Also pay attention to the symbol A\, which warns you of a typical error that you might make. Acknowledgements Thanks go to the Cambridge University Press staff, particularly to Bernard Seal, commissioning editor for English for Academic Purposes, whose keen editorial eye did so much to shape and improve this book; to Anne Garrett, the project editor; and to Mary Sandre, Kathleen O'Reilly, Pam Harris, and Robert Freire. I am also grateful to my students over the years for continually alerting me to where the troublespots are.Troubl Basic Sentence Structure ® Requirements of a Written Sentence A sentence in standard written English has certain essential requirements. 1. Each new sentence must begin with a capital letter. The author has written this example sentence. 2. A sentence must end with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point. The author has written this example sentence 3. A sentence must contain a subject that is only stated once. The author she has written this example sentence. 4, A sentence must contain a complete verb phrase, containing any auxiliary verbs, such as is, were, has, will, and so on, if necessary. The author has written this example sentence. 5. A sentence must contain standard word order. Subject Verb Object iA Fetopaca "i nlasnnen cel ‘The author has written this example sentence, 6. A sentence must have one independent core idea that can stand alone. In this book, we use the term “independent clause” to describe this part of the sentence; however, you may be more familiar with the term “main clause,” which is also often used. The author has written this example sentence. Basic Sentence Structure 6Exercise 1 The following sentences appeared in students’ essays describing a beach scene. Put a check (W) next to any correct sentences. Then edit the incorrect sentences and write a correct version for each one. I. the sun is shining. . Several clouds in the sky. . Two people they are walking slowly and quietly. . Splashing through the shallow water. . They probably very happy. . You can imagine walking on the white glittering sand. . There is a big palm tree . Some shells on the sand. pet ann pwn . Is a beach on the island of Maui in the Hawaiian Islands. ___ 10. No umbrellas to provide shade from the sun. —— II. On that beach, two people are enjoying the beautiful weather. eo Subject Every sentence must contain a subject. 1. The subject names the person or thing doing the action. Babies cry.2. Several types of structures can fill the subject position. a noun phrase All babies cry. a pronoun They ery. an infinitive phrase To teach takes patience. an -ing phrase Parachuting is dangerous. a noun clause What you said made everyone unhappy. 3. Only a command will not have a stated subject. The subject you is understood. Imagine the scenc. Remember how the writer first introduced the topic. 4. There can function as a filler (or dummy) subject. The verb then agrees with the noun phrase that follows it. There are some new rules. There is a new rule. 5. It is a frequent subject in English, serving to fill the subject position particularly in expressions of time, weather, distance, and description. You must always include an it subject in the clause along with a third person singular verb form. itis 11am. It is raining. It’s 3,000 miles to England. It is convenient to travel by train. @ Verb Every sentence must contain a complete verb. The verb makes an assertion about the subject and indicates person, number, and time. Subject Complete verb The research study needs to be funded. To err is human. Selecting the participants has taken a long time. Whatever they did should have been done _ earlier. Exercise 2 Indicate the complete subject and the verb in the following sentences. Example: Amelia Earhart, a famous aviator, was born in 1897. s v Answer: ‘Amelia Earhart, a famous aviator, was born in 1897. 1. Earhart first flew across the Atlantic in 1928. 2. Her flight across the Atlantic in 1932 achieved recognition as the first solo flight by a woman. Basic Sentence Structure 6. She married G. P. Putnam in 1931. . Breaking records was her dream. . Her solo flight from Honolulu to California established another record. . Her attempt to fly around the world in 1937 failed dramatically. . Her plane disappeared over the Pacific. . The mystery of her disappearance intrigues writers today. . There are several theories in existence. SP MeN Aw Pw . According to one popular theory, her plane crashed into the ocean. ® Word Order 1. Use standard word order with verbs that are followed by a direct object. In some languages, such as Arabic, Hebrew, and Russian, the verb can come before the subject; in Bengali, Hindi, Japanese, and Korean, the verb can follow the direct object. However, in English, the regular sequence is Subject + Verb + Object. s v ° Children like cookies. She eats a lot of candy. His former boss has bought _ a big expensive yacht. 2. Put time expressions first or last in the sentence, not between the verb and direct object. time adverbial + S + V +O S+V+0 + time adverbial The manager bought a new computer yesterday. Yesterday, the manager bought a new computer. Almost every day, she drinks five glasses of water. She drinks five glasses of water almost every day. ZXNever put the adverbial expression between the verb and the direct object. *The manager bought yesterday a new computer! “She drinks almost every day five glasses of water. 3. For direct questions with no question word or with questions introduced by what, when, where, why, or how, use inverted word order, with the auxiliary verb before the subject. Statement: She is eating. They were laughing, He has eaten something. Question: /s she eating? Why were they laughing? What has he eaten? "Throughout this book, an asterisk (*) indicates a group of words that is grammatically incorrect. 0 Troublespot 1 .If no auxiliary is present in the statement form, use the do auxiliary + the base form of the main verb to form the question. (See Troublespot 5 for more on auxiliary verbs.) Statement: She likes chocolate ice cream. Question: Does she like chocolate ice cream? 4, Use inverted word order for emphasis after never or not only at the beginning of a sentence. Never have I seen such a lot of waste. Not only will he repair the television, but he will do it without charge. Exercise 3 Each sentence in the following passage contains one word order error. Rewrite the passage, making corrections as necessary. More than one answer may be possible. ‘Frederick Douglass, an African-American who was born into slavery, for the abolition of slavery fought all his life. 7He wrote every month articles in the newspaper he established. >He used again and again his editorials to try to get his point across. “He gave frequently lectures. “However, success he did not find immediately. "He had to urge constantly president Abraham Lincoln to allow men of his race to enlist in the army. 7Was very significant his work for the antislavery movement. ®Not only he influenced the president, but he also changed the face of the nation. °Why there are no campaigners like him today? e Parallel Structures 1. Make structures in a sequence parallel in form. The word and connects similar structures: noun phrases, infinitive phrases, clauses, and so on. to take to The lottery winners plan a long vacation, to buy a house, and quit their jobs. 2. When you use paired conjunctions (either/or; neither/nor; not only/but also; both/and; as/as; whether/or), use paralle] structures on each side. solving es They enjoy both working long hours and to-selve complex problems. 3. Make sure that you use parallel structures with comparisons using as or than, lifting For some people, gardening is more exercise than to-fift weights. Basic Sentence Structure 6Exercise 4 Complete the following sentences, using at least two parallel structures in each sentence. Example: The best teachers both . . . Answer: The best teachers both know their material and present it clearly. 1. The lawyers intend . . Dressing well means... . To make scrambled eggs, you need . It is easier to... . In the twenty-first century, we will probably . . My parents dislike both . . . . The worst teachers not only... .. My big ambitions are .. . Politicians claim either .. . Seat an awn . Nurses want to... @ Packing Information into an Independent Clause ‘We can add information at several points to a simple sentence containing one independent clause, and that information can take the form of different grammatical structures. However, even when we add information to the sentence, it does not necessarily increase beyond one independent clause. It just becomes a longer sentence. Here are six different ways to pack an independent clause with information. 1. Add information at the beginning. Last week, the man bought a new car. Wanting to impress his friends, the man bought a new car. Bored with his life in the city, the man bought a new car. 2. Expand the subject. The rich man bought a new car, The man working in my office bought a new car. ‘The man and his wife bought a new car. 3. Insert some additional information in the middle. ‘The man in my office, Joseph Moran, bought a new car. The man, wanting to impress his friends, bought a new car. The man, proud and excited about his raise in salary, bought a new car. oe Troublespot 14. Expand the verb. The man bought aud sold a new car. 5. Expand the object. The man bought a fancy new red car. The man bought a new car with fine red leather upholstery. The man bought a new car and a computer. 6. Add information at the end. The man bought a new car last week. The man bought a new car for his wife. The man bought a new car fo try to impress his friends. Exercise 5 | Expand the sentence below, using the six different ways of adding information to a sentence explained in item F. The doctor prescribed some pills. Choose one of the following topics. As you write, do not worry about sentence structure or grammar. You can check that later, once you have a paragraph on the page. 1. Write a paragraph in which you tell about your previous experience with writing in your own language and in English. 2. Write a paragraph in which you describe an event in the past that you remember with pleasure. Basic Sentence Structure 8613 ewe hate) & Use the following flowchart to find any problems with sentence structure in your writing (or the writing of a partner in your class). One technique you can use to check your sentence grammar is to begin with the last sentence of the draft and work backward. In this way, you can isolate each sentence from its context and examine it more objectively. Ask these questions for each sentence. { Can you identify a subject and a complete verb in the sentence? You may need to edit so that the subject and verb are clear. (See Troublespot 3 for more on sentence fragments.) Does the sentence have a capital letter at the beginning and a period, question mark, or exclamation point at the end? Add one. Does the sentence include an independent clause (a core idea that can stand alone)? | Check to see that everything else is If the only clause (subject and verb correctly connected to that independent | combination) is introduced with a word clause. Check for word order, such as when, if, or because, either inversions, and parallel structures. remove that word or attach the whole group of words to another independent clause. (If you need help, turn to Troublespot 3 on sentence fragments.) 6 Troublespot |Troubl Sentence Building Sentences can, of course, contain more than one independent clause. Connecting and combining clauses is what writers do when they want to make their ideas clearer and flow better. When you use words such as and, but, when, because, however, and therefore, you signal certain logical relationships and your readers expect specific sentence structures and punctuation. This Troublespot shows the words and punctuation you need to build up your sentences. It shows you how to connect independent clauses, link them with transitions, or combine them by making one logically dependent on the other. ® Coordination There are several ways to connect independent clauses to form a coordinate sentence with two or more core ideas (that is, independent clauses of equal importance). Which way you choose will depend on what best fits the content and context of your piece of writing. So, consider all the options, in context, before you decide. Here are the options, 1. When sentences are closely connected and their structure is similar, you can use a semicolon in place of a period to indicate that close connection. independent clause 1 + semicolon independent clause 2 ‘My mother took care of the housework?'my father earned the money! 2. You can also indicate how two independent clauses are related in meaning within a sentence by connecting the two clauses with a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction. The seven coordinating conjunctions are and, but, so, or, nor, for, and yet. bet TE TUT) ears! PLC POC CU uma Ue My friend bought a sports car He bought the gas iL and his son paid for the repairs. Some cars have four-wheel drive P sO they are safer on icy roads. Sentence Building oeZ\ Remember to place the comma before the coordinating conjunction, not after it. 3. Two independent clauses with the same subject can also be combined without repeating the subject. Note that in this case no comma is used before the coordinating conjunction. The bankers went to the best restaurant. The bankers ordered the most expensive wine. The bankers went to the best restaurant and ordered the most expensive wine. eo Transitions Transitions help make connections between ideas. Use transitions to make ideas flow smoothly. 1. Use linking expressions, called “transitions,” to point out to readers any connections in meaning. Writer's purpose Transitional words and phrases To add an idea in addition, furthermore, moreover, also To show time or sequence meanwhile, first, second, then, next, later, finally To contrast however, nevertheless, though, in contrast, on the other hand To show result therefore, thus, consequently, as a result To emphasize or expand in fact, of course, indeed, certainly To provide an example for example, for instance To generalize or summarize in general, overall, in short le contradict on the contrary The little girl had always hated spiders. In fact, she was terrified of them. The little girl had always hated spiders; in fact, she was terrified of them. The little boy collected stamps. However, this hobby never helped him Jearn geography. The little boy collected stamps; however, this hobby never helped him learn geography. A Note that when you use these transitional expressions to connect two independent clauses, you must end the first independent clause with a period or a semicolon. A comma is not enough. (See Troublespot 3 for more on run-on sentences and comma splices.) © Troublespot 22. Transitions can occur at different places in the sentence. The little girl had always hated spiders. She was, in fact, terrified of them. The little girl had always hated spiders; she was terrified of them, in fact. 3. Use commas around a transition word or phrase to set it off from the rest of the sentence. The weather, meanwhile, was changing for the better. However, deep snow remained on the ground. Exercise 1 The following passages are from an article called “The Changing Family in International Perspective.” Examine the use of transitions throughout the passages. List the transitions and write the author's purpose in employing each one. Use the “Transitions” chart on page 10 to help you. Example: The pace and timing of change differ from country to country; however, the general direction is the same practically everywhere. Answer: however: to show contrast - between what is happening in different countries versus what is happening everywhere. 1, Household composition patterns over the past several decades have been away from the traditional nuclear family . . . and toward more single-parent households, more persons living alone, and more couples living together out of wedlock. Indeed, the “consensual union” has become the more visible and accepted family type in several countries. 2. Scandinavian countries have been the pacesetters in the development of many of the nontraditional forms of family living, especially births outside of wedlock and cohabitation outside of legal marriage. Women in these societies also have the highest rate of labor force participation. However, in at Jeast two aspects, the United States is setting the pace. 3. Japan is the most traditional society of those studied, with very low rates of divorce and births out of wedlock and the highest proportion of married-couple households. In fact, Japan is the only country studied in which the share of such households has increased. 4. A trend toward fewer marriages is plain in all of the countries studied, ,; although the timing of this decline differs from country to country. In Scandinavia and Germany, for example, the downward trend in the | marriage rate was already evident in the 1960s. } 5. Divorce laws were loosened in most European countries beginning in the 1970s, with further liberalization taking place in the 1980s. Consequently, divorce rates are rising rapidly in many European ' countries. Sentence Building @“Exercise 2 Combine the following pairs of sentences by using either a semicolon, a coordinating conjunction, or a transition. You need to determine the relationship between the two sentences before you can choose a conjunction or a transition. Write as many new combined sentences as you can. Example: Hemingway looked like a strong man. He suffered from health problems. Answer: Hemingway looked like a strong man, but he suffered from health problems, Hemingway looked like a strong man; however, he suffered from health problems. 1, Hemingway had some peculiarities as a writer. He always wrote standing up. 2. He was a gifted journalist, novelist, and short-story writer, He was an active sportsman. 3. This famous writer did most of his writing in pencil. He shifted to his typewriter when the writing was easy for him, as when writing dialogue. 4. His room looked untidy at first glance. He was a neat person at heart. 5. He was a sentimental man, keeping his possessions all around him. Hc hardly ever threw anything away. 6. Hemingway always did a surprising amount of rewriting of his novels. He rewrote the ending of A Farewell to Arms thirty-nine times. 7. He wrote his short story “The Killers” in one morning. After lunch, he wrote “Today Is Friday” and “Ten Indians.” 8. He often wrote all through the afternoon and evening without stopping. His landlady worried that he wasn’t eating enough. e Subordination You have seen how you can combine two simple sentences by using coordinating conjunctions or transitions; in each case, the result is two independent clauses, with equal weight and equal importance for your readers. However, another way to show logical connections between clauses is to use subordination instead of coordination. When you use subordination, you put the most important idea in the independent clause, and you put an idea of